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DNA
NITROGEN BASE
NUCLEOTIDE
REPLICATION
SYNTHESIS
RNA
DOUBLE HELIX
MUTATION
POINT MUTATION
FRAMESHIFT MUTATION
CHROMOSOMAL MUTATION
TRANSLOCATION
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
CLONES
FRATERNAL TWINS
IDENTICAL TWINS
TRANSCRIPTION
TRANSLATION
PROTEIN
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
INTERPHASE
SEMI-CONSERVATIVE
REPLICATION
• Describe how the process of DNA replication results in
the transmission and/or conservation of genetic
information.
• Explain the functional relationships between DNA, genes,
alleles, and chromosomes and their roles in inheritance.
• Describe how the processes of transcription are similar in
all organisms.
• Describe how genetic mutations alter the DNA sequence
and may or may not affect phenotype, (e.g.: silent,
nonsense, frameshift)
• Explain how genetic engineering has impacted the fields
of medicine, forensics, and agriculture (e.g., selective
breeding, gene splicing, cloning, genetically modified
organisms, gene therapy).
DNA =
Deoxyribo-Nucleic Acid
DNA makes up genes that
traits of all
determines the ______
living things….such as:
Eye color, skin color,
texture, freckles, hair
color, style…etc
Makes up _____________
GENES
Controls ____________
TRAITS
CHROMOSOMES
Forms _______________________
NUCLEUS of all cells
Found in the __________
DNA is composed of four types of
NUCLEOTIDES.
• DNA is made up of a long chain of nucleotides.
• Each nucleotide has three parts.
1) a phosphate group
2) a deoxyribose sugar
3) a nitrogen-containing base
phosphate group
deoxyribose (sugar)
nitrogen-containing
base
The nitrogen containing bases are the only difference in the four nucleotides.
The code is found in the
RUNGS
“________”
of the ladder.
Each rung is a combination of
2 nitrogen bases bonded together.
________________
The Nitrogen bases are:
C = CYTOSINE
G = GUANINE
T = THYMINE
A = ADENINE
Nucleotides always pair in the same way.
• The base-pairing rules show
how nucleotides always pair
up in DNA.
T
G
T
“A” bonds ONLY with “___”
G
T
G
“C” bonds ONLY with “___”
This goes on for the entire length of the DNA
BILLIONS of nitrogen
molecule, which consists of __________
bases.
A
G
Because a pyrimidine (single ring)
pairs with a purine (double ring), the
helix has a uniform width.
A
G
T
C
A
T
•
A
C
T
C G
G
C
A
C
A
C
T
Process Box- 1
Describe the components of a nucleotide using
these terms: nitrogenous base, deoxyribose
sugar, phosphate, double helix, sides, rungs.
WON – NOW
GOD – DOG
ANT – TAN
BAT – TAB
DNA – DAN
ADD – DAD
TAR – RAT
EAR – ARE
TWO – TOW
EAT - ATE
SAW – WAS
SEQUENCE OF LETTERS in DNA will
The ____________________
determine what the trait is.
For example: Lets take a look at
the letters of the alphabet…
If you change the
letters to
“O W L” means
However…
“A predatory bird”
“L O W”
it no longer means…
“A predatory bird”
Since DNA consists of billions of
nitrogenous base pairings, the amount of
variation among organisms is HUGE.
If you change only one letter, the entire
code will be changed, and therefore the
organism will be different!!
A ladder
twisted
Double helix
•DNA makes up a
CHROMOSOME
_______________.
•Chromosomes
are found in the
nucleus of every
cell in the body!!
A gene is a
gene
SMALL PIECE OF DNA
___________________
that codes for a
Specific trait
_____________.
30,000
There are about __________
genes in an entire DNA
molecule
Process Box-2
It’s all about the numbers.
Match the correct number to the correct phrase.
4
30,000
3,000,000,000
______________ - base pairings
______________ - nitrogen bases
______________ - genes
Put the terms below in SIZE order
Gene * Nucleotide * Nitrogen Base *
Chromosome
UNDERSTANDING THE COMPONENTS OF DNA
If there is 37% of Adenine in a DNA molecule…
How much Thymine? ___________
How much Cytosine? ___________
How much Guanine? ___________
If there is 23% of Guanine in a DNA molecule…
How much Thymine? ___________
How much Cytosine? ___________
How much Adenine? ___________
If there is 18% of Cytosine in a DNA molecule, which is the only possibility for another
nitrogen base? (Put an ‘X’ on your answer)
________18% Adenine
________64% Adenine
________ 32% Guanine
________ 32% Thymine
Deoxyribo-nucleic acid
1. What does DNA mean? _____________________________________
2. Suppose one side of a DNA molecule had the bases
A-A-G-T-C- G- A-T-G-G-C-A-C-C. What would the other side of the DNA look like?
____________________________________________
TT- C- A- G-C--T- A- C- C- G-T- G-G
carry the DNA code to the ribosome
3. What is the function of RNA? _____________________________
A random change in the DNA code
4. What is a mutation? ______________________________________
5. What term best describes what a DNA looks like? _________________
Double helix
6. Explain the relationship between DNA, chromosomes, and genes?
A chromosomes
is made up of DNA, which is consists of about 30,000 genes
__________________________________________________________
7. If everyone consists of only 4 nitrogen bases (A-T-C-G), why are no two people alike?
__________________________________
bc it’s the sequence of nitogen bases that makes us different
46
8. How many chromosomes does a human have? ___________
About 30,000
9. How many genes does a human have? ___________
10. Therefore, approximately how many genes are on a single chromosome? ~______
650
11. If 24% of a DNA molecule is Adenine, what percent would be…
24
Thymine = ____%
26
Guanine= _____%
26
Cytosine= _____%
REPLICATION
Replication makes an exact copy of a cell’s DNA
• A single strand of DNA serves as a template for a new strand.
• The rules of base pairing direct
replication.
• DNA is replicated during the
____________stage
of the
S (synthesis)
cell cycle.
• Each body cell gets a
complete set of
identical DNA.
• DNA replication takes place in
Nucleus
___________
REPLICATION
Proteins carry out the process of replication.
• DNA serves only as a template.
• Enzymes and other proteins do the actual work
of replication.
Double helix
– Enzymes unzip the _______________
– Free-floating nucleotides form hydrogen bonds
with the template strand.
nucleotide
Build
DNA
The DNA molecule unzips
in both directions.
Process Box- 3
What does replication mean?
Why does a cell need to go through replication?
RNA carries DNA’s instructions.
• The central dogma
states that
information flows in
one direction from
DNA to RNA to
_____________
protein
______________
• The central dogma includes three processes.
1) Replication
replication
2) Transcription
3) Translation
transcription
• RNA is a link between
DNA and proteins.
translation
TRANSCRIPTION
RNA differs from DNA in three major ways.
Ribose sugar
1)RNA has a ____________________
uracil
2)RNA has ___________ instead of thymine.
single-stranded structure
3)RNA is a __________________________.
TRANSCRIPTION
The transcription process is similar to replication.
• Transcription and replication both involve complex
enzymes and complementary base pairing.
• The two processes have different end results.
– REPLICATION copies
DNA
the ENTIRE________
molecule;
TRANSCRIPTION copies
only part of the DNA moleculegene
copies only a specific ___________.
– Replication makes
one
_______
copy; transcription
many
can make ________copies.
one
gene
growing RNA strands
DNA
Critical Viewing
Similarities between the
images:
Differences between these
images:
REPLICATION OR TRANSCRIPTION
1.
REPLICATION OR TRANSCRIPTION
2.
REPLICATION OR TRANSCRIPTION
3.
REPLICATION OR TRANSCRIPTION
4.
REPLICATION OR TRANSCRIPTION
5.
Process Box- 4
What are two ways to differentiate between
replication and transcription?
Describe where AND when replication occurs versus
where AND when transcription occurs
codon for
methionine (Met)
codon for
leucine (Leu)
TRANSLATION
Amino acids are coded by mRNA base sequences.
• Translation converts mRNA messages into polypeptides.
• A codon is a sequence of three nucleotides that codes for
an amino acid.
TRANSLATION
• For translation to begin, tRNA binds to a start codon and signals the
ribosome to assemble.
– A complementary tRNA molecule binds to the exposed codon,
bringing its amino acid close to the first amino acid.
TRANSLATION
– The ribosome helps form a polypeptide bond between the
amino acids.
– The ribosome pulls the mRNA strand the length of one
codon.
TRANSLATION
– The now empty tRNA molecule exits the ribosome.
– A complementary tRNA molecule binds to the next
exposed codon.
– Once the stop codon is reached, the ribosome
releases the protein and disassembles.
NUCLEUS
DNA contains the
code for what protein
will be made by the
cell
RIBOSOME
HELPER
RNA is a “__________”
molecule. It helps carry the
RIBOSOME so
DNA code to the __________
it can make the protein.
(Physical trait)
Skin color/texture
Eye color/shape
Height
Bone density
Hair texture
Etc…
Process Box- 5
The mRNA ‘reads’ and ‘copies’ long strands of DNA
by following the START and STOP codons. How many
nucleotides are ‘READ’ AND ‘TRANSLATED’ by the
tRNA at a time? ___________
What do they code for the body to build?
_________________
Process Box-Type 2
Describe the Central Dogma of DNA and explain in
detail what happens in all 3 processes.
Oops!!
•When the sequence of letters is
changed. Since the code no longer
reads the correct way, the cell does
not make the correct protein.
•Consequently, a different trait may
appear.
bad
•They are usually _________
Some mutations affect a single gene,
while others affect an entire
chromosome.
A CHANGE IN AN ORGANISM’S DNA
• A mutation is _______________________________.
• Many kinds of mutations can occur, especially during
replication.
– POINT MUTATIONS
– FRAME SHIFT MUTATIONS
– SILENT MUTATION – a change in DNA s that does not
result in an amino acid change
– NONSENSE MUTATION – change in a base in the DNA that
prematurely stops the translation (reading) of messenger
RNA
– CHROMOSOMAL MUTATIONS
• TRANSLOCATION MUTATIONS
POINT MUTATIONS
• A point mutation substitutes one nucleotide
for another.
mutated
base
FRAMESHIFT MUTATIONS
•
Many kinds of mutations can occur, especially during replication.
– A frameshift mutation inserts or deletes a nucleotide in the DNA sequence.
CHROMOSOMAL MUTATIONS
•
•
Chromosomal mutations affect many genes.
Chromosomal mutations may occur during crossing over
– Chromosomal mutations affect many genes.
– Gene duplication results from unequal crossing over.
Mutations can be caused by several
factors.
• Replication errors can cause
mutations.
• Mutagens, such as UV ray and
chemicals, can cause mutations.
• Some cancer drugs use
mutagenic properties to kill
cancer cells.
1. Simple copying mistakes during cell reproduction
1. A mutation causes a change in an offspring’s traits only when it
PARENTS
takes place in the ___________________
sex cells.
2. Chemicals
1. _______________
NICOTINE
ASBESTOS
2. _______________
3. Radiation
SUN
1. _______________
X-RAY
2. _______________
__________________:
MUTAGEN
Any agent that can cause alterations to DNA
HARMFUL MUTATIONS
HELPFUL MUTATIONS
Any trait that interferes with the
REPRODUCTION
______________________
Any trait that enhances an organisms
REPRODUCE
ability to______________________
and _________________
SURVIVAL
of an organism.
and _________________
SURVIVE
in its
ENVIRONMENT
_____________________.
CHANGE
A MUTATION is any _________________
in copying the DNA message.
CHANGE = WRONG ______________
BASE PAIR
MESSAGE
A wrong base in the DNA gives the cell the wrong __________________.
If a cell has the wrong message, the wrong type of ________________
is made.
PROTEIN
TRAIT
If the wrong protein is made, the wrong ________________
may appear.
 Choose and breed organisms with desired traits
 Ex. Plant seeds with most desired traits
produces new species
 Takes place over many generations
 Genetic engineering – use technology to
manipulate and change genes
 GMO – Genetically modified organism
 Ex. Corn plant with gene inserted that resists
pests
GENE SPICING/RECOMBINANT DNA
• Cutting and recombining a gene
• Genetic engineering involves changing an organism’s DNA to give
it new traits.
• Genetic engineering is based on the use of recombinant DNA.
• Recombinant DNA contains genes from more than one organism.
(bacterial DNA)
GEL ELECTROPHORESIS
• Gel electrophoresis is used to
separate DNA fragments by
size.
– A DNA sample is cut with
restriction enzymes.
– Electrical current pulls DNA
fragments through a gel.
– Smaller fragments move
faster and travel farther than
larger fragments.
– Fragments of different sizes
appear as bands on the gel.
GEL ELECTROPHORESIS
•
A restriction map shows the lengths of DNA fragments between restriction sites.
– only indicate size, not DNA
sequence
– useful in genetic engineering
– used to study mutations
Genomics
• Genomics is the study of
genomes.
– can include the sequencing of
the genome
– comparisons of genomes within
and across species
– Gene sequencing is
determining the order of DNA
nucleotides in genes or in
genomes.
– The genomes of several
different organisms have been
sequenced.
Genomics
•
The Human Genome Project has sequenced all of the DNA base pairs of
human chromosomes.
– analyzed DNA from a few
people
– still working to identify and map
human genes
Genetic screening
• Genetic screening involves the testing of DNA.
– determines risk of having
or passing on a genetic
disorder
– used to detect specific
genes or proteins
– can detect some genes
related to an increased
risk of cancer
– can detect some genes
known to cause genetic
disorders
DMD
N
Gene therapy
• Gene therapy replaces defective or missing genes, or
adds new genes, to treat a disease.
GENE THERAPY
•
Several experimental techniques are used for gene therapy.
– Difficult to place new DNA into nuclei of human
cells
– genetically engineered viruses used to “infect” a
patient’s cells
Gene therapy has many technical challenges.
– inserting gene into correct cells
– controlling gene expression
– determining effect on other genes
IDENTICAL DNA
1. The term “clone” refers to organisms having ____________________
copies
Two “clones” are exact _______________
of each other.
GENES
TRAITS
DNA
Same _______
= Same __________
= Same _________
2. Examples of clones:
IDENTICAL TWINS
ONE fertilized egg
a. _________________:
form from the splitting of _____
LABORATORY
b. Clone organisms produced in ___________________
Fraternal Twins vs Identical Twins
TWO DIFFERENT
_____________________
eggs are
fertilized by
TWO DIFFERENT
_____________________
sperm.
Each egg and sperm carry
DIFFERENT
__________________combinations
of ____________.
DNA
Therefore, each offspring will
VARY
________________genetically.
20
20
20
20
20
Remove
Body Cells
10
Remove
Unfertilized
Ovum
10
Destroy
Nucleus
Insert Nucleus from
Dark frog into egg
of Light frog
Process Box-6
Choose one type of genetic engineering and
explain how it works and how it has impacted
the fields of medicine, forensics, or agriculture
(e.g., selective breeding, gene splicing, cloning,
genomics, gene therapy). Your answer must be
at least 5 lines.
DNA MOLECULE
_______________
(SHAPE)
SIDE PARTS
RUNG PARTS
___________
___________
___________
&
___________
___________
___________
What is the difference between a cell,
nucleus, chromosome, genes, and DNA?
How are they related?
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN…
Cell: ________________________________
Nucleus: ________________________________
Chromosome: _________________________________
Gene(s): _____________________________________
DNA: ________________________________________
How are they related? _____________________________
_______________________________________________
TYPE II’S
If you were to observe your DNA molecule and
compare it to another person’s DNA, what is one
thing that you’d expect to find in common?
What is one thing you’d expect to be different?
Process Box-Type 2
What is the role of tRNA during translation? Include
the words codon, amino acids, proteins, mRNA, and
ribsome in your response.
Process Box- 1
Recall the models of DNA you made. List the following:
3 parts that were included in your model
1.
2.
3.
2 types of bonds
1.
2.
2 rules/’laws’ of the “N’s”.
1.
2.
1 thing you learned about DNA other than what is above.
1.
Process Box-2
Think back: What type of organic compounds
do nucleotides make up?
Are they monomers or polymers?
Process Box-Type 1
You were exposed to a similar graph earlier in the year.
Study the graph. Write down a list of at least FOUR
things you can recall about the graph. Your statements
should be written as complete thoughts.
Process Box-Type 1
General Word Dissection.
Break down these words and define them in your own
words. Then write an instance when each one may
occur.
What is it?
When does it happen?
Replication:
Transcription:
Translation:
Process Box-Type 1
You recently learned about the different type of
mutations that could occur. Now write down AT
LEAST TWO different reasons why mutations
would/could occur.