KONTRAK BISNIS
INTERNASIONAL
Nandang Sutrisno
Fakultas Hukum
Universitas Iaslam Indonesia
2015
Pendahuluan
• Definisi Bisnis Internasional
– The exchange of goods and services among individuals and
businesses in multiple countries.
(Pertukaran barang-barang dan jasa-jasa antara individuindividu dan bisnis-bisnis di berbagai negara).
– A specific entity, such as a multinational corporation or
international business company that engages in business
among multiple countries.
(Suatu badan khusus, seperti perusahaan multinasional
yang terlibat bisnis di berbagai negara)
• Sumber:
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/internationalbusiness.html#ixzz3Vwf8oMwD
– business transactions crossing national borders at any
stage of the transaction (Cindy King)
(transaksi bisnis yang melintas batas negara pada setiap tahapan
transaksi)
• Exchange (pertukaran)
– Open, organized marketplace (such as a stock exchange) where
buyers and sellers negotiate prices. Exchanges require an almost
instant (real time) bid and ask matching mechanism, settlement and
clearing, and market wide price communication and determination.
(pasar terbuka dan terorganisasi (misalnya pasar saham) di mana
para pembeli dan penjual melakukan tawar-menawar harga.
Pertukaran memerlukan sesuatu penawaran yang sangat cepat (real
time) dan permintaan yang sesuai dengan mekanisme, penyelesaian
dan penjelasan, dan komunikasi serta penentuan harga pasar yang
luas.
• Goods and services (barang-barang dan jasa-jasa)
– The most basic products of an economic system that consist of
tangible consumable items and tasks performed by individuals. Many
business portfolios consist of a mix of goods and services that they
offer to potential consumers via a sales force.
(produk-produk yang paling dasar dari sistem ekonomi yang terdiri
dari barang-barang berwujud yang dapat dikonsumsi dan tugastugas yang dijalankan oleh individu-individu. Banyak bisnis
portofolio yang terdiri dari suatu campuran antara barang-barang dan
jasa-jasa yang mereka tawarkan kepada konsumen-konsumen
potensial melalui suatu kekuatan penjualan.
•
Individual (Individu)
– A person.
– A distinct, indivisible entity, often one among many others of a similar kind.
(Seseorang atau suatu badan yang berbeda dan tidak bisa dipisahkan,
sering satu diantara banyak hal lain yang sama)
•
Businesses (Bisnis)
– An organization or economic system where goods and services are
exchanged for one another or for money.
(suatu organisasi atau sistem ekonomi di mana barang-barang dan jasajasa saling dipertukarkan atau untuk ditukar dengan uang).
– Every business requires some form of investment and enough customers
to whom its output can be sold on a consistent basis in order to make a
profit.
(Setiap bisnis memerlukan beberapa bentuk investasi dan konsumen yang
cukup terhadap mana hasil investasi tersebut dapat dijual dengan dasar
yang konsisten untuk mendapatkan keuntungan).
– Businesses can be privately owned, not-for-profit or state-owned. An
example of a corporate business is PepsiCo, while a mom-and-pop catering
business is a private enterprise.
(Bisnis dapat dimiliki secara pribadi, tidak berorientasi keuntungan atau
dimiliki negara. Satu contoh suatu badan hukum bisnis adalah PepsiCo,
sementara suatu bisnis katering papa-mama adalah suatu badan swasta.
•
Sumber:
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/business.html#ixzz3VwiWCrqf
•
Business Activities (Aktivitas Bisnis)
– The aggregate economic activities (buying, selling, renting,
investing) of an organization or of the commercial and
manufacturing sectors of an economy.
(Kumpulan aktivitas-aktivitas ekonomi (beli, jual, menyewakan,
berinvestasi) dari sebuah organisasi atau sektor komersial dan
manufaktur dari suatu economi)
•
Economic activities (aktivitas ekonomi)
– Actions that involve the production, distribution and consumption
of goods and services at all levels within a society. Gross
domestic product or GDP is one way of assessing economic
activity, and the degree of current economic activity and forecasts
for its future level can significantly impact business activity and
profits, as well as inflation and interest rates.
(Tindakan-tindakan yang meliputi produksi, distribusi dan
konsumsi barang-barang dan jasa-jasa pada setiap tingkatan
dalam masyarakat. Gross Domestic Product atau GDP merupakan
salah satu cara menilai aktivitas-aktivitas ekonomi, dan tingkatan
aktivitas ekonomi saat ini dan prakiraannya di masa mendatang
dapat mempengaruhi aktivitas dan keuntungan bisnis, inflasi dan
tingkat suku bunga secara signifikan,
•
Sumber: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/businessactivity.html#ixzz3VwkYR0fI
Definisi-definisi lain
http://kalyan-city.blogspot.com/2011/03/what-is-businessmeaning-definitions.html
• International Business conducts butransactions all over the
world. These transactions include the transfer of goods,
services, technology, managerial knowledge, and capital to
other countries. International business involves exports and
imports.
(Bisnis Internasional melakukan transaksi-transaksi di seluruh
dunia. Transaksi-transaksi ini meliputi pengalihan barangbarang, jasa-jasa, teknologi, pengetahuan manajerial, dan
modal ke negara-negara lain. Bisnis internasional juga
mencakup ekspor dan impor.
• International Business is also known, called or referred as a
Global Business or an International Marketing.
(Bisnis Internasional juga dikenal, disebut atau dirujuk sebagai
suatu Bisnis Global atau Pemasaran Internasional.
Bisnis internasional memiliki banyak
pilihan cara
• Exporting goods and services (Mengekspor barang-barang
dan jasa-jasa).
• Giving license to produce goods in the host country
(Memberikan lisensi untuk memproduksi barang-barang di
negara tuan rumah).
• Starting a joint venture with a company (Melakukan usaha
patungan dengan suatu perusahaan).
• Opening a branch for producing & distributing goods in the
host country (Membuka suatu cabang untuk produksi dan
distribusi barang-barang di negara tuan rumah) .
• Providing managerial services to companies in the host
country (Menyediakan jasa-jasa manajerial terhadap
perusahaan-perusahaan di negara tuan rumah).
•
Large scale operations : In international business, all
the operations are conducted on a very huge scale.
Production and marketing activities are conducted on a
large scale. It first sells its goods in the local market.
Then the surplus goods are exported.
•
Intergration of economies : International business
integrates (combines) the economies of many
countries. This is because it uses finance from one
country, labour from another country, and
infrastructure from another country. It designs the
product in one country, produces its parts in many
different countries and assembles the product in
another country. It sells the product in many countries,
i.e. in the international market.
•
Dominated by developed countries and MNCs : International
business is dominated by developed countries and their
multinational corporations (MNCs). At present, MNCs from USA,
Europe and Japan dominate (fully control) foreign trade. This is
because they have large financial and other resources. They also
have the best technology and research and development (R & D).
They have highly skilled employees and managers because they
give very high salaries and other benefits. Therefore, they
produce good quality goods and services at low prices. This helps
them to capture and dominate the world market.
•
Benefits to participating countries : International business
gives benefits to all participating countries. However, the
developed (rich) countries get the maximum benefits. The
developing (poor) countries also get benefits. They get foreign
capital and technology. They get rapid industrial development.
They get more employment opportunities. All this results in
economic development of the developing countries. Therefore,
developing countries open up their economies through liberal
economic policies.
•
Keen competition : International business has to face keen
(too much) competition in the world market. The competition
is between unequal partners i.e. developed and developing
countries. In this keen competition, developed countries and
their MNCs are in a favourable position because they
produce superior quality goods and services at very low
prices. Developed countries also have many contacts in the
world market. So, developing countries find it very difficult to
face competition from developed countries.
•
Special role of science and technology : International
business gives a lot of importance to science and
technology. Science and Technology (S & T) help the
business to have large-scale production. Developed
countries use high technologies. Therefore, they dominate
global business. International business helps them to
transfer such top high-end technologies to the developing
countries.
•
International restrictions : International business
faces many restrictions on the inflow and outflow
of capital, technology and goods. Many
governments do not allow international businesses
to enter their countries. They have many trade
blocks, tariff barriers, foreign exchange
restrictions, etc. All this is harmful to international
business.
•
Sensitive nature : The international business is
very sensitive in nature. Any changes in the
economic policies, technology, political
environment, etc. has a huge impact on it.
Therefore, international business must conduct m
to find out and study these changes. They must
adjust their business activities and adapt
accordingly to survive changes.
The Importance of International
Business
•
Earn foreign exchange : International business
exports its goods and services all over the world. This
helps to earn valuable foreign exchange. This foreign
exchange is used to pay for imports. Foreign exchange
helps to make the business more profitable and to
strengthen the economy of its country.
•
Optimum utilisation of resources : International
business makes optimum utilisation of resources. This
is because it produces goods on a very large scale for
the international market. International business utilises
resources from all over the world. It uses the finance
and technology of rich countries and the raw materials
and labour of the poor countries.
•
Achieve its objectives : International business
achieves its objectives easily and quickly. The main
objective of an international business is to earn high
profits. This objective is achieved easily. This it
because it uses the best technology. It has the best
employees and managers. It produces high-quality
goods. It sells these goods all over the world. All this
results in high profits for the international business.
•
To spread business risks : International business
spreads its business risk. This is because it does
business all over the world. So, a loss in one country
can be balanced by a profit in another country. The
surplus goods in one country can be exported to
another country. The surplus resources can also be
transferred to other countries. All this helps to minimise
the business risks.
•
Improve organisation's efficiency : International
business has very high organisation efficiency. This is
because without efficiency, they will not be able to face
the competition in the international market. So, they
use all the modern management techniques to
improve their efficiency. They hire the most qualified
and experienced employees and managers. These
people are trained regularly. They are highly motivated
with very high salaries and other benefits such as
international transfers, promotions, etc. All this results
in high organisational efficiency, i.e. low costs and high
returns.
•
Get benefits from Government : International
business brings a lot of foreign exchange for the
country. Therefore, it gets many benefits, facilities and
concessions from the government. It gets many
financial and tax benefits from the government
•
Expand and diversify : International business
can expand and diversify its activities. This is
because it earns very high profits. It also gets
financial help from the government.
•
Increase competitive capacity : International
business produces high-quality goods at low
cost. It spends a lot of money on advertising all
over the world. It uses superior technology,
management techniques, marketing
techniques, etc. All this makes it more
competitive. So, it can fight competition from
foreign companies.
International Business Operations and Influences
External Environment
Objectives
• Sales Expansion
• Resource Acquisition
• Diversification
•Legal
•Historical
•Geographical
•Cultural
•Economical
•Political
Means
Competitive Environment
Operational
Import
Production
Export
Means
Transport
Licensing
Franchising
Management Contract
Turnkey
Direct Investment
Portfolio Investment
Functional
Production
Marketing
Accounting
Finance
Personnel
•Speed of product changes
•Optimum production size
•Number of customers
•Amount bought by each
customers
•Homogeneity of customers
•Local versus international
competitors
•Cost of moving products
•Unique capabilities of
competitors
International Business Operations and
Influences
Sales Expansion
•Number of people
•Purchasing power
•Higher sales, higher profits
•40%foreign sales (UN Study)
Resource Acquisition
Objectives
• Seek foreign products,
• services, components,
• finished goods
•To reduce costs
•Increased profit margin
Diversification
• To avoid wild swings
• different seasons
• different countries
• recession in one country
• recovery in another
International Business Operations and Influences
Means
(Types of International Business)
Operational
MerchandiseExports and Imports
• Visible exports and imports
• Major sources of international revenue and
expenditure for most countries
• The first type of foreign operations of a firm
• Least commitment and least risk of a firm’s
resources
International Business Operations and Influences
Means
(Types of International Business)
Operational
Service Exports and Imports
• invisible exports and imports: many types
• travel, tourism, transportation
• importance revenue for int. airlines, shipping companies,
reservation agencies, and hotels.
• performance of activities abroad
•Banking, insurance, rentals, engineering, management
•turn-key operations
•Management contracts
• use of assets from abroad
•Royalties
•Licensing agreements
•Franchising
•After successfully building exports to a market
•Greater international commitment
International Business Operations and Influences
Means
(Types of International Business)
Operational
Investments
• Direct investments
•Control follows the investment
•High commitment of capital, personal, technology
•Gain of foreign resources
•Higher foreign sales than exporting (often)
•Partial ownership (sometimes)
•Portfolio investments
• Debt or equity
•Non-control of foreign operation
•Financial purposes, e.g. loans
•Move funds to get a higher yield on short-term
•Borrow funds in different countries
International Business Operations and Influences
Means
(Types of International Business)
Functional
Multinational Enterprise
• Worldwide approach to markets and production
• Also known as MNC or TNC
• Usually involved in nearly every type of international business
practice
• integrated global philosophy: domestic and overseas
operations
• definition: production facilities, size
• Two categories of MNE:
• The Global Company: operations from different countries
•The Multidomestic Company: each country’s operations to be
independent.
International Business Operations and Influences
The External Environment
Drawing on Other Disciplines
• Operations in the worldwide environment
• affected by social science disciplines
•Cover all functional fields
• Geography
• location, quantity and quality of the world’s resources and their
availability for exploitation
•History
•A systematic recording of the evaluation of ideas and
institutions
•Looking at the past gives a clearer understanding of
international business activities in the present
•The accumulation of human experience
International Business Operations and Influences
The External Environment
Drawing on Other Disciplines
•Politics
•Play important role in shaping worldwide business
•Relationship between business and national political
organizations
•Behavior patterns of governments and business firms
•Political leadership controls international business
•Law
• domestic and international law determine international
business can and cannot do
•Domestic law in home and host countries
•Taxation, employment, foreign exchange transactions
•Economics
•The impacts of international business on the economy of home
and host countries, and vice versa.
•Anthropology
• understanding the values, attitudes, and beliefs of the society
International Business Operations and Influences
The Competitive Environment
Trends Affecting the Nature of International Competition
• Time and Space Shrinkage
•Technology and Geographic Expansion
•Institutional Developments
•Development of Global Competition
Kontrak Bisnis Internasional
• Definisi Kontrak Internasional
– “are contracts with elements in two or more nation states.
Such contracts may be between states, between a state and
a private party, or exclusively between private parties.”
(Willis Reese)
(kontrak dengan unsur-unsur di dua negara atau lebih.
Kontrak tersebut bisa antara negara dengan pihak swasta,
atau secara eksklusif antar pihak swasta).
– Are national contracts having foreign elements (Sudargo
Gautama)
(Kontrak nasional yang memiliki unsur-unsur asing)
Unidroit Principles
• Kontrak Internasional
– The international character of a contract may be defined in a great
variety of ways.
– The solutions adopted in both national and international legislation
range from a reference to the place of business or habitual
residence of the parties in different countries to the adoption of
more general criteria such as the contract having “significant
connections with more than one State”, “involving a choice
between the laws of different States”, or “affecting the interests of
international trade”.
– Ciri internasional dari suatu kontrak dapat didefinisikan dengan
banyak cara.
– Solusi yang diambil baik dalam legislasi nasional maupun
internasional bervariasi mulai dari yang mengacu kepada tempat
kedudukan bisnis atau tempat tinggal para pihak di negara-negara
yang berbeda sampai yang mengacu kepada kriteria-kriteria yang
lebih umum seperti kontrak memiliki “hubungan yang signifikan
dengan lebih dari satu negara”, “melibatkan pilihan hukum dari
negara-negara yang berbeda,” atau “mempengaruhi kepentingankepentingan perdagangan internasional.”
Kontrak (Bisnis) Internasional
• Indikator-indikator kontrak internasional (Huala
Adolf):
1. Kebangsaan yang berbeda;
2. Para pihak memiliki domisili hukum di negara yang
berbeda;
3. Hukum yang dipilih adalah hukum asing, termasuk aturanaturan atau prinsip-prinsip kontrak internasional terhadap
kontrak tersebut;
4. Penyelesaian sengketa kontrak dilangsungkan di luar
negeri;
5. Pelaksanaan kontrak tersebut di luar negeri;
6. Kontrak tersebut ditandatangani di luar negeri;
7. Objek kontrak di luar negeri;
8. Bahasa yang digunakan dalam kontrak adalah bahasa
asing, dan
9. Digunakannya mata uang asing di dalam kontrak tersebut.
Bisnis atau Komersial
• the concept of “commercial” contracts should be understood
in the broadest possible sense,
• so as to include not only trade transactions for the supply or
exchange of goods or services,
• but also other types of economic transactions, such as
investment and/or concession agreements, contracts for
professional services, etc. (Unidroit Principles)
• Konsep kontrak “komersial” hendaknya difahami dalam
pengertian seluas mungkin,
• Sehingga mencakup tidak hanya transaksi-transaksi
perdagangan untuk memasok atau mempertukarkan barangbarang atau jasa-jasa saja,
• tapi mencakup juga jenis-jenis transaksi ekonomi yang lain,
seperti perjanjian-perjanjian investasi dan/atau konsesi,
kontrak-kontrak untuk jasa-jasa profesional, dll. (Unidroit
Principles).
Prinsip-prinsip Hukum Kontrak
Internasional
• Prinsip-prinsip Fundamental
– Prinsip Supremasi/Kedaulatan Hukum Nasional
– Prinsip Kebebasan Berkontrak
• Prinsip-prinsip Hukum Kontrak Internasional
– Pacta Sunt Servanda
– Good Faith (Iktikad Baik)
• Dalam Sistem Hukum Kontinental
• Dalam Sistem Common Law
• Dalam Perjanjian Internasional
– Resiprocal (Resiprositas)
Prinsip-prinsip Kontrak Bisnis
Internasional (Unidroit Principles)
• (Freedom of contract)
– The parties are free to enter into a contract
– and to determine its content.
• (No form required)
– Nothing in these Principles requires a
• contract to be concluded in or evidenced by
writing.
• It may be proved by any means, including
witnesses.
• (Binding character of contract)
– A contract validly entered into is binding
upon the parties.
– It can only be modified or terminated in
accordance with its terms or by agreement
or as otherwise provided in these
Principles.
• (Mandatory rules)
– Nothing in these Principles shall restrict the
application of mandatory rules, whether of
national, international or supranational origin,
– which are applicable in accordance with the
relevant rules of private international law.
• Interpretation and supplementation of the Principles)
– (1) In the interpretation of these Principles, regard
is to be had to their international character and to
their purposes including the need to promote
uniformity in their application.
– (2) Issues within the scope of these Principles but
not expressly settled by them are as far as
possible to be settled in accordance with their
underlying general principles.
• (Good faith and fair dealing)
– (1) Each party must act in accordance with good
faith and fair dealing in international trade.
– (2) The parties may not exclude or limit this duty.
• (Usages and practices)
– (1) The parties are bound by any usage to which
they have agreed and by any practices which they
have established between themselves.
– (2) The parties are bound by a usage that is widely
known to and regularly observed in international
trade by parties in the particular trade concerned
except where the application of such a usage
would be unreasonable.
• (Notice)
– (1) Where notice is required it may be given by
any means appropriate to the circumstances.
– (2) A notice is effective when it reaches the
person to whom it is given.
– (3) For the purpose of paragraph (2) a notice
“reaches” a person when given to that person
orally or delivered at that person’s place of
business or mailing address.
– (4) For the purpose of this article “notice”
includes a declaration, demand, request or any
other communication of intention.
• (Definitions)
– In these Principles:
– “court” includes an arbitral tribunal;
– where a party has more than one place of business the
relevant “place of business” is that
• which has the closest relationship to the contract
• and its performance, having regard to the
• circumstances known to or contemplated by the
• parties at any time before or at the conclusion of
• the contract;
– “obligor” refers to the party who is to
• perform an obligation and “obligee” refers to the party
who is entitled to performance of that
• obligation.
– “writing” means any mode of
• communication that preserves a record of the information contained therein and is capable of being
reproduced in tangible form.
UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON
CONTRACTS FOR THE INTERNATIONAL SALE
OF GOODS (1980)
Konvensi ini mengatur Kontrak-kontrak bisnis yang obyeknya
barang –barang antara para pihak di negara-negara yang menjadi
anggota konvensi ini,.
Konvesi ini dapat menggantikan hukum nasional negarara-negara
anggotanya dalam konteks internasional.
Kapan Konvensi ini Diterapkan?
Jual beli barang antara para pihak di negara-negara anggota atau
“contracting states.”
Jika hanya satu pihak yang berasal dari negara anggota, CISG
tidak berlaku , kecuali kalau kedua pihak yang berkontrak sepakat
untuk menerapkan konvensi tersebut.
Contracting States
Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia,
Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Burundi, Canada, Chile, China,
Kirghizstan, Croatia, Cuba, The Czech Republic,
Denmark, Ecuador, Egypt, Switzerland, Estonia,
Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Ghana, Greece,
Guinea, Iraq, Italy, Yugoslavia, Latvia, Lesotho,
Lithuania, Luxembourg, Mauritania, Mexico, Moldova,
Mongolia, Norway, New Zealand, Holland, Peru,
Poland, Romania, Russia, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia,
Spain, Syria, Sweden, USA, Ukraine, Uganda, Uruguay,
Uzbekistan, Venezuela, Zambia
Apakah CISG “Hukum”?
• Ya, jika:
• Para pihak setuju memposisikan konvemsi ini
sebagai hukum yang mengikat.
• Para pihak memilih untuk memberlakukan
konvensi ini melalui bahasa atau klausula
kontrak..
• Jika ada pilihan hukum lain, CISG tidak berlaku.
Sebaliknya jika pilihan hukumnya merujuk pada
CISG, maka kedua pihak harus Setuju.
PREAMBLE
Part I. Sphere of application and general provisions
CHAPTER I. SPHERE OF APPLICATION
CHAPTER II. GENERAL PROVISIONS
Part II. Formation of the contract
Part III. Sale of goods
CHAPTER I. GENERAL PROVISIONS
CHAPTER II. OBLIGATIONS OF THE SELLER
Section I. Delivery of the goods and handing over of documents
Section II. Conformity of the goods and third party claims
Section III. Remedies for breach of contract by the seller
CHAPTER III. OBLIGATIONS OF THE BUYER
Section I. Payment of the price
Section II. Taking delivery
Section III. Remedies for breach of contract by the buyer
CHAPTER IV. PASSING OF RISK
CHAPTER V. PROVISIONS COMMON TO THE OBLIGATIONS OF
THE SELLER AND OF THE BUYER
Section I. Anticipatory breach and instalment contracts
Section II. Damages
Section III. Interest
Section IV. Exemptions
Section V. Effects of avoidance
Section VI. Preservation of the goods
Part IV. Final provisions
EXPLANATORY NOTE BY THE UNCITRAL SECRETARIAT ON THE UNITED
NATIONS CONVENTION ON CONTRACTS FOR THE INTERNATIONAL SALE OF
GOODS
PREAMBLE
Part One. Scope of application and general provisions
Scope of application
A. Party autonomy
B. Interpretation of the Convention
C. Interpretation of the contract; usages
D. Form of the contract
Part Two. Formation of the contract
Part Three. Sale of goods
A. Obligations of the seller
B. Obligations of the buyer
C. Remedies for breach of contract
D. Passing of risk
E. Suspension of performance and anticipatory breach
F. Exemption from liability to pay damages
G. Preservation of the goods
Part Four. Final clauses
UNIDROIT
International Institute for the Unification of Private Law
PRINCIPLES OF INTERNATIONAL COMMERCIAL CONTRACTS 1994
These Principles set forth general rules for international commercial
contracts.
They shall be applied when the parties have agreed that their
contract be governed by them.
They may be applied when the parties have agreed that their contract
be governed by “general principles of law”, the “lex mercatoria” or the
like.
They may provide a solution to an issue raised when it proves
impossible to establish the relevant rule of the applicable law.
They may be used to interpret or supplement international uniform
law instruments.
They may serve as a model for national and international legislators.
CONTENTS
Foreword v
Introduction vii
The UNIDROIT Governing Council xi
Members of the Working Group xiii
Other Participants in the Project xv
PREAMBLE (Purpose of the Principles) 1
CHAPTER 1: GENERAL PROVISIONS 7
Article 1.1 (Freedom of contract) 7
Article 1.2 (No form required) 8
Article 1.3 (Binding character of contract) 9
Article 1.4 (Mandatory rules) 10
Article 1.5 (Exclusion or modification by the parties) 12
Article 1.6 (Interpretation and supplementation of the Principles) 13
Article 1.7 (Good faith and fair dealing) 16
Article 1.8 (Usages and practices) 19
Article 1.9 (Notice) 22
Article 1.10 (Definitions) 24
CHAPTER 2: FORMATION 26
Article 2.1 (Manner of formation) 26
Article 2.2 (Definition of offer) 27
Article 2.3 (Withdrawal of offer) 29
Article 2.4 (Revocation of offer) 30
Article 2.5 (Rejection of offer) 33
Article 2.6 (Mode of acceptance) 34
Article 2.7 (Time of acceptance) 37
Article 2.8 (Acceptance within a fixed period of time) 38
Article 2.9 (Late acceptance. Delay in transmission) 39
Article 2.10 (Withdrawal of acceptance) 40
Article 2.11 (Modified acceptance) 41
Article 2.12 (Writings in confirmation) 43
Article 2.13 (Conclusion of contract dependent on agreement on
specific matters or in a specific form) 45
Article 2.14 (Contract with terms deliberately left open) 47
Article 2.15 (Negotiations in bad faith) 50
Article 2.16 (Duty of confidentiality) 52
Article 2.17 (Merger clauses) 54
Article 2.18 (Written modification clauses) 55
Article 2.19 (Contracting under standard terms) 56
Article 2.20 (Surprising terms) 58
Article 2.21 (Conflict between standard terms and non-standard terms) 60
Article 2.22 (Battle of forms)
CHAPTER 3: VALIDITY 64
Article 3.1 (Matters not covered) 64
Article 3.2 (Validity of mere agreement) 64
Article 3.3 (Initial impossibility) 66
Article 3.4 (Definition of mistake) 68
Article 3.5 (Relevant mistake) 69
Article 3.6 (Error in expression or transmission) 72
Article 3.7 (Remedies for non-performance) 73
Article 3.8 (Fraud) 74 Article 3.9 (Threat) 75
Article 3.10 (Gross disparity) 77
Article 3.11 (Third persons) 80
Article 3.12 (Confirmation) 81
Article 3.13 (Loss of right to avoid) 81
Article 3.14 (Notice of avoidance) 83
Article 3.15 (Time limits) 84
Article 3.16 (Partial avoidance) 85
Article 3.17 (Retroactive effect of avoidance) 86
Article 3.18 (Damages) 87
Article 3.19 (Mandatory character of the provisions) 88
Article 3.20 (Unilateral declarations) 88
CHAPTER 4: INTERPRETATION 90
Article 4.1 (Intention of the parties) 90
Article 4.2 (Interpretation of statements and other conduct) 91
Article 4.3 (Relevant circumstances) 93
Article 4.4 (Reference to contract or statement as a whole) 95
Article 4.5 (All terms to be given effect) 96
Article 4.6 (Contra proferentem rule) 97
Article 4.7 (Linguistic discrepancies) 98
Article 4.8 (Supplying an omitted term) 99
CHAPTER 5: CONTENT 101
Article 5.1 (Express and implied obligations) 101
Article 5.2 (Implied obligations) 101
Article 5.3 (Co-operation between the parties) 102
Article 5.4 (Duty to achieve a specific result. Duty of best efforts) 103
Article 5.5 (Determination of kind of duty involved) 105
Article 5.6 (Determination of quality of performance) 108
Article 5.7 (Price determination) 109
Article 5.8 (Contract for an indefinite period) 111
CHAPTER 6: PERFORMANCE 113
Section 1: Performance in General 113
Article 6.1.1 (Time of performance) 113
Article 6.1.2 (Performance at one time or in instalments) 114
Article 6.1.3 (Partial performance) 115
Article 6.1.4 (Order of performance) 117
Article 6.1.5 (Earlier performance) 119
Article 6.1.6 (Place of performance) 121
Article 6.1.7 (Payment by cheque or other instrument) 124
Article 6.1.8 (Payment by funds transfer) 125
Article 6.1.9 (Currency of payment) 127
Article 6.1.10 (Currency not expressed) 130
Article 6.1.11 (Costs of performance) 131
Article 6.1.12 (Imputation of payments) 131
Article 6.1.13 (Imputation of non-monetary obligations) 133
Article 6.1.14 (Application for public permission) 133
Article 6.1.15 (Procedure in applying for permission) 138
Article 6.1.16 (Permission neither granted nor refused) 141
Article 6.1.17 (Permission refused) 143
Section 2: Hardship 145
Article 6.2.1 (Contract to be observed) 145
Article 6.2.2 (Definition of hardship) 146
Article 6.2.3 (Effects of hardship) 151
CHAPTER 7: NON-PERFORMANCE 156
Section 1: Non-performance in general 156
Article 7.1.1 (Non-performance defined) 156
Article 7.1.2 (Interference by the other party) 157
Article 7.1.3 (Withholding performance) 158
Article 7.1.4 (Cure by non-performing party) 159
Article 7.1.5 (Additional period for performance) 163
Article 7.1.6 (Exemption clauses) 166
Article 7.1.7 (Force majeure) 169
Section 2: Right to performance 172
Article 7.2.1 (Performance of monetary obligation) 172
Article 7.2.2 (Performance of non-monetary obligation) 172
Article 7.2.3 (Repair and replacement of defective performance) 176
Article 7.2.4 (Judicial penalty) 178 Article 7.2.5 (Change of remedy) 180
Section 3: Termination 182
Article 7.3.1 (Right to terminate the contract) 182
Article 7.3.2 (Notice of termination) 185
Article 7.3.3 (Anticipatory non-performance) 187
Article 7.3.4 (Adequate assurance of due performance) 188
Article 7.3.5 (Effects of termination in general) 189
Article 7.3.6 (Restitution) 190
Section 4: Damages 194
Article 7.4.1 (Right to damages) 194
Article 7.4.2 (Full compensation) 195
Article 7.4.3 (Certainty of harm) 198
Article 7.4.4 (Foreseeability of harm) 200
Article 7.4.5 (Proof of harm in case of replacement transaction) 201
Article 7.4.6 (Proof of harm by current price) 203
Article 7.4.7 (Harm due in part to aggrieved party) 204
Article 7.4.8 (Mitigation of harm) 206
Article 7.4.9 (Interest for failure to pay money) 208
Article 7.4.10 (Interest on damages) 210
Article 7.4.11 (Manner of monetary redress) 211
Article 7.4.12 (Currency in which to assess damages) 212
Article 7.4.13 (Agreed payment for non-performance) 213
Index 217
Annex: Text of the Articles of the Principles of International Commercial
Contracts 233