Motor Development in Infancy and
Childhood
• 2 months – able to lift head up on his own
• 3 months – can roll over
• 4 months – can sit propped up without falling over
• 6 months – is able to sit up without support
• 7 months – begins to stand while holding on to things for support

Motor Development in Infancy and
Childhood
• 9 months – can begin to walk, still using support
• 10 months – is able to momentarily stand on her own without support
• 11 months – can stand alone with more confidence
• 12 months – begin walking alone without support

Motor Development in Infancy and
Childhood
• 14 months – can walk backward without support
• 17 months – can walk up steps with little or no support
• 18 months – able to manipulate objects with feet while walking, such as kicking a ball

Cognitive Development in Children
• Probably the most cited theory in the cognitive development in children is Jean
Piaget (1896-1980). As with all stage theories, Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive
Development maintains that children go through specific stages as their intellect and ability to see relationships matures.
• These stages are completed in a fixed order with all children, even those in other countries. The age range, however can vary from child to child.

Sensitive Period
• Many theorists agree that the changes that constitute development are produced by the interaction of genetic endowment and environmental factors.
• An important concept on which many psychologists agree is the concept of Critical or
Sensitive Period. By this, it is meant that what is important at one stage in life may not be so at some later point. That is, sensitive period means that there are certain periods in development during which certain important events will have an impact that they would not have with the same strength at earlier or later times.

• Some aspects of the orderly progression of development are determined by maturation, which genetically programmed and is independent of specific environmental conditions. An example is walking. This and other early sensory and motor achievements seem to be relatively unaffected by specific practice.
• On the other hand, more general kinds of experience, such as sensory deprivation and sensory enrichment, seem to exert important effects.

• The study of cognitive development is concerned with how the quality of thought process improves with experience and maturity. The central theorist on this is Jean Piaget.
• In his theory, cognition develops as the child applies
to existing schemes, and the do so by passing through the same sequence of developmental stages.

• The first stage in this theory is the
which lasts from birth until about two years of age. Infants are subjective and unaware of any existence other than their own.
• The infant fails to distinguish between the self and no self,
The infant can’t conceive of an object’s existence once it is no longer immediately perceptible.

• Towards the end of this stage the infant develops
and acquires
• This is achieved through the acquisition of new mental imagery that allows them to imagine the existence of objects not directly perceptible. The selves are distinguished from reality, which becomes separate from their own action.

• The second stage is the pre-operational stage, which lasts till about six or seven.
Children are capable of representational thoughts but lack mental operation that order and organize these thoughts. They cannot, for example distinguish or recognize that another person might view reality differently if situated at a different point. (left & Right)
• Characteristic deficits at this stage includes inability to conserve number and quantity,
(Lack of Conservation Ability), and
Egocentrism , an inability to take another person’s perspective. Until the age of six the child also fails the task of Class Inclusion because of deficient logic at this stage.

• At approximately seven years of age, the child enters the Concrete operational marked by the onset of logical thinking. This enables the child to solve correctly all the cognitive tasks that he or she fails at earlier stage. They are no longer egocentric. stage,
They are able to recognize that their view of reality is one of many other views.
• However, the child can now solve problems similar to that of class inclusion and conservation, but they cannot think abstractly.

• Based on the stage theory of cognitive development, Lawrence Kohlberg has developed a stage theory of moral development and moral reasoning.
• This theory describes three progressive levels of moral development, each level includes two stages.

• Stage (I): Moral reasoning is governed by punishment orientation-obey rule to avoid punishment.
• Stage (II): Reward orientationconforms to obtain rewards.

• Stage (III): Good boy/good girl orientation- conforms to avoid disapproval.
• Stage(IV): Authority orientation: rigid codes, rules, and duties define this stage.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning
Level One:
Pre-conventional
Morality
Level Two:
Conventional
Morality
Level Three:
Post-Conventional
Morality
Stage 1: Punishment-
Obedience Orientation
Stage 2: Instrumental
Relativist Orientation
Stage 3: Good Boy-Nice Girl
Orientation
Stage 4: Law and Order
Orientation
Stage 5: Social Contract
Orientation
Stage 6: Universal Ethical
Principle Orientation

• Theories of psychosocial development are represented by the work of Bowlby,
(1973) in his theory of attachment, and the work of Erikson, (1976) in his theory of psychosocial development.

Attachment
• Attachment is generally defined as the emotional bond that develops between the infant and the caregiver, providing infants with emotional security.
Many theories have been developed to explain how attachment develops. The Behaviorist emphasizes the Drive-Reduction and Operant conditioning hypotheses. However, the hypothesis is weakened by evidence indicating that infants may form relationships not only with mothers who feeds them, but also with many things that provide feelings of warmth and security.
• However, an alternative theory by J. Bowlby proposed continuity and expansion of attachment development. This development is presented in four stages or phases.

• Stage (I)- Birth to 6 Weeks:
• The baby seems to respond to anyone
(human). Action represented in afterbirth reflexes.
• Stage (II)- (6 weeks to 7 months):
• Babies start to smile and to respond to their parents, but they will not protest if they were left alone.

• Stage (III)- (7 months to about 2 years):
This is called the specific attachment phase.
• Children start to recognize their mothers. They are able to create a mental representation of the mother (object permanence). Children of this age may show separation anxiety.
• Stage (VI)- (From about 2 years old): This the phase of forming reciprocal relationship.
• Now children begin to use language to express their needs, to understand the feelings of others
(not egocentric after the preoperational stage), and able to form mutual relationships.

• However, the development of attachment, and associated with adaptive behavior, social competence independence, and persistence in problem solving.
• Insecure attachment may lead to mistrust, are covered and clarified in Eriksson’s theory of below

Erikson theory of psychosocial development
• In this theory, each stage of development is dominated by a particular developmental task reflecting a conflict between a person’s needs and societies need.
• That conflict must be resolved before the person can proceed to the next stage.

Stage (1): TRUST versus Mistrust:
Infancy (0-18 mos)
• This conflict dominates
Here the concept of
TRUST resembles secured attachment.
Constant and reliable care that makes the infant feel secured, and feels that parents could be trusted.
• MISTRUST or insecure attachment may lead to suspiciousness, frustration, and difficulties in forming relationships.

Stage (2): AUTONOMY versus DOUBTS:
Toddlerhood (18-36 mos)
• Autonomy refers to the feeling of Self-Control and self-determination. It is encouraged when the child starts to exercise some control over their action. Encouragement fosters independence, self-sufficiency and selfesteem.
• If parents did not grant them autonomy, children will feel incompetent, become doubt, and will describe themselves (self-concept) negatively. Restrictions promote self- doubt and low self-esteem.

Stage (3): INITIATIVE versus GUILT:
Early Childhood (3-6 yrs)
• This occurs at the play stage (preschool).
To initiate constructive activities simply for the sake of being active. Again, parental attitudes, encouraging. or discouraging, can make children feel inadequate or guilt if the child initiates activity that the adult consider as shameful. Child initiates activities and developments a sense of responsibility.
• This is the stage when also children start to develop
Gender Identity (The inner experience of being a male or female), and Gender Role (a socially prescribed patterns of behavior and attitudes for male and females. Over-control stunts child's spontaneity and sociability; promotes guilt and fear.

Stage (4): INDUSTRY versus INFERIORITY:
Middle/Late Childhood (6-12 years
)
• This occurs at school age. Children want to learn the skill valued by adults and the society in order to gain recognition. These include various skills of adults. Success with peers and parents leads to pride and social competence.
• Successful will lead to the feelings of competence and production, while receiving negative response and critics will lead to inferiority. Failure with peers and parents leads to inferiority and inadequacy.

Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual
Development
• Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development are, like other stage theories, completed in a predetermined sequence and can result in either successful completion or a healthy personality or can result in failure, leading to an unhealthy personality.
• During each stage, an unsuccessful completion means that a child becomes fixated on that particular erogenous zone and either over– or under-indulges once he or she becomes an adult.

• During the oral stage, the child if focused on oral pleasures (sucking). Too much or too little gratification can result in an Oral
Fixation or Oral Personality which is evidenced by a preoccupation with oral activities.
• This type of personality may have a stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, over eat, or bite his or her nails. Personality wise, these individuals may become overly dependent upon others, gullible, and perpetual followers.
On the other hand, they may also fight these urges and develop pessimism and aggression toward others.

Anal Stage (18 months to three years)
• The child’s focus of pleasure in this stage is on eliminating and retaining feces. Through society’s pressure, mainly via parents, the child has to learn to control anal stimulation.
In terms of personality, after effects of an anal fixation during this stage can result in an obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and control (anal retentive).
• On the opposite end of the spectrum, they may become messy and disorganized (anal expulsive).

• The pleasure zone switches to the genitals.
Freud believed that during this stage boy develop unconscious sexual desires for their mother. Because of this, he becomes rivals with his father and sees him as competition for the mother’s affection.
• During this time, boys also develop a fear that their father will punish them for these feelings, such as by castrating them. This group of feelings is known as Oedipus
Complex ( after the Greek Mythology figure who accidentally killed his father and married his mother).

• It’s during this stage that sexual urges remain repressed and children interact and play mostly with same sex peers.