Introduction
to
Anatomy & Physiology
Headings
Vocabulary
Important Info
•Anatomy
oscience of
structure
orelationships
revealed by
dissection imaging
techniques
•Physiology
oscience of body
functions
Clinical Observational Techniques
• Palpation
o feel body surface with
hands
 pulses and breathing
rates
• Auscultation
o listen to body sounds
with stethoscope
 abnormal fluid in lungs
• Percussion
o tap on body surface and
listen to echo
Levels of Organization
• Chemical
• Cellular
• Tissue
• Organs
• System Level
• Organismic Level
Levels of Structural Organization
• Chemical Level - atomic and molecular level
• Cellular Level - smallest living unit of the body
• Tissue Level - group of cells and the materials
surrounding them that work together on one task
• 4 basic tissue
o epithelium
o muscle
o connective
tissue
o nerve
• Organ Level
o grouping of 2 or more tissue types into a recognizable structure
with a specific function.
• Organ System
o collection of related organs with a common function
o sometimes an organ is part of more than one system
• Organismic Level - one living individual.
Interactions of Body Systems
• Example: Integumentary System & Skeletal System
o Skin produces vitamin D needed for CA absorption and bone
growth
o Bone marrow produces cells which help the skin resist
infection.
Life Processes
• Metabolism = sum of all
chemical processes
o breakdown of large
molecules into small
o building new structural
components (proteins)
o providing chemical energy
for cells
• Responsiveness
o detect & respond to changes
in internal or external
environment
o some typical responses
 muscle contraction, electrical
• Movement
o any structural level
o body, organ, cell or cell
component
• Growth
o increase in number or size
of cells or the material
found between cells
• Differentiation
o specialization of cells
for a specific function
o stem cells give rise to cells
that specialize
• Reproduction
o formation of new cells or
Autopsy
•Postmortem examination of body by dissection
•Purpose
o confirm or determine
cause of death
o support findings of
other tests
o provide info on effects
of drug usage
o educate healthcare
students
o reveal congenital defects
Homeostatis
• Maintaining the internal
environment within
physiological limits
(internal balance)
• First described by French
physiologist, 1813-1878
• Process named by Walter
Cannon, 1871-1945
• Example
o blood glucose level is kept
within narrow range 70110/100ml
Homeostasis of Body Fluids
• Delineation of fluid compartments
• Intracellular Fluid (ICF) = w/i cells
• Extracellular Fluid (ECF) = o/s cells
 Intercellular Fluid = tissue fluid =
interstitial fluid
 Plasma = fluid portion of blood
• Composition of fluids change as
substances move between compartments
o nutrients, oxygen, ions and wastes
move in both directions across
Control of Homeostasis
•Homeostasis is continually
being disrupted by:
o External Stimuli
 intense heat, cold , and lack of
oxygen
o Internal Stimuli
 psychological stresses
 exercise
•Disruptions are usually mild &
temporary
•If homeostasis is not
Neural and Endocrine Controls
• Maintaining a controlled
condition
o sensory receptors detect change
in a monitored variable
o nervous system and/or endocrine
system responds
• Ex: Control of blood gas level
o exercise increases blood CO2
levels
o sensory receptors detect change
o nervous system increases heart
and breathing rates to remove
excess CO2
o adrenal gland releases
epinephrine to increase heart
Components of Feedback Loop
• Receptor
o monitors a controlled condition
• Control Center
o determines next action
• Effector
o receives directions from the
control center
o produces a response that
changes controlled condition
Negative & Positive Feedback Loops
•Negative Feedback Loop
o original stimulus reversed
o most feedback systems in the body are negative
o used for conditions that need frequent adjustment
o body temperature, blood sugar levels, blood pressure
•Positive
Feedback
Loop
o original
stimulus intensified
o normal childbirth
Homeostasis of Blood Pressure
• Pressure receptors in walls of
certain arteries detect an increase in
BP
o Blood Pressure = force of blood on
walls of vessels
• Brain receives input and signals
heart and blood vessels
• Heart rate slows and arterioles
dilate (increase in diameter)
• BP returns to normal
Positive Feedback during Childbirth
• Stretch receptors in walls of
uterus send signals to brain
• Brain releases hormone (oxytocin)
into bloodstream
• Uterine smooth muscle contracts
more forcefully
• More stretch, more hormone,
more contraction etc.
• Cycle ends with birth of the baby
& decrease in stretch
Homeostatic Imbalances
• Disorder = abnormality of function
• Disease = homeostatic imbalance with distinct…
o Symptoms: changes in body function felt by patient such as nausea
o Signs: changes in body function that can be observed by doctor
such as rash or fever
• Diagnosis: skill of
distinguishing one
disease from another
• Epidemiology: how
disease is transmitted
• Pharmacology: how
drugs used to treat
disease
Basic Anatomical Terminology
• Regions of the body
• Anatomical position
• Anatomical planes, sections and directional terms
Anatomical Position
• Standardized position • Prone Position = lying face
describing directional
terms
o standing upright
o facing the observer,
head level
o eyes facing forward
o feet flat on the floor
o arms at the sides
o palms turned forward
down
• Supine Position = lying face up
Common Regional Names
She is standing in the Anatomical Position
• Clinical terminology based on a Greek or Latin root word.
• Fill in worksheet to help remember the terms
Planes & Sections
•Plane: imaginary flat
surface that passes
through the body.
•Section: one of the 2
surfaces (pieces) that
results when the body is
cut by a plane passing
through it.
Sagittal Plane
• Sagittal Plane
o divides the body or an organ into left and right sides
• Midsagittal Plane
o produces equal halves
• Parasagittal Plane
o produces unequal halves
Other Planes and Sections
• Frontal or Coronal Plane
o divides the body or an organ into front
(anterior) and back (posterior) portions
• Transverse or Horizontal Plane
o cross-sectional
o divides the body or an organ into upper
(superior) or lower (inferior) portions
• Oblique Plane
o some combination of 2 other planes
Planes and Sections of the Brain(3-D
anatomical relationships revealed)
•
• Horizontal Plane
• Frontal Plane
• Midsagittal Plane
Major Directional Terms
•Dorsal & Ventral
• Dorsal or Posterior
o Back of the body
o Brain is posterior to the
forehead.
• Ventral or Anterior
Superior & Inferior
• Superior
o Towards the head
o Eyes are superior to mouth.
• Inferior
o Front of the body
o Away from head
o Sternum is anterior to
the heart.
o Stomach is inferior to the
heart.
Proximal or Distal
• Proximal
o nearer to attachment of the limb
to the trunk
o The knee is proximal to the
ankle.
• Distal
o farther from attachment of the
limb to the trunk
o The wrist is distal to the elbow.
Medial or Lateral
• Medial
o nearer to midline of body
o Heart lies
medial to lungs
• Lateral
o farther from midline of body
o The thumb is on the lateral
side of the hand.
•Brain is posterior to the
forehead.
•Eyes are superior to
mouth.
•Stomach is inferior to the
heart.
•Sternum is anterior to the
heart.
•The knee is proximal to the
ankle.
•Heart lies medial to lungs
•The wrist is distal to the
elbow.
•The thumb is on the lateral side of the
Dorsal Body Cavity
•Near dorsal surface of body
•2 subdivisions
oCranial Cavity
 holds the brain
 formed by skull
oVertebral or Spinal Canal
 contains the spinal cord
 formed by vertebral
column
•Meninges (system of membranes) line dorsal
body cavity
Ventral Body Cavity
• Near ventral surface of body
• Visceral Organs (viscera): A group of internal organs housed in
the ventral cavity
• 2 subdivisions
o Thoracic Cavity: above
diaphragm
o Abdominopelvic Cavity:
below diaphragm
• Diaphragm = large,
dome-shaped muscle
• Organs called viscera
Abdominopelvic Cavity
• Inferior portion of ventral body cavity below diaphragm
• Encircled by abdominal wall, bones & muscles of pelvis
Thoracic Cavity
• Encircled by ribs, sternum, vertebral column and muscle
• Divided into 2 pleural cavities by mediastinum
• Mediastinum contains all thoracic organs except lungs
o "middle" section of the chest cavity
Mediastinum
• Area behind the breastbone
• Midline wall of tissue that contains heart and
great vessels, esophagus, trachea and thymus.
Serous Membranes
•Thin slippery
membrane lines
body cavities not
open to the outside
o parietal layer lines
walls of cavities
(outside)
o visceral layer covers
viscera (internal
organs) within the
cavities
•Serous fluid
Pleural & Pericardial Cavities
• Visceral Pleura: clings to surface of lungs
• Parietal Pleura: lines chest wall
• Visceral Pericardium: covers heart
• Parietal Pericardium: lines pericardial sac
Peritoneum
• Visceral Peritoneum --- serous membrane that covers
the abdominal viscera (organs)
• Parietal Peritoneum --- serous membrane that lines the
abdominal wall
Abdominopelvic Regions & Quadrants
• Describe locations of organs or source of pain
• Tic-tac-toe grid or intersecting lines through navel
Medical Imaging
•Allows visualization of structures without
surgery
•Useful for
confirmation
of diagnosis
•Examples of
imaging
techniques
Conventional Radiography
• A single burst of xrays
• Produces 2-D image on
film
• Known as radiography or
xray
• Poor resolution of soft
tissues
• Major use is Osteology:
study of bones
Computed Tomography (CT Scan)
• Moving x-ray beam
• Image produced on a
video monitor of a crosssection through body
• Computer generated
image reveals more soft
tissue detail
o kidney & gallstones
• Multiple scans used to
build 3D views
Digital Subtraction Angiography(DSA)
• Radiopaque material
injected into blood
vessels
• Before and after images
compared with a
computer program
• Image of blood vessel is
shown on a monitor
Ultrasound (US)
• High-frequency sound waves
emitted by hand-held device
• Safe, noninvasive & painless
• Image or sonogram is
displayed on video monitor
• Used for fetal ultrasound and
examination of pelvic &
abdominal organs, heart and
blood flow through blood
vessels
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
• Body exposed to high-energy magnetic field
• Protons align themselves relative to magnetic field
• Pulse of radiowaves used to generate an image on
video monitor
• Can not use on patient with metal in their body
• Reveals fine detail within soft tissues
Positron Emission Tomography(PET)
• Substance that emits
positively charged
particles is injected into
body
• Collision with negatively
charged electrons in
tissues releases gamma
rays
• Camera detects gamma
rays & computer
generates image