Human Prehistory
Early humans to the Neolithic revolution
Human Prehistory
The first bipedal hominids emerged over 5
million years ago in Africa.
The human species began to emerge in East
Africa around 2.5 million years ago.
Between 2.5 million years ago and 100,000
years ago, the human species went through
a variety of evolutionary phases in different
parts of the world.
Human Prehistory
Human Prehistory
A large number of human species were
generated over time (all believed to be
descended from H. Erectus), but most of
them disappeared well before the
appearance of “modern humans,” Homo
sapiens sapiens.
Current theories posit that adverse climatic
conditions and competition from other
species (human and non-human) caused
the other humanoid species to disappear.
Human Prehistory
A major pre-agricultural development is
the experience of massive human species
migration.
Some thousands of years after the human
species originated in eastern Africa, they
began to pour out into other regions, most
likely in search of food.
Ultimately, humans settled around the
world.
Human Prehistory
The Paleolithic Age
The Paleolithic Age (Old Stone Age) lasted for
almost two million years (until about 14,000
years ago).
Humans began to walk more upright and they
developed a larger brain capacity.
Humans during this period tamed the use of
fire (about 750,000 years ago) and used
simple (mostly stone) tools.
Wearing animal skins enabled humans to live
in colder climates.
The Paleolithic Age
The Paleolithic Age
It is believed that the first humans left
Africa about 750,000 years ago.
Other species such as Homo pekinensis
(Peking Man) have been found in China
and Indonesia and date from 600,000350,000 years ago.
The Paleolithic Age
Human remains have been found in Britain
that are 250,000 years old.
Humans crossed into Australia (via
Southeast Asia) about 60,000 years ago.
The Paleolithic Age
Humans came across the Siberian land
bridge into North America at least 25-30,000
years ago (maybe earlier).
The Paleolithic Age
By 25,000 BCE, Homo sapiens sapiens
occupied (in small numbers) virtually every
region of the world that is currently
inhabited except New Zealand, some other
Pacific islands, and Bermuda.
The Paleolithic Age
This means human history begins at a
point when the species was widely
dispersed.
Since humans were spread out, and in
small numbers, environmental conditions
caused the formation of local cultures and
institutions, setting the stage for the
current regional aspect of human identity.
The Paleolithic Age
Modern humans (Homo
sapiens sapiens)
emerged between 240120,000 years ago.
Today, every human on
the planet is of the
same species…
H. sapiens sapiens.
The Paleolithic Age
H. sapiens sapiens
coexisted with other
human species such as
Neanderthals (actually a
subspecies) for many
thousands of years.
We don’t know exactly
how H. sapiens sapiens
triumphed over the other
species.
The Paleolithic Age
Anatomically, modern humans can be
characterized by the lighter build of their
skeletons compared to earlier humans.
Modern humans have very large brains
(avg 1300 cc).
Housing and protecting this brain involved
the reorganization of the skull into what is
thought of as “modern”—a thin-walled,
high-vaulted skull, with a flat, near vertical
forehead.
The Paleolithic Age
Modern human faces
also show much less
(if any) of the heavy
brow ridges and
prognathism of other
early humans.
Our jaws are also
less heavily
developed, with
smaller teeth.
The Paleolithic Age
It is believed that H. sapiens sapiens had
less of an advantage with brain capacity
and more of an advantage with running
ability.
Neanderthals were excellent at longdistance, slow running which worked when
hunting large game.
But H. sapiens sapiens had the advantage
with smaller, swifter animals.
The Paleolithic Age
So archeologists don’t
know if H. sapiens sapiens
simply out-competed other
species like Neanderthals-clubbed them to death (our
species was very violent
from the outset)—or
intermarried with them.
Some of you may have
more Neanderthal DNA in
you than you realize
The Paleolithic Age
Soon after the emergence of H. sapiens
sapiens, sociobiologists believe humans
developed what has become known as the
“speech gene” (actually an articulation gene).
This gene is hidden among 50,000 other
genes.
The Paleolithic Age
The “speech gene” greatly facilitated
human communication (more talking-less
grunting) which helped lead to organized
human societies.
From this point onward, there have been
no major evolutionary changes in the
human experience.
The Paleolithic Age
The human species, even before H. sapiens
sapiens was a tool-using animal, more adept
than other species at finding tools for
hunting, gathering, or for use as weapons.
During the Mesolithic (12,000-8,000 BCE)
and Neolithic Eras (8,000-3,000 BCE) tool
use became increasingly deliberate.
The Paleolithic Age
But instead of just
finding tools,
humans became
capable of making
them, fashioning
rocks, wood, and
bone into better
weapons, better
tools, and even
primitive boats.
The Paleolithic Age
About 25,000 years ago, Paleolithic peoples
began miniaturizing their stone tools.
Known as “micro-blades,” these smaller and
more refined spear points, arrowheads,
knives, and scrapers were often mounted in
antler, bone, and wooden handles.
Paleolithic Art
In February 2012, a cave was discovered in
northern Spain (called El Castillio) with
paintings carbon dated to c. 42,000 years
ago (the oldest known in the world).
This date coincides with the earliest known
Homo sapiens in Europe.
Some archeologists believe the art to be
the work of Neanderthals, which has
caused some archeologists to rethink
Neanderthal culture.
Paleolithic Art
 Paintings from El
Castillio (northern
Spain)
Paleolithic Art
 El Castillio.
Paleolithic Art
In Australia, cave paintings have been found
of long extinct fauna (dating to over 40,000
years ago), making it one of the oldest
known Paleolithic art sites.
Paleolithic Art
Chauvet Cave (southern  Megaceros (an extinct
France), dates to c.
35,000-30,000 BCE.
deer).
Paleolithic Art
 A Spotted Hyena (believed to be over 20,000
years old) at Chauvet.
Paleolithic Art
Cave art from the Mousterian Pluvial in
Algeria, c. 29,000 BCE.
Paleolithic Art
 Lascaux (France). Pictures
go left to right telling a story.
 C. 20-15,000 BCE
Paleolithic Art
Lascaux (France)
Paleolithic Art
Lascaux (France) The Hall of Bulls.
Paleolithic Art
Altamira (northern Spain). Discovered in
the 1880’s, it was the first discovered
example of Paleolithic cave art.
Considered the Sistine Chapel of cave art.
Horse and Bison c. 15-10,000 BCE
Paleolithic Art
Altamira.
Paleolithic Art
The Gua Tewet (Tree of
Life) in Borneo. Age
unknown.
Historians and
archeologists do not
know exactly how
Paleolithic people
understood the
nonmaterial world.
Paleolithic Art
The prevalence of Venus figurines and
other symbols throughout Europe has
convinced many scholars that Paleolithic
religious thought had a strongly feminine
dimension.
This was embodied in “Great Goddess”
figurines and focused most likely on
regeneration and renewal of life.
Paleolithic Art
Venus of Willendorf (Austria) -carved
limestone about 41/2” high, c. 25,000
BCE. The most famous of the Venus
figurines.
Paleolithic Art
Carved Venus on a cave wall and Venus of
Lespugue (carved tusk found in southern
France)
C. 25-15,000 BCE
The Paleolithic Age
It seems likely that Paleolithic peoples
developed a cyclical view of time that drew on
the changing phases of the moon and on the
cycles of female fertility—birth, menstruation,
pregnancy, new birth, and death.
Such understandings of the cosmos, which
saw endlessly repeated patterns of
regeneration and disintegration, were very
different than later Western views, which saw
time as moving in a straight line toward some
predetermined goal.
The Paleolithic Age
Along with the increased use of tools
came the domestication of certain
animals.
Tool use and animal domestication set
the framework for the emergence of
agriculture.
The Paleolithic Age
Initially the dog was domesticated, and
before the advent of agriculture, in some
parts of the world it was also the horse.
The Paleolithic Age
Recent published research (May 2013) of
DNA skeletal evidence in Siberia found
that dogs may have been domesticated
twice as long ago as previously thought
(32,000 years ago).
People who had dogs during a hunt would
likely have had an advantage over those
who didn't.
The Paleolithic Age
Dogs would also have served as a
warning system, barking at hostile
strangers from neighboring tribes. They
could have defended their humans from
predators.
And finally, though this is not a pleasant
thought, when times were tough, dogs
could have served as an emergency food
supply.
The Paleolithic Age
Sheep
Cat
Goats
Pigs
Cattle
Chicken
Donkey
Horse
(Western Asia) 8500 BCE
(Mesopotamia) 8500 BCE
(Western Asia) 8000 BCE
(Western Asia) 7500 BCE
(Eastern Sahara) 7000 BCE
(India) 6000 BCE
(NE Africa) 4000 BCE
(Central Asia) 3600 BCE
The Paleolithic Age
Approximately 14,000 years ago the last
great ice age ended…this enabled
humans to live in more northern climates.
About 12,000 years ago (roughly 10,000
BCE), it is estimated that there were, at
most, 5-10 million people in the world.
It is a very small number, very widely
dispersed, but agriculture will be
introduced into this framework.
Hunter-Gatherers
But before agriculture, humans were
hunter-gatherers (also known as foragers).
Theories about why humans migrated out
of Africa include drought and that huntergatherer societies require as much as 2.54 sq miles of space per person.
Even modest population growth would
force hunter-gatherers to move a little
further to seek out new space and new
hunting grounds.
Hunter-Gatherers
A hunter-gatherer society has the fewest
social divisions.
Usually (but not always) the men hunt
animals and the women gather plants
(they don’t plant, they only gather).
Even though more prestige is given to the
men for supplying meat, the women
gatherers usually contribute more food to
the group (up to 4/5ths of the total).
Hunter-Gatherers
Hunter-gatherer
groups are always
nomadic and usually
have between 10-25
members (kinship
based).
As food supplies
dwindle in one area,
they move on to
another.
Hunter-Gatherers
Huntergatherer
societies
place a high
value on
sharing food,
which is
essential for
their survival.
Hunter-Gatherers
Women tend to breast feed their young for
3-5 years, both for nourishment and to limit
their ability to conceive more children.
A hunter-gatherer society cannot afford to
have too many mouths to feed and too
many young children are a burden for a
society always on the move.
Between nourishment, disease issues, or
infanticide, children have only a 50/50
chance of reaching adulthood.
Hunter-Gatherers
According to some anthropologists, 50%
of all newborn females were killed by their
parents during the Paleolithic Age.
Some societies also practiced senilicide.
The diet of foragers consisted mainly of
gathered foods—plants, roots, nuts, small
animals, and insects—supplemented by
scavenging or hunting.
Hunter-Gatherers
Of all societies,
hunter-gatherers
are the most
egalitarian.
Hunter-Gatherers
Since what they hunt/gather is perishable,
they don’t accumulate personal
possessions (only what they can carry).
Consequently, there is no concept of
wealth/poverty within the group.
There are no rulers and decisions are made
through discussion at the group level.
There usually is a shaman, an individual
thought to be able to influence the spirits.
Hunter-Gatherers
Since their needs
are basic and they
don’t accumulate
material
possessions,
hunter-gatherers
have the most
leisure time of all
human groups.
Hunter-Gatherers
Modern anthropologists studying the few
remaining hunter-gatherer societies have
concluded their lives are not “nasty,
brutish, and short” as was thought but
instead they tend to be characterized by
adequate and varied food supplies, high
levels of health and fitness from a
balanced diet and frequent exercise,
freedom from disease epidemics, and as
mentioned, there is ample “leisure” time.
Hunter-Gatherers
All human groups were once huntergatherers.
Up until a few hundred years ago, these
groups were still common.
Today, there are less than 300 huntergatherer groups worldwide.
Pygmies in Africa and aborigines in
Australia are among those whose
traditions are vanishing.
Origins of Patriarchy
The most accepted theory on the origins of
patriarchy (a male dominated society)
points to the social consequences of
reproduction and early child-rearing.
To balance the high death rate and
maintain the population, women had to
have many children.
Between pregnancy, birth, and nursing,
women spent much of their lives around
the camp.
Origins of Patriarchy
With a child at her breast or in her uterus,
or one carried on her hip or on her back,
women were physically encumbered.
These encumbrances led to women
staying home (at camp) and men
becoming the hunters of large animals.
Over time, men became dominant as they
hunted, made contact with other tribes,
traded, and waged war.
Origins of Patriarchy
Men controlled the instruments of death,
the weapons of war and of the hunt.
Men gained prestige by killing animals
(protein source) to feed the tribe, by being
victorious in battle, and by accumulating
(limited) possessions through trade.
Some sociologists believe that some men
may have risked their lives as warriors to
acquire women (as prizes).
Origins of Patriarchy
Origins of Patriarchy
Women’s roles, on the other hand, were
considered routine and not risky.
Origins of Patriarchy
Since men tended to risk their lives more
often than women (hunting, battle, etc) they
came to believe in their own superiority.
Many male activities became shrouded in
secrecy and men created elaborate rules
and rituals to avoid “contamination” by
females.
Paleolithic Impact on the Planet
As early human species spread across the
planet, they entered continents that had no
earlier hominine colonization, particularly
Australia and the Americas.
Humans proved to be highly adaptable
and technologically “proficient” by initiating
a wave of extinctions among the
megafaunal (that is, large sized animal)
inhabitants of these continents.
Paleolithic Impact on the Planet
Since these megafaunal animals had no
previous experience with the introduced
predators (humans), they became
relatively easy prey.
It is estimated that in the Americas nearly
75% of all animals weighing over 100 lbs
disappeared after the arrival of humans.
In Australia that number is closer to 90%.
Paleolithic Impact on the Planet
The largest species were the most
threatened because they moved and
reproduced very slowly: the mammoth,
woolly rhinoceros, and giant elk
disappeared in Eurasia; the horse,
elephant, giant armadillo, and sloth
vanished in North America, and in
Australia dozens of large marsupials
disappeared.
Paleolithic Impact on the Planet
 The woolly rhinoceros  Procoptodon, the world’s
tallest marsupial.
The Mesolithic Age
The Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age)
went from 12,000-8,000 BCE.
Major changes included the ability to
shape and sharpen stone tools, make
needles out of bone, etc.
More animals were domesticated, like
cows.
Pottery and basket-making begin to be
developed for use as food storage.
Mesolithic Art (also called Archaic)
Figure from Central America and bowls
from Ireland.
Mesolithic Art
Early Jewelry (c. 10,000 BCE)
The Neolithic Revolution
The advent of the introduction of agriculture
and animal husbandry (known as the
Neolithic revolution) is considered by many
historians to be one of the two key changes
in the human experience—since our species
emerged.
The other key change?
The Neolithic Revolution
Archeologists and historians believe
agriculture was “invented” in at least three
separate places sometime between 9,000
BCE and 5,000 BCE.
The first occurrence was in the northern
Middle East/Black Sea region with the
domestication of wheat and barley.
It probably occurred because of changes
in the animal supply.
The Neolithic Revolution
The earliest traces of wheat and barley
were found in Iraq.
The Neolithic Revolution
Women most likely started the Neolithic
revolution because as gatherers, they
were probably the ones who noticed if you
drop some seeds in the ground, a little
later something else happened.
We’ll never know if this happened by
accident or by design.
The Neolithic Revolution
The second “invention” occurred in
southern China and continental Southeast
Asia around 7,000 BCE with the
introduction of rice.
The Neolithic Revolution
The third clear
separate “invention”
was the domestication
of corn (maize) in
Central America
around 5,000 BCE.
Traces of the oldest
known corn (Teosinte)
was found under this
boulder in Mexico.
The Neolithic Revolution
Agriculture may have been invented in
other places too, like sub-Saharan Africa
and northern China. We simply don’t
know.
But by 5,000 BCE agriculture had
gradually spread and was becoming the
most common economic system for the
largest number of people in the world.
The Neolithic Revolution
Despite the advantages of agriculture over
hunting and gathering, its widespread
adoption was slow.
One reason for this slow spread was that the
contacts among relatively far-flung
populations was minimal (it took several
thousand years for agriculture to disseminate
from the Middle East to Europe).
The Neolithic Revolution
Not all regions were suitable for agriculture;
some were arid (dry) or heavily forested.
An alternative economic system based on
nomadic herding of animals (known as
pastoral societies) prevailed for a long time
over agriculture in parts of the Middle East,
Africa, the Americas, and especially Central
Asia (some still exist today).
The Neolithic Revolution
These nomadic pastoral groups found they
could tame and breed some of the animals
they hunted—goats, sheep, pigs, cattle,
and camels.
These pastoral societies developed in
regions where low rainfall made it
impractical to build life around growing
crops.
The Neolithic Revolution
They remained nomadic, following their
animals to fresh pastures.
The Neolithic Revolution
Agriculture involves settling down, which might
not have appealed to some hunting-gathering
societies that valued their capacity (freedom)
to move around.
Agriculture might have been repellant to
societies where males were accustomed to
boasting about their hunting exploits.
The Neolithic Revolution
When agriculture was introduced, it brought
massive changes to the human experience.
First, it changed the nature of work.
Agriculture involves more work, particularly
for men, than hunting and gathering.
It is estimated that hunting/gathering, on
average, involves about 3 hours of work a
day.
The Neolithic Revolution
Agriculture, especially “in season,” requires
much, much more.
Agriculture redefined and increased the
work expectations of human society.
Agriculture also redefined gender relations.
In most hunter/gatherer societies, men did
the hunting and women the gathering.
Since both groups contributed to the food
supply, women had some influence in
society.
The Neolithic Revolution
In agricultural societies, patriarchal systems
predominated.
Since men increasingly assumed the role as
the principle cultivator of crops, they
increased their dominance over women.
In all agricultural societies, not only does
male dominance over women occur, but
older males dominate younger ones.
This characteristic of agricultural societies
still exists in our world today.
The Neolithic Revolution
The most obvious reason for the increase
in male dominance was that agriculture
both permitted and required an expansion
of the birthrate.
Domestication also benefited the
domesticated species (plant and animal)
as farmers protected them from predators
and helped them reproduce, ensuring their
survival (which is why there are so many
dogs, sheep, and cows and so much
wheat, rice, and corn).
The Neolithic Revolution
More secure food supplies—that’s the
principle advantage of agriculture over
hunting/gathering.
Producing more abundant and more
predictable food supplies permitted larger
numbers of children to be born.
Agricultural societies needed more
children to work the land.
The Neolithic Revolution
Greater food supplies created new
patterns of child rearing and an increase in
the per capita birth rate (usually between
5-7 births per family).
In a hunting-gathering society, children
have relatively few functions until they
reach their early teen years.
The Neolithic Revolution
In agricultural societies, childhood and work
became closely associated.
Virtues, such as hard work and obedience,
became part of the lessons children learned
in an agricultural society.
The Neolithic Revolution
Early farmers faced limitations on the
amount of food they could produce since
there was a shortage of laborers (why so
many children were needed), water, and
nutrients (it would take thousands of years
for people to understand the benefits of
animal fertilizer).
So there were three main farming
technologies early farmers adopted that
reflected these limitations.
The Neolithic Revolution
1. Horticulture: traditional gardening
techniques (clearing land, tilling then
planting then harvesting).
Since human labor provides all the energy,
the effectiveness of early tools was critical.
2. Swidden (slash and burn): weeding out
excessive trees to allow more sunlight and
nutrients to reach the ground.
Trees/vegetation cut, then area burned,
then plots cultivated.
The Neolithic Revolution
3. Chinampas: created by Mesoamerican
farmers, growing crops on man-made
floating fields of timber and soil, anchored
in the middle of lakes.
The Neolithic Revolution
The advent of agriculture raises some
interesting questions about human progress.
First, a major drawback was the introduction
of new inequalities between men and women.
A second drawback was that agriculture
allowed people to settle in clustered
communities, which exposed inhabitants to
periodic epidemic diseases.
The Neolithic Revolution
A third drawback was that agricultural
societies altered the local environment in a
way that hunter/gatherer societies did not.
Some regional environments were
damaged, even destroyed, by agricultural
communities (which we will see later).
But agriculture clearly had advantages,
which was why it spread (albeit very
slowly).
The Neolithic Revolution
Where Agriculture Began (BCE):
 Southwest Asia (Fertile Crescent) 9000
 Egypt and the Sudan (Nile Valley) 8000
 China (Yangtze and Huang He valleys) 7000
 Australasia (New Guinea Highlands) 7000-4000
 Sub-Saharan Africa 3000-2000
 Mesoamerica (Central Mexico) 3000-2000
 South America (Andes and Amazonia) 3000-2000
 Indus valley 2500-2200
 North America (Mississippi valley) 2000-1000
The Neolithic Revolution
One of its advantages was that it produced
products that could be fermented and turned
into alcohol.
Some historians believe this is one of the
reasons why men gave up hunting to adopt
agriculture.
Clay, southern Iraq, 3100 BCE (3”x4”).
The Neolithic Revolution
One of the first things agricultural societies
did when they developed writing was to
write down recipes for the fermentation of
wheat, barley, grapes, etc.
The Neolithic Revolution
More systematically, agriculture
significantly increased food supplies.
This in turn allowed families to have more
children and resulted in population
expansion.
These conditions prevailed in much of the
world from about 9,000 BCE until about
300 years ago.
The Neolithic Revolution
But agricultural economies were
constrained by limitations in the amount of
food that a worker could generate.
Even the most advanced agricultural
economies required about 80% of the
population to be involved in agriculture.
The Neolithic Revolution
This limited the size of cities to be no more
than 20% of the population (most were
less) and limited the amount of taxation
that could be levied.
More taxes = ?
Only within the last century did Russia’s
agricultural society have an urban level
that was more than 10% of the population.
The Neolithic Revolution
Agricultural societies also generated
cultural emphases, especially by
encouraging attention to the spring season
(and the divine forces responsible for
creation and renewal).
The Neolithic Revolution
The crucial features of agriculture were its
role in population increase and its capacity
to generate food surpluses.
This freed some people to do other things,
like manufacture containers (pottery) that
could hold food or seed from one season to
the next.
The Neolithic Revolution
One of the first areas
where agricultural
societies generated
technological
advancement was in the
area of pottery making
(needed to maintain an
agricultural economy)
and metal working.
The Neolithic Revolution-Art
 Megalithic tomb in
Ireland
 Rock panel in
Scotland (3,000 BCE)
The Neolithic Revolution
The world’s oldest known city is Jericho,
located in today’s West Bank (Palestine)
and dated to about 9,000 BCE.
The city was surrounded by springs near
the Dead Sea.
The Neolithic Revolution
Jericho’s famous walls.
The Neolithic Revolution
The second oldest
known was a
famous Neolithic
village in southern
Turkey: Catal
Huyuk.
The map at right
was drawn in the
6th millennium
BCE.
The Neolithic Revolution
Catal Huyuk was a thriving village between
7,000 – 3,000 BCE.
Artwork found there includes the world’s oldest
known murals on human built structures.
The Neolithic Revolution
Artifacts from Catal Huyuk.