History of technology
How did we go from 100W to 10,000 W?
How did energy use change between
Medieval times and present day?
?
200 W
1500 W
4500 W
10,000 W
From
V. Smil
Two radical jumps in energy use over history:
rise in production (19th century) and transportation (20th century)
200 W
1500 W
4500 W
10,000 W
From
V. Smil
In earliest human history the only “engines” were people
Maize farmer, somewhere
in Africa, 2007
Source: CIMMYT
In earliest human history the only “engines” were people
Ploughing by hand,
Uganda
In most of the world, people quickly adopted more
powerful “bio-engines”
Diderot & d`Alembert eds, Encyclopédie méthodique. Paris 1763-1777 & 1783-87.
In most of the world, people quickly adopted more
powerful “bio-engines”: and increased power
W.H. Pyne, Microcosm or a pictoresque delineation of the arts,
agriculture and manufactures of Great Britain … London 1806.
Horse engine-plough still in use up through the 1940s
Horse drawn plough, northern France, likely 1940s. G.W. Hales; Hutton Archives
Harvesting by hand is tedious and slow
Wheat harvest, Hebei Province, China, 2007 (source: www.powerhousemuseum.com)
“Bio-engines” and some technology make
harvesting much more efficient.
27 horsepower!
(or perhaps horse+mule-power)
Horse drawn combine, likely 1910s-20s. Source: FSK Agricultural Photographs
“Bio-engines” and some technology make
harvesting much more efficient.
~27 horsepower
may be practical
upper limit
Horse-drawn combine, Almira, WA, 1911. W.C. Alexander. Source: U. Wash. library
“Bio-engines” must be suitable for location and task
Ploughing with oxen, Sussex
Downs, England, 1902. Oxen
are preferred in heavy soil
because they have more
“pulling power” (what we’d
now call “torque”)
Ploughing with camels,
Egypt, early 1900s
Both photos from
“messybeast.com”,
public domain
Rotation: animal powered wheels have a long history
First use: grinding
Clay millers, W.H. Pyne, London (1806)
Grindstone, China from the encyclopedia
“Tiangong Kaiwu”, by Song Yingxing (1637)
Human powered wheels persisted into the modern era
Lathe, late 1700s
Japanese water pump, still used in 1950s
Rotational motion is a fundamental industrial need ….
Grinding is not the only use of rotational motion.
Other sources of rotational
kinetic energy: wind and water
Vertical-axis Persian windmill,
7th century (634-644 AD) or later
Vertical-axis waterwheel
1500s or earlier
Very early a switch was made
from vertical to horizontal axes
Pitstone windmill, believed to be the oldest
in Britain.
Horizontal-axis waterwheel
Pluses & minuses for
horizontal axes
Post mill diagram, from The Dutch
Windmill, Frederick Stokhuyzen
Industrial windmil cogs
Pluses & minuses for
horizontal axes
Plus:
* increased efficiency (both wind & water)
Minus:
* complicated gearing to alter axes
* must rotate windmill to match wind dir.
Post mill diagram, from The Dutch
Windmill, Frederick Stokhuyzen
Industrial windmil cogs
What were the needs for mechanical work by mills?
anything besides grinding grain?
Why so many windmills along rivers?
Luyken, 1694
Source unknown
Pumping can be done with rotational motion alone…
Dutch drainage mill using Archimedes’ screw
from The Dutch Windmill, Frederick Stokhuyzen
Pumping can be done with rotational motion alone…
Bucket chain pumps
are seen as early as
700 BC.
Common in ancient
Egypt, Roman
empire, China from
1st century AD,
Medieval Muslim
world, Renaissance
Europe.
Chain pumps, including bucket chain pumps (R)
From Cancrinus, via Priester, Michael et al.
“Tools for Mining: Techniques and Processes for Small Scale Mining”
Chain pumps need not involve buckets
Chain pump cutaway
From Lehman’s
…but linear motion allows more efficient pumping
Same
technology
used today in
oil wells
The lift pump
Animation from Scuola Media di Calizzano
Linear motions were needed very early in industrial history
Chinese bellows, 1313 A.D.
European hammer mill w/ cam
coupling, 1556 A.D.
The cam converts rotational to linear motion
The
noncircularity of
the cam creates
a push at only
one part of the
cycle
The knife-edge cam
Animation from the University of Limerick
The cam converts rotational to linear motion
The
noncircularity of
the cam creates
a push at only
one part of the
cycle
The rocker arm & camshaft
Animation from the University of Limerick
Gears and cams let one wheel drive multiple machines
Gold refining, France. D. Diderot & J. Le Rond d`Alembert eds,
Encyclopédie méthodique. Paris 1763-1777 & 1783-87.
Machines powered by wind & water include:
Rotational
•Grindstones
•Pumps
•Winches
•Bucket lifts
•Spinning wheels
•Lathes, borers, drilling machines (first use)
Linear (reciprocating)
•Hammer-mills
•Beaters
•Bellows
•Saws
•Looms
Linear (non-reciprocating)
•Boats
Machines powered by wind & water include:
Rotational
•Grindstones
•Pumps
•Winches
•Bucket lifts
•Spinning wheels
•Lathes, borers, drilling machines (first use)
Linear (reciprocating)
•Hammer-mills
•Beaters
•Bellows
•Saws
•Looms
Linear (non-reciprocating)
•Boats
Heating
Large-scale wood-burning to make heat for industrial use
Complex chemical transformations
driven by heat were common in
Medieval Europe.
Georg Acricola “De res metallica”,
Book XII (“Manufacturing salt, soda,
alum, vitriol, sulphur, bitumen, and
glass”), 1556.
Wood and coal fired technologies include
Fuel burnt for
•Heating
•Metallurgy
•Glass-making
•Brewing (drying the malt)
•Baking
•Brick-making
•Salt-making
•Tiles and ceramics
•Sugar refining
Wood and coal fired technologies include
Fuel burnt for
•Heating
•Metallurgy
•Glass-making
•Brewing (drying the malt)
•Baking
•Brick-making
•Salt-making
•Tiles and ceramics
•Sugar refining
Heating
Large-scale wood-burning to make heat for industrial use
Foundries are wood-fired in
1700s and getting large enough
to significantly affect the local
fuel supply.
Copper foundry, France
D. Diderot & J. Le Rond d`Alembert
eds, Encyclopédie méthodique. Paris
1763-1777 & 1783-87.
The energy crisis in Europe: lack of wood
1700s
“When the fuel situation became difficult in France in
the eighteenth century, it was said that a single forge
used as much wood as a town the size of Chalon-surMarne. Enraged villagers complained of the forges and
foundries which devoured the trees of the forests, not
even leaving enough for the bakers’ ovens.”
--- F. Braudel, The Structures of Everyday Life, 1979.
By the 18th century Europe’s energy crisis limits growth
“Lack of energy was the major handicap of the
ancien régime economies”
--- F. Braudel, The Structures of Everyday Life
The early 18th century European energy crisis
1. Fuel had become scarce even when only used for
heat
Wood was insufficient
2. There were limited ways to make motion
No way to make motion other than through capturing existing
motion or through muscle-power
3. There was no good way to transport motion
Water and wind weren’t necessarily near demand
Solution to #1: start burning coal
The energy crisis hit Britain first: lack of wood
1400s
1600
“Aeneas Sylvius (afterwards Pope Pius II), who visited
Scotland… in the middle of the fifteenth century,
mentions …that he saw the poor people who begged at
churches going away quite pleased with stones given
them for alms. ‘This kind of stone … is burnt instead of
wood, of which the country is destitute.”
“Within a few years after the commencement of the
seventeenth century the change from wood fuel to coal,
for domestic purposes, was general and complete.”
--- R. Galloway, A History of Coal Mining in Great Britain,
1882.
The 2nd British energy crisis: flooding of the mines
1600s
“The miners, no less than the smelters, had their
difficulties during the seventeenth century, but of a
totally different kind; for while the latter were suffering
from too little fire, the former were embarrassed by too
much water… the exhaustion of he coal supply was
considered to be already within sight. In 1610, Sir
George Selby informed Parliament that the coal mines at
Newcastle would not last for the term of their leases of
twenty-one years.”
--- R. Galloway, A History of Coal Mining in Great Britain,
1882.
The late 18th century European energy crisis
1. Easily-extractable coal was running out.
Wood was insufficient, & coal was getting hard to extract
Surface “sea coal”  deep-shaft mining below the water table
Needed mechanical motion to drive the pumps
But still had limitations # 2 and #3
2. There were limited ways to make motion
No way to make motion other than through capturing existing
motion or through muscle-power
3. There was no good way to transport motion
Water and wind weren’t necessarily near demand
The 18th century technological impasse
All technology involved only two energy conversions
• Mechanical motion  mechanical motion
• Chemical energy  heat
There was no way to convert chemical energy to motion other than
muscles (human or animal) – no engine other than flesh
Even for heating, the only means out of the energy crisis was coal –
but to mine the coal required motion for pumps.
18th century Europeans had complex and sophisticated technology,
and an abundance of industrial uses for energy, but not enough supply
The revolutionary solution = break the heat  work barrier
Newcomen “Atmospheric Engine”,
1712
(Note that “revolution” followed invention by ~100 years – typical for energy technology)
What is a “heat engine”?
A device that generates converts thermal energy to
mechanical work by exploiting a temperature
gradient
•
Makes something more ordered:
random motions of molecules  ordered
motion of entire body
•
Makes something less ordered:
degrades a temperature gradient (transfers
heat from hot to cold)
The two technological leaps of the Industrial Revolution
that bring in the modern energy era
1. “Heat to Work”
Chemical energy  mechanical work via mechanical device
Use a temperature gradient to drive motion
Allows use of stored energy in fossil fuels
Late 1700’s: commercial adoption of steam engine
2. Efficient transport of energy: electrification
Mechanical work
electrical energy
mech. work
Allows central generation of power
Late 1800s: rise of electrical companies
Outline of next three lectures
Having finished with global energy flows and started history of human use,
we’ll now do a tricky transition…
History of early steam engines (today)
Fundamental physics of heat engines (Tues Apr. 10th)
understanding heat  work
History of Industrial Revolution (Th. Apr. 12th)
..with preview of electric generation
Organizing framework for energy conversion technology
The modern energy system (Th. Apr. 12th or -> future)
And then it’s on to individual energy technologies…but Liz is gone
T Apr. 17th and Th. Apr. 19th (electricity generation
Physics: long understood that steam exerted force
Evaporating water produces high pressure
(Pressure = force x area)
“lebes”: demonstration of lifting power of steam
“aeliopile”
Hero of Alexandria, “Treatise on Pneumatics”, 120 BC
Physics: condensing steam can produce suction force
Low pressure in airtight container means air exerts force
Same physics that lets you suck liquid through a straw (or use a
suction pump)
First conceptual steam engine
Denis Papin, 1690, publishes design
Set architecture of reciprocating engines
through modern day – piston moves up
and down through cylinder
Papin nearly invented the internal
combustion engine in which the piston is
pushed up by high pressure in the
cylinder (from expanding air after an
explosion of gunpowder).
Unfortunately he couldn’t design the
valves correctly to vent air after
expansion, and gave up. He then
designed an engine in which the piston is
pulled down instead by low pressure in
the cylinder (provided by condensing
steam).
This is deeply unfortunate for beginning
students.
Papin’s first
design, now in
Louvre. No patent,
no working model.
First conceptual steam engine
Denis Papin, 1690, publishes design
Papin neither built his engine nor even
patented it. He did not have the
mechanical skill to actually build his
engine successfully. He needed to
machine the cylinder and piston air-tight
to maintain a pressure gradient, and
couldn’t manage that.
He forms part of continuing trend in the
history of energy technology: the person
who invents a technology is not the
person who makes it practical (and yet a
third person is the one who makes
money off it).
Also: the French explained without
building, the British built without
explaining.
Papin’s first
design, now in
Louvre. No patent,
no working model.
First commercial use of steam:
“A new Invention for Raiseing of Water
and occasioning Motion to all Sorts of
Mill Work by the Impellent Force of Fire
which will be of great vse and
Advantage for Drayning Mines,
serveing Towns with Water, and for the
Working of all Sorts of Mills where they
have not the benefitt of Water nor
constant Windes.”
Thomas Savery, patent
application filed 1698
(good salesman, but he was wrong –
this can only pump water)
First commercial use steam
Thomas Savery, 1698
Essentially a steam-driven vacuum
pump, good only for pumping liquids.
Max pumping height: ~30 ft.
(atmospheric pressure)
Efficiency below 0.1%
Some use in Scottish and English mines,
to pump out water. Fuel was essentially
free. 2000 times less efficient than people
or animals, but they can’t eat coal.
Drawbacks – mines were deeper than
max lift, fire in mines leads to explosions
First true steam engine:
Thomas Newcomen, 1712, blacksmith
Copy of Papin’s engine of design of 1690,
with piston falling as steam cooled, drawn
down by the low pressure generated
First reciprocating engine: force
transmitted by motion of piston
Can pump water to arbitrary height.
Force only on downstroke of piston
Very low efficiency: 0.5%
Intermittent force transmission
Newcomen’s design is state of the art for 60+ years
First true steam engine:
Thomas Newcomen, 1712, blacksmith
Copy of Papin’s engine of design of 1690,
with piston falling as steam cooled, drawn
down by the low pressure generated
First reciprocating engine: force
transmitted by motion of piston
Can pump water to arbitrary height.
Force only on downstroke of piston
Very low efficiency: 0.5%
Intermittent force transmission
Newcomen’s design is state of the art for 60+ years
First true steam engine:
Thomas Newcomen, 1712, blacksmith
Copy of Papin’s engine of design of 1690,
with piston falling as steam cooled, drawn
down by the low pressure generated
First reciprocating engine: force
transmitted by motion of piston
Can pump water to arbitrary height.
Force only on downstroke of piston
Very low efficiency: 0.5%
Intermittent force transmission
Newcomen’s design is state of the art for 60+ years
First modern steam engine:
James Watt, 1769 (patent), 1774 (prod.)
Higher efficiency than Newcomen by introducing separate condense
Reduces wasted heat by not requiring heating and cooling entire cylinder
First modern steam engine:
James Watt, 1769 (patent), 1774 (prod.)
Higher efficiency than Newcomen by introducing separate condenser
First modern steam engine:
James Watt, 1769 patent
(1774 production model)
Like Newcomen engine only with separate
condenser
Higher efficiency: 2%
Force only on downstroke of piston
Intermittent force transmission
No rotational motion
Improved Watt steam engine:
James Watt, 1783 model
Albion Mill, London
Separate condenser
Higher efficiency: ca. 3%
Force on both up- and downstroke
Continuous force transmission
Rotational motion
(sun and planet gearing)
Engine speed regulator
Improved Watt steam engine:
James Watt, 1783 model
Albion Mill, London
Separate condenser
Higher efficiency: ca. 3%
Force on both up- and downstroke
Continuous force transmission
Rotational motion
(sun and planet gearing)
Engine speed regulator – don’t need
electronics for controls
sun and planet gearing
Gearing lets the linear-motion engine produce rotation, mimic a water wheel
Improved Watt steam engine:
James Watt, 1783 model
Albion Mill, London
Separate condenser
Higher efficiency: ca. 3%
Force on both up- and downstroke
Continuous force transmission
Rotational motion
(sun and planet gearing)
Engine speed regulator – don’t need
electronics for controls!
engine speed governor
No need for electronics for controls – can use mechanical system
Double-action steam engine:
Why use suction to pull the piston
down – why not just push it down
with another injection of steam?
Piston pushed by steam on both
up- and down-stroke.
No more need for a condenser.
Steam is simply vented at high
temperature
slide valve alternates input & exhaust
Double-action steam engine:
slide valve alternates input & exhaust
Double-action steam engine
What are benefits?
What are drawbacks?
What would you use one for?
Double-action steam engine
What are benefits?
Faster cycle – no need to wait for condensation. Can get more
power, higher rate of doing mechanical work.
Also lighter and smaller – no need to carry a condenser
around.
What are drawbacks?
Inefficiency – venting hot steam means you are wasting
energy.
High water usage – since lose steam, have to keep replacing
the water
Double-action steam engine:
primary use: transportation
Double-action steam engine:
Images top, left: Sandia Software
Image bottom: Ivan S. Abrams
water-intensive,
fuel-intensive –
requires many
stops to take on
water and fuel.
History of locomotives
Trevithick’s first “railway engine”, 1804 (no image)
Used for hauling coal – replaces horses. Speed: 5 mph
“Puffing Billy”, William Hedley, 1813
Coal hauler
9” x 36” cylinders
First locomotives are
basically steam engines
for the pumps now
placed on wheels
Image: source unknown
History of locomotives
Stephenson’s “Rocket”, 1820
First passenger locomotive
29 mph (unloaded), 14 mph loaded
Image: source unknown
History of locomotives
Central Pacific Railroad locomotive #173, Type 4-4-0, 1864
(Common American design, 1850s-1900)
Image: Central Pacific Railroad
Photographic History Museum
History of locomotives
Northern Pacific Railway steam locomotive #2681, 1930
Image: Buckbee Mears Company, Photograph Collection ca. 1930, Location
no. HE6.1N p11, Negative no. 25337. Source: Minnesota Historical Society