Stage 1 Psychology
Topic 3:
Human Psychological
Development
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Statement of Outcomes:
At the end of this unit of work, you should be able to:
1. Identify how biological, basic processes, individual and socio-cultural differences
may each play a part in a child’s development.
2. Understand the issues associated with developmental research.
3. Describe the nature versus nurture controversy of human development. (i.e. biology
vs. environment)
4. Describe the characteristics of a longitudinal study of human development.
5. Describe the characteristics of a cross-sectional study of human development.
6. Describe the major stages in human psychological development, according to
Piaget’s theories.
7. Understand Kohlberg’s theory of moral development.
8. Discuss Erikson’s theory of personality development during adolescence.
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Developmental Psychology is a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive
social and emotional changes that occur throughout the human lifespan.
Physical
 Development of the brain and nervous system
 Bones and muscles
 Motor skills (movement)
 Hormonal changes of puberty and menopause
Cognitive
 Changes in mental abilities (e.g. learning, memory,
perception, thinking, language, moral reasoning)
Social
 Changes in individual relationships
 Skills in interacting with others
Emotional
 Changes in the feelings that are experienced
 Changes in the ways feelings are expressed
Each stage of change occurs in a sequence of steps, in a particular order from simple
to more complex.
E.g. Physical Development (Motor Skills Stages):
Limited control over head  Rolling side to side  Sitting  Crawling  Walking
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Individual Differences in Development
Most human development has similarities in the general pattern of stages. However,
there are differences between individuals in the rate of development. These different
rates can occur in either few or all developmental stages, where some individuals can
develop quickly in one stage and slower in another. Both genetics and the
environment determine the pattern of development of an individual. Developmental
norms are outlines showing the patterns of development and the age at which a
particular characteristic or ability appears
Quantitative and Qualitative Changes
Quantitative changes are variations in the quantity of a type of behaviour, thought,
feeling or physical characteristic, which can be expressed numerically (e.g. changes in
height). Qualitative changes vary in quality and cannot be expressed numerically (e.g.
changes involved in learning to walk).
Issues with Developmental Research
1. Nature vs. Nurture
Nature asks: To what extent is our development the product of genetics?
Nurture asks: To what extent is our development the product of the environment?
“Nature is all that a man brings with him into the world; nurture is every influence that
affects him after his birth.”
- Francis Galton, 1874
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8mvZ4EbPbME
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Twin Studies
Identical Twins

Genetically identical

Share 100% genes

Share 100% environmental influence
Non-Identical (Fraternal) Twins

Not genetically identical but more similar than ordinary brothers and sisters

Share 50% genes

Share 100% environmental influence
Are identical twins behaviourally more similar than fraternal twins?
YES, according to a number of studies. Identical twins are much more similar than
fraternal twins in many ways – including abilities, personality traits, and interests.
Twin type: ___________________________
Twin type: ___________________________
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bRKbZtpBcgI
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Adoption Studies
Are adopted children more like their biological parents, who contributed their genes, or
their adoptive parents, who contributed their home environment? Studies of have
shown that people who grow up together, whether biologically related or not, do not
much resemble one another in personality. However, parents DO influence their
children’s attitudes, values, manners, religion, and politics.
Q: Are children born intelligent or does the environment they are born into and grow up
in develop their intelligence?
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2. Critical and Sensitive Periods
If a child does not receive the appropriate exposure to certain stimuli during the critical
period, it may be difficult and less likely to develop some functions later in life. A
sensitive period is a more extended period of time during development (usually from
birth until six years old) where a child is more receptive to specific types of
environmental stimuli.
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3. Continuous vs. Discontinuous
Continuous: Gradual and ongoing changes throughout the life span (e.g. A sapling
slowly growing into a tree). Behaviour and skills at early stages are the basis for new
skills to form later.
Discontinuous: Distinct stages and separate phases with different behaviours
occurring in each stage (e.g. A caterpillar emerging from its cocoon as a butterfly).
4. Stability vs. Change
Stability asks: Do our personality traits persist through life?
Change asks: Do we become different people as we get older?
Q: Consider your family (e.g. brothers and sisters) and friends. Have their personalities
changed over time? If so, what do you think influenced this change?
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Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Studies of Development
Cross-Sectional Study
Groups of different ages are selected and so that particular characteristics can be
compared over a short period of time.
Advantages: Relatively inexpensive, easier and less time consuming.
Disadvantages: Other factors apart from age may be causing the differences (e.g.
backgrounds of participants, generation gap).
Longitudinal Study
The same group is studied at regular intervals over an extended period of time to
observe developmental changes at different ages.
Advantages: Useful for examining consistencies & inconsistencies in behaviour over
time, able to study how early development can affect later development.
Disadvantages: Expensive, takes a long time to get results, can be difficult to keep in
contact with the same group over a long period.
Q: What factors (apart from age) may be considered as commonly occurring
extraneous variables in these types of studies?
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_____________________________________________________________________
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Cognitive Development
Cognitive psychology is the study of how people acquire, organise,
remember and use information. Much of this is the present
understanding for cognitive development, especially during infancy
this comes from observing overt (external) behaviour. Cognitive
development refers to the changes in mental abilities (e.g. learning,
memory, perception, thinking, language, moral reasoning).
Piaget’s Four-Stage Theory
Piaget laid the foundation for current views on cognitive psychology, although his
theories have been criticised. Piaget stated that the development of mental abilities
occurs as people adapt to their changing environment. Piaget described adaptation as
the process of using the environment to learn and of learning to adjust to changes in
the environment. This concept involves two processes; assimilation and
accommodation.
Assimilation
This process involves an individual taking in new information and making it part of his
or her existing mental view of objects or the world (without changing the original idea).
For example, a child seeing a cat for the first time might call it a dog, if the child already
has an existing mental idea of a dog.
Accommodation
This process involves changing an existing idea to fit new information. It is more
complex than assimilation and involves restructuring the way existing information is
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organised. For example, a child uses accommodation after realising that a cat is not a
dog and develops a new mental idea to categorise ‘cat’.
The processes of assimilation and accommodation allow the formation of schemas,
which are mental representations of what things are and how to deal with them.
Piaget’s Four Stages
All individuals move through four distinct and sequential stages of cognitive
development from birth to adulthood. However different individual’s progress at different
rates and some individuals will not reach the final stage. In each stage individuals attain
certain cognitive accomplishments, and each stage is categorised by certain kinds of
thinking.
Sensorimotor Stage (Birth- 2 years)
Infants develop their understanding of the world through the coordination of sensory
experiences (e.g. sight) with motor (movement) abilities.

Learning through senses and actions

Living in the “here and now”

Lack of object permanence (at about 7 months, infants develop the understanding
that objects do not stop existing just because they are out of view)
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
Develop goal-directed behaviour (behaviour with a particular purpose) towards the
end of this stage
Pre-Operational Stage (2-7 years)
Children become increasingly better at internally representing events (through
assimilation and accommodation) and thinking becomes more complex.
Characteristics:

Egocentrism (inability or difficulty in seeing the world from someone else’s point of
view)

Animism (belief that all objects possess some type of consciousness or awareness
– linked to egocentrism)

Centration (only able to focus on one quality or feature of an object at a time e.g.
only able to focus on height of a glass while ignoring volume)
Key Cognitive Accomplishments:

Development of symbolic thinking (ability to use symbols such as words and
pictures) and increase in ability to use words and symbols that lead to pretend play
and make-believe

Gradual shift from egocentrism to decentring (gaining the ability to see the world
from someone else’s point of view)

Develop transformation (realise that something can change from one form or
structure to another)

Develop reversibility (ability to follow reasoning back to its starting point)
Mountains Study Experiment used to Test Egocentrism
Piaget did a study to investigate egocentrism called the “mountains study”. He would
put children in front of a simple plaster mountain range and seat himself to the side,
then ask them to pick from four pictures the view that he, Piaget, would see. Younger
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children would pick the picture of the view they themselves saw, whereas older children
picked correctly.
Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 years)
Thinking revolves around what is concrete, i.e. what an individual knows and what can
be experienced through the senses.
Key Cognitive Accomplishments:

Understanding conservation: concept that an object does not change its weight,
mass or volume when it changes its shape or appearance
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and that rearranging the positions of objects in a group does not change their number
or length.

Classification: ability to organise objects or events into categories based on
common features that make them different from other groups
Gradually thinking becomes more and more logical until the ability to think abstractly is
gained and the formal operational stage is reached.
Formal Operational Stage (12+ years)
Thinking involves more complex thought processes and becomes increasingly
sophisticated.
Key Cognitive Accomplishments:

Abstract thinking: ability to understand concepts without the need to see or
visualise things (e.g. understanding the difference between the mind and brain)

Logical thinking: ability to develop plans to solve problems, identify a range of
solutions, develop hypotheses & systematically test solutions

Accurately understand concepts of time & distance

Ability to think and behave in an idealistic way

Ability to think about the future and what is possible

Can now deal with hypothetical situations; they can move beyond the actual states of
the world and think of the possible ones

Will solve problems in a systematic, logical manner in which all possible
combinations of factors are considered
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Progression through the Stages
Progression is sequential. Almost all children will reach the stage of concrete
operational but the extent to which people function with formal operational thinking can
depend on education and life experiences.
Critical Appraisal of Piaget’s Theory

Other research has shown that infants and children achieve certain key
accomplishments much earlier than Piaget proposed

Ages ranges for each stage vary more widely than Piaget described

Criticism of Piaget’s experimental procedure, which lead to incorrect conclusions

Piaget overestimated the language abilities of children leading to incorrect
conclusions

Too few participants in experiments
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Piaget’s Four Stage Theory Activity
Identify the stage of cognitive development, according to Piaget’s Four Stage Theory,
for each of the following scenarios.
Scenario 1: __________________________________
Josie takes in the world through her sensory and motor interaction with objects through looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and grasping.
Scenario 2: __________________________________
Sarah thinks the rain follows her around.
Scenario 3: __________________________________
Cassandra's mum is watching TV. Cassandra sits in front of her mum, blocking her
view of the TV. She assumes that her mum can see what she can see.
Scenario 4: __________________________________
Karmen and Lucy play a game called "doctors", in which they pretend that Karmen's
bedroom is a doctor's surgery and her bed is a stretcher.
Scenario 5: __________________________________
In Science, Jade understands how to formulate a hypothesis and to test it.
Scenario 6: __________________________________
Jarrad understands that change in shape does not mean change in quantity. He can
mentally pour milk back and forth between glasses of different shapes.
Scenario 7: __________________________________
Kaleb is beginning to acquire language, and is increasingly using words to represent
objects, needs, and actions.
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Scenario 8: __________________________________
Charlie knows how to get to school from his house, but he cannot draw a map to show
the way.
Scenario 9: __________________________________
For Sophie, the quantity of milk that is 'too much' in a tall, narrow glass may become an
acceptable amount if poured into a short, wide glass. This is because Sophie focuses
only on the height dimension and is incapable of performing the mental operation of
pouring it back into the first glass.
Scenario 10: _________________________________
Alex goes to his grandfather's house. There is a photograph of a man above the
fireplace, and Alex asks his grandfather who the man in the photo is. His grandfather
replies:
"Brothers and sisters I have none
But this man's father is my father's son."
Alex thinks through the riddle and works out how his grandpa is related to the man in
the photo. (Can you?)
Scenario 11: _________________________________
Ben is told the following joke:
"Mr. Jones went into a restaurant and ordered a whole pizza for his dinner. When the
waiter asked if he wanted it cut into 6 or 8 pieces, Mr. Jones said, "Oh, you'd better
make it 6, I could never eat 8 pieces!"
Ben understands the joke and laughs.
Scenario 12: _________________________________
Katie knows how to get from home to school, and can draw a map showing the route
she takes.
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The Human Body- First Steps BBC TV Video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y8FWGwvyihg
Complete the following questions using information presented in the video.
1. What is the time frame of life known as childhood? What stages of Piaget’s theory of
cognitive development are included in this time frame?
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2. Why is the mouth a key body part in early learning?
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3. Why does the mouth play such an important developmental role during Piaget’s
sensorimotor stage?
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4. The major developmental task in the second half of the first year of life is becoming
mobile. Describe the characteristics of learning to crawl.
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5. Why is learning to crawl a typical achievement in Piaget’s sensorimotor stage?
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6. The development of language skills in toddlerhood is rapid. How do scientists explain
this?
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7. According to Piaget’s theory, what cognitive developments have occurred during the
pre-operational stage that enables this to happen?
___________________________________________________________________
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8. Describe why children with a higher IQ (intelligence) are more likely to lie.
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9. ‘Theory of mind’ closely relates to a Piagetian concept that is said to be present in
the first two stages of cognitive development (sensorimotor and pre-operational
stage). What is this concept? How does this concept relate to ‘theory of mind’?
___________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
10. Lying is evidence of the emerging ‘theory of mind’ development in children. Describe
another activity children engage in that demonstrates their theory of mind
development.
___________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________
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Moral Development
Moral development incorporates the development of reasoning
from childhood through to adulthood about social, ethical and
moral issues. Morals are concerned with goodness or badness
of human character or behaviour, or with the distinction
between right and wrong.
Kohlberg’s Theory
Kohlberg drew on Piaget’s theory of cognitive development to come up with his own
theory of moral development. Kohlberg believed that progress in moral reasoning
depends on cognitive maturation and the opportunity to confront moral issues,
particularly when such issues can be discussed with someone who is at a higher stage
of development. Kohlberg presented children, adolescents and adults with hypothetical
moral dilemmas.
Kohlberg’s Example of a Moral Dilemma
Heinz’s wife was dying from a particular type of cancer. Doctors said a new drug might
save her. The drug had been discovered by a local chemist and the Heinz tried
desperately to buy some, but the chemist was charging ten times the money it cost to
make the drug and this was much more than the Heinz could afford. Heinz could only
raise half the money, even after help from family and friends. He explained to the
chemist that his wife was dying and asked if he could have the drug cheaper or pay the
rest of the money later. The chemist refused saying that he had discovered the drug
and was going to make money from it. The husband was desperate to save his wife, so
later that night he broke into the chemist’s and stole the drug.
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Consider the following questions:
1. Should Heinz have stolen the drug?
2. Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife?
3. What if the person dying was a stranger, would it make any difference?
4. Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman died?
Analysis of Responses
Kohlberg was interested not in whether people agreed or disagreed with Heinz’s
behaviour but rather in the reasons for their judgement. Kohlberg analysed
responses to various moral dilemmas and identified three main levels of moral
reasoning.
Level 1: Pre-Conventional Moral Reasoning
Pre-conventional moral reasoning based on anticipated punishments or rewards:
“Heinz should steal the drug because if he lets his wife die he will get into trouble.”
“Heinz should steal the drug because that way, he will still have his wife with him.”
Level 2: Conventional Moral Reasoning
Conventional moral reasoning based on conformity to social expectations, laws and
duties:
“People will think Heinz is bad if he doesn’t steal the drug to save his wife.”
“Heinz should steal the drug because it’s his duty to take care of his wife.”
Level 3: Post-Conventional Moral Reasoning
Post-conventional moral reasoning based on well thought out, general moral principles:
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“Stealing breaks the law, but what Heinz did was reasonable because he saved a life.”
“Saving life comes before financial gain, even if the person is a stranger.”
Research Findings
From childhood through adolescence, moral reasoning changes from pre-conventional
to conventional levels. As our thinking matures, our behaviour also becomes less
selfish and more caring. In adolescence and even in adulthood, post-conventional
moral reasoning is relatively uncommon. Research has suggested that it is possible to
further develop your moral reasoning.
Test Your Moral Reasoning!
http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/mind/surveys/morals/index.shtml
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Social and Emotional Development
Social development involves the changes in individual
relationships and the skills in interacting with others.
Whereas, emotional development incorporates the
changes in the feelings that are experienced and the
way feelings are expressed.
Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
Erikson developed his theory of psychosocial development after doing extensive
research involving case studies of people from different cultures and important
historical figures. Social development occurs through a combination of the
psychological processes occurring within an individual (psycho) and their experiences,
especially their interactions with other people (social). Social development occurs
through 8 psychosocial stages. In each stage, an individual has to deal with a
different psychosocial crisis (a social problem that an individual faces in adjusting to
society).
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy birth- 1 year)
In the first year of life, infants depend on others for food, warmth, and affection, and
therefore must be able to blindly trust the parents (or caregivers) for providing those.
Positive outcome:
If their needs are met consistently and responsively by the parents, infants not only will
develop a secure attachment with the parents, but will learn to trust their environment in
general as well.
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Negative outcome:
If not, infant will develop mistrust towards people and things in their environment, even
towards themselves.
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddler 1-2 years)
Toddlers learn to walk, talk, use toilets, and do things for themselves. Their self-control
and self-confidence begin to develop at this stage.
Positive outcome:
If parents encourage their child's use of initiative and reassure her when she makes
mistakes, the child will develop the confidence needed to cope with future situations
that require choice, control, and independence.
Negative outcome:
If parents are overprotective, or disapproving of the child's acts of independence, she
may begin to feel ashamed of her behaviour, or have too much doubt of her abilities.
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (Early Childhood 2-6 years)
Children have newfound power at this stage as they have developed motor skills and
become more and more engaged in social interaction with people around them. They
now must learn to achieve a balance between eagerness for more adventure and more
responsibility, and learning to control impulses and childish fantasies.
Positive outcome:
If parents are encouraging, but consistent in discipline, children will learn to accept
without guilt, that certain things are not allowed, but at the same time will not feel
shame when using their imagination and engaging in make-believe role plays.
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Negative outcome:
If not, children may develop a sense of guilt and may come to believe that it is wrong to
be independent.
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (Middle and Late Childhood 6-12
years)
School is the important event at this stage. Children learn to make things, use tools,
and acquire the skills to be a worker and a potential provider. And they do all these
while making the transition from the world of home into the world of peers.
Positive outcome:
If children can discover pleasure in intellectual stimulation, being productive, seeking
success, they will develop a sense of competence.
Negative outcome:
If not, they will develop a sense of inferiority.
Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence 12-18 years)
This is the time when we ask the question "Who am I?" To successfully answer this
question, Erikson suggests, the adolescent must integrate the healthy resolution of all
earlier conflicts. Did we develop the basic sense of trust? Do we have a strong sense of
independence, competence, and feel in control of our lives? Adolescents who have
successfully dealt with earlier conflicts are ready for the "Identity Crisis", which is
considered by Erikson as the single most significant conflict a person must face.
Positive outcome:
If the adolescent solves this conflict successfully, he will come out of this stage with a
strong identity, and ready to plan for the future.
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Negative outcome:
If not, the adolescent will sink into confusion, unable to make decisions and choices,
especially about vocation, sexual orientation, and his role in life in general.
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood 18-40 years)
In this stage, the most important events are love relationships. No matter how
successful you are with your work, said Erikson, you are not developmentally complete
until you are capable of intimacy. An individual who has not developed a sense of
identity usually will fear a committed relationship and may retreat into isolation.
Positive outcome:
Adult individuals can form close relationships and share with others if they have
achieved a sense of identity.
Negative outcome:
If not, they will fear commitment, feel isolated and unable to depend on anybody in the
world.
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Adulthood 40-65 years)
By "generativity" Erikson refers to the adult's ability to look outside oneself and care for
others, through parenting, for instance. Erikson suggested that adults need children as
much as children need adults, and that this stage reflects the need to create a living
legacy.
Positive outcome:
People can solve this crisis by having and nurturing children, or helping the next
generation in other ways.
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Negative outcome:
If this crisis is not successfully resolved, the person will remain self-centered and
experience stagnation later in life.
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair Late Adulthood (65+ years)
Old age is a time for reflecting upon one's own life and its role in the big scheme of
things, and seeing it filled with pleasure and satisfaction or disappointments and
failures.
Positive outcome:
If the adult has achieved a sense of fulfilment about life and a sense of unity within
himself and with others, he will accept death with a sense of integrity. Just as the
healthy child will not fear life, said Erikson, the healthy adult will not fear death.
Negative outcome:
If not, the individual will despair and fear death.
Stage
Age
Crisis
1. Infancy
Birth-1 year
Trust vs. Distrust
2. Toddler
1-2 years
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
3. Early Childhood
2-6 years
Initiative vs. Guilt
4. Middle and Late Childhood
6-12 years
Industry vs. Inferiority
5. Adolescence
12-18 years
Identity vs. Role Confusion
6. Young Adulthood
18-40 years
Intimacy vs. Isolation
7. Adulthood
40-65 years
Generativity vs. Stagnation
8. Late Adulthood
65+ years
Integrity vs. Despair
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Critical Appraisal of Erikson’s Theory

Erikson provided very little empirical evidence to support his theory – based on case
studies and people he counselled rather than scientifically controlled research

Difficult to test scientifically because of the difficulty with examining the stages under
controlled conditions (e.g. difficult to precisely define ‘basic trust’ for scientific testing)

Did not consider the socio-cultural influences have differing effects on males and
females – mainly describes male social development
Discussion Questions
Erikson suggested that problems arise later for people who have not successfully dealt
with conflicts in one of their earlier stages of personality development. Select the most
likely ‘problem’ stage for each of the following people:
1. Malcolm has trouble keeping friends and jobs because he continually needs to be
reassured of his worth.
2. Annette has attended several high schools without completing Stage 2 and still has
not picking the course she intends to follow at university. She has had lots of
different part-time jobs over the last few years.
3. Tonalini doesn’t want to apply for a promotion even though people who work with her
encourage her to do it. She worries about taking jobs from other people and whether
she could handle it.
4. Gregor continually worries about the worth of his life. He regrets that he left his wife
for a job in another country and lost contact with them.
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