In addition to the editorials and essays at the end of
Chapters 8 and 9, newspaper and magazine editorials
will be used on timely issues affecting you as students.
You, the student, will become accustomed to practicing
critical reading skills with reading from the everyday
world. You will also participate in interactive activities
surrounding issues affecting you in your daily life.
Reading Critically
Chapter 8 Elements of Critical
Reading—Analyzing Arguments
Chapter 9 Problems in Critical
Reading—Evaluating Arguments
Chapter 10 Practical Applications in
Evaluating Arguments
In this chapter, the first of three chapters dealing with reading
critically, you will learn to identify and to analyze claims and
evidence in arguments, building on the analytical skills
developed in Parts 1, 2, and 3. The readings in Part 4 represent
arguments concerning various issues and express a particular
point of view; they come from newspaper and magazine
editorials, letters to the editor, political speeches, cartoons, and
websites.
Objectives:
A definition of critical reading
The reader’s responsibilities
Developing a worldview
Analyzing the structure of arguments
Analyzing visual images
Critical reading is the most deliberate and
thorough kind of reading. It goes beyond literal
and inferential comprehension.
It means judging, evaluating, weighing the
writer’s words carefully, and applying your
reasoning powers.
It requires keeping an open mind and
developing a healthy skepticism, not accepting
unquestioningly what you read just because it is
in print, but also not rejecting ideas simply
because they are different from your beliefs….
It means judging the legitimacy of the
argument, as well as its accuracy, fairness,
reliability, and larger significance.
It involves detecting fallacious arguments,
whether from deliberate manipulation, deceptive
appeals to emotion, logical fallacies (errors in
reasoning), or bias.
Critical reading extends to visual material and
increasingly to material on the World Wide Web.
 Terrorist attacks and invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq
changed our perceptions about ourselves and the world’s
perceptions of the United States.
 Globalization has produced more intertwined cultures
The world seems somehow more
complicated
Our confidence has
been undermined.
Global warming
 Urban homelessness
 immigration

So much information is available today, from
both traditional and electronic sources, that
keeping up with the issues seems daunting.
A democratic society imposes responsibility on
its citizens. Being informed and safeguarding
our right to question seem to be the most crucial
responsibilities.
 The reader’s task = to read carefully and thoughtfully
Analyzing the writer’s use of evidence and logic
The writer’s task = to be convincing and to give fair
evidence in support of an argument and to adhere to the
rules of logic
Being lazy is the #1 cause for being a poor
reader!
We may misinterpret…
We may not take the trouble to read carefully
We may be too lazy to look up important words.
We may skim through an article or editorial instead of
reading it carefully because we already know the author’s
point of view or, don’t agree
Being lazy is the #1 cause for being a poor
reader!
We may let prejudice, bias, narrow personal experience,
or parochial values interfere with a clear-headed
appraisal.
Critical readers try—insofar as it is humanly possible—
to suspend their biases and personal prejudices so that
they do not interfere with accurate comprehension.
However…
the evidence might not stand up to
scrutiny!
Being lazy is the #1 cause for being a poor
reader!
http://www.scientificpsychic.com/graphics/
A willingness to see events from another
perspective is an essential component of the
intellectual experience, and it is best developed
during the college years when you are exposed
to a range of political, social, and philosophical
ideas.
Uncovering our beliefs helps us interpret
both what we read and the world around
us.
ethnocentrism
superiority
It’s my way or
NO way!!!
Our worldview undergoes constant change as part
of the educational process afforded by contact
with the intellectual world and with the everyday
world.
Too often, however, we
are content to hang on
to untested opinions
because examining
other viewpoints is too
much trouble
Our opinions are
comfortable and
provide us with a
ready-made set of
beliefs that may be
sufficient for day-today life experiences
To determine your worldview,
begin by questioning why you
think the way you do.
upbringing
Becoming an independent
thinker involves developing
one’s own worldview
http://www.gallup.com/poll/113980/gallup-daily-obama-job-approval.aspx
Bullfighting is a popular spectacle in Mexico, Latin America,
and, of course, Spain, where it originated. (Bullfights also take
place in the south of France and in Portugal, but in these
countries the bull is not killed.) The practice is illegal in the
United States, and in 2007, television stations in Spain
stopped broadcasting live bullfights to protect children from
seeing the violence associated with them. First, answer these
questions on paper. Doing so will force you to clarify your
thinking.
• What do you know/think about bullfighting?
• Do you consider bullfighting to be a sport or an art form?
• What is your opinion based on? Have you ever seen a
bullfight on TV or in the movies?
• Have you ever attended a bullfight? If so, what were your
reactions? Would you attend another? Why or why not?
• If your answer above was “no,” would you ever attend a
bullfight? Why or why not?
• Do you believe bullfighting is cruel?
• Should bullfighting be banned in countries where it is legal?
• Is a bull an intelligent, sensitive animal in the same way that,
say, a dog is?
Now, read the two articles.
 The first article is by political writer Christopher Matthews, who
describes a bullfight he attended in Barcelona in 1995.
 The second reading is by linguist Robert Lado who examines
the cultural misperceptions of bullfighting.
 Which, if any, of these two passages corresponds to your
point of view? Compare the notes you made at the
beginning of this section with your current thoughts. Did
any of the material you read persuade you to alter your
previously held opinion?
Are we forced to change our opinion
because we believe differently than
others???
To what extent is our perception of our status in the world and our
worldview influenced by its geography or by the image we have in
our minds by its geographical position?
2. Comment on the difference in the two maps with
regard to the position of the United States in the Western
Hemisphere and in the world, particularly in relation to
the continents of Asia and Africa.
3. How might the second map affect one’s perception of America’s size and
influence in the world?
4. Does studying the first map in any way change your worldview with regard to
America’s role as the dominant superpower in world affairs?
The claim (also called the thesis or
proposition)—the writer’s main idea or point
Evidence--supports the claim
A refutation, sometimes called the
concession—the writer’s discussion of opposing
viewpoints
A conclusion, a restatement of the claim or a
recommendation for future action
Claim + evidence + refutation + conclusion
Claim +
evidence +
refutation >
conclusion
How do you judge what is worth believing?
The writer should have some
Evaluating the writer as an
competence or expertise in the
area; in other words, he or she
should be considered an
authority .
The central claim —the
argument or proposition —
should be clearly stated or at
least clearly implied.
interpretation (like amnesty,
hero, torture, censorship, civil
war).
authority
Identifying the type of claim
Stating the claim or
argument in a sentence
Key words should be
Ascertaining any unstated
defined in clear and
unambiguous language,
especially abstract words
open to subjective The
supporting evidence should
be logically organized,
relevant to the main idea,
and sufficient to support the
claim credibly.
Moreover, the discussion
should appeal to our
intelligence and to our reason,
not solely to our emotions.
assumptions
Evaluating the supporting
evidence
Ideally, the persuasive writer
Locating the refutation, if
should include a refutation ,
also called the
counterargument, in which
he or she examines one or
two of the opposition’s
strongest arguments and
disproves them.
one is present
Evaluating the writer as an authority
The Question of Authority
When a writer establishes his credibility
(or, at least, the reason for his interest in
the subject), we can deem the information
reliable.
Some of the people cited in the exercise are authorities; some
are not. Write “A” in the space if the person appears to be an
authority on the particular subject. If the person appears not
to be an authority, write “N.” If you are unsure, write a
question mark. Try to justify each answer.
1. Larry Sabato, professor of political science at the University of
Virginia and director of UVA’s Center for Politics, comments
on the 2008 presidential race. His newest book is titled A More
Perfect Constitution .
A
2. Colby Buzzell, who served in the U.S. Army for several months
in Iraq, wrote a well-known blog about his experiences there:
http://cbftw.blogspot.com/ . His blog postings were subsequently
published in a book, My War: Killing Time in Iraq .
A
3. Ernie Goldthorpe, a community college English teacher,
criticized America’s military presence in Iraq in a letter to the
editor of the New York Times .
N
4. George Abraham Thampy, a twelve-year-old boy who,
along with his siblings, has been home-schooled all his life,
writes on the virtues of home schooling.
A
5. Tom Colicchio, chef-owner of three New York City
restaurants—Gramercy Tavern, Craft, and ’Wichcraft—and
Craftsteak in LasVegas, winner of the James Beard Best
New Restaurant award in 2002, serves as the head judge on
Bravo’s reality TV program Top Chef .
A
6. Writer of thriller novels, Michael Crichton, was trained as a
medical doctor. He considers global warming an unproven
theory and argues that the threat from global warming has
been overstated.
N
7. Tom Cruise, actor and Scientology member, as a guest on
Oprah , pronounced psychiatry to be a “pseudoscience” and
said that there is no such thing as a chemical imbalance in
the brain that would require antidepressants.
N
8. Louis Freeh, former director of the FBI, explained the
mechanical failures that caused the crash of a TWA jet off
Long Island in 1997.
N
9. Allen Olivo, an employee at Yahoo!, who commutes daily
from Half Moon Bay to Sunnyvale, California, wrote a letter to
the Half Moon Bay Review with suggestions about how to
improve traffic congestion during the daily commute.
A
10. Cynthia Tucker, an African-American journalist and editor
of the Atlanta Journal and Constitution opinion page, writes
about race issues in America.
A
11. Florence Henderson, the TV actress best known for
playing Carol Brady on The Brady Bunch, advertises a new
anti-aging cosmetic on a TV infomercial.
N
12. Former rapper and manufacturer of a line of men’s
clothing,P. Diddy Combs, comments on fashion trends for
black urban males.
A
13. John R. Lott, Jr., a fellow at the University of Chicago
Law School and author of More Guns, Less Crime , writes on
common myths associated with gun-control laws.
A
14. Deepak Chopra, author of many self-help books and
consciousness-raising guru, discusses the child molestation
scandals in the Catholic Church on Larry King Live .
N
15. Cornell University economist Michael Waldman has
published his theory that TV watching has led to increased
incidence of childhood autism. The theory results from his
observation that when it rained or snowed a lot in
Washington, Oregon, and California, children were more
likely to be diagnosed with autism. He explains the theory by
saying that children watch more TV during bad weather.
?
16. Former First Lady Laura Bush in 2004 said this in
response to Democratic presidential candidate John Kerry’s
promise to fund stem cell research: “We don’t even know that
stem cell research will provide cures for anything—much less
that it’s very close . . . I hope that stem cell research will yield
cures. But I know that embryonic stem cell research is very
preliminary right now, and the implication that cures for
Alzheimer’s are around the corner is just not right, and it’s
really not fair to people who are watching a loved one suffer
with this disease.”
(Quoted in Ron Fournier, “Laura Bush Raps Kerry over Stem
Cell Debate,” Associated Press, August 10, 2004) 4
N
Identifying Claims
The proof is in the pudding!
Claims can be divided into 3 types:
Claims of fact
1st
Proven by citing factual
evidence or by results of
scientific research
Identifying Claims
Claims of value Harder to prove because
2nd
they are based on
matters of taste,
morality, opinion, and
ideas about right and
wrong
Identifying Claims
Claims of policy
3rd
Indicate a course of
action, a proposal for
change, or a problem
that requires a remedy
which can be
supported by citing
good reasons
Label each of these arguments according to whether it
represents a claim of fact, value, or policy.
1. English 100 improved my writing skills.
fact
2. All college freshmen should be required to take English
100.
policy
3. English 100 is a more challenging and useful course than
English 50.
.
value
4. The abortion rate in the United States has been declining in
recent years.
fact
5. Public libraries ought not to censor Internet sites for their
patrons.
policy
6. To reduce air pollution, the government should require
SUVs to meet the same emission standards as automobiles
rather than as light trucks.
policy
7. The fi rst movie in the trilogy starring Johnny Depp, Pirates
of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl , has the best
plot and the best action sequences.
value
8. As Dolly the sheep revealed, cloned animals are more
susceptible to illness and genetic defects than ordinary
animals.
fact
9. Making homosexual marriage legal is the mark of an
advanced society concerned about guaranteeing equal
protection under the law for all citizens.
value
10. A marriage between gays permitted in one state like
Massachusetts should not be recognized in other states.
policy
11. Animal acts in circuses constitute a barbaric type of
entertainment.
value
12. To quell critics who claim that animals are mistreated,
many circuses are abandoning their traditional animal acts.
fact
Identifying Claims in Editorials
Claims do not appear in isolation.
Claims may be in 3 most likely positions:
1. At the very beginning—resulting in
a. . . .
2. In a sentence immediately after
the introduction or “hook”
Deductive
argument
Funnel pattern
3. At the very end . . .
inductive argument
In this next exercise you are asked to locate and isolate the
claim. Reprinted here are the beginning portions of six
representative opinion pieces one might encounter in
newspapers or periodicals.
First, identify the type of claim (fact, value, or policy). If the
passage seems to straddle two types of claims,
Next, list the dominant claim as the primary claim and the other
as the secondary claim.
Finally, write a sentence stating the writer’s claim or argument in
your own words. Do not include any evidence or support in your
argument sentence.
A.
Type of claim: value
Argument: For Oregon public schools to limit their foreignlanguage offerings to Spanish would be an educational travesty.
B.
Type of claim: policy; secondary claim—fact
Argument: Don’t go to Hawaii on your vacation.
C.
Type of claim: fact
Argument: American corporations are ignoring consumer
complaints.
D.
Type of claim: claim of policy; secondary claim—value
Argument: Teachers must have the authority to physically
remove unruly children who disrupt learning (policy); it’s wrong for
students to disrupt learning with impunity (value)
E.
Type of claim: fact
Argument: In this Age of Uncertainty, we can no longer
assume that science will find a way to prevent the avian fl u from
spreading to human populations.
F.
Type of claim: primary claim—value; secondary claim—
policy
Argument Because of athletes’ bad behavior and poor
graduation rates, big-time college sports are in terrible shape.
Secondary argument: Big-time college sports need serious
reform.
G.
Type of claim: value; secondary claim—fact
Argument: It’s hypocritical for the United States to
complain about unhealthy products imported from China when
the typical fare in fast-food restaurants is unhealthy, too (value);
American fast food is unhealthy (fact).
An assumption is a seemingly self-evident belief underlying
the argument.
The Toulmin method > a
warrant — an assumption that
justifies the claim and connects it to the evidence.
In other words, a warrant = guarantee that the evidence
supports the claim and sometimes the assumptions are
stated explicitly.
Critical reading is required when we may not share the
same thoughts as the writer and need to figure out what is
assumed equally.
When the assumptions are not explicitly stated and the writer
assumes that we share them, critical reading requires us to
separate them from the argument.
Go to p. 307 and read the examples beginning at the top of
the page.
What is happening? What is the position being presented?
Both positions rest on the assumption (or warrant) that embryos
constitutes “life” (Bush) and “young lives” (Brownback). Do you
accept this assumption? If you do, then you can accept the
argument; if not, then you can reject it. There is no right or wrong
answer to this question; the answer depends both on one’s
worldview and on one’s definition of what constitutes “life.”
To ascertain unstated assumptions, you should ask these three
questions:
1. For whom is the writer writing?
2. What allegiances does the writer seem to have?
3. Does he or she appear to favor one group over another?
Who would benefit from our accepting the argument?
Unstated assumptions in persuasive writing are not necessarily bad or
manipulative. In fact, they are necessary if the argument is not to bog
down into mind-numbing tedium, the certain result if a writer spelled out
every idea underlying the discussion. In other words, they represent a
kind of shorthand. However, if the assumptions are invalid or if they
don’t accord with your thinking, then you do not have to accept the
argument.
The Importance of Definition in
Arguments
Good critical readers know that they must
subject the definitions in arguments to the
same scrutiny that they subject misstated
assumptions.
When you find that an argument includes a
definition that you don’t think holds up to
careful scrutiny, consider the motive of the
person or group offering that definition.
Study these arguments. Then write down at least one
assumption that underlies the discussion.
Read quickly the first one which is done for you in order to get
the idea of what you are doing and then go on to #2.
2. Many parents prefer to educate their children at home so
that they can enter college at a younger age than their peers
who attend traditional schools.
Unstated assumption: Attending college at a younger age is
desirable.
3. Vegans follow a healthy diet. They eat only fruits,
vegetables, and nuts. No animal products are allowed.
Unstated assumption: Eating animal products is unhealthy.
4. The unusual special effects in the 2003 movie Lord of the
Rings: The Return of the King make it an especially good
movie.
Unstated assumption: Unusual special effects make a
movie good.
5. You ought to buy a copy of A Thousand Splendid Suns by
Khaled Hosseini. It was on the New York Times ’ bestseller
list for several weeks.
Unstated assumption: If a book is popular (or on the New
York Times bestseller list), it must be good.
6. A college English teacher asked her students to read a
nonfiction book and write a critique of it. One student chose
Truman Capote’s In Cold Blood, but the instructor rejected the
choice, saying that a made-for-TV movie based on the book
was going to be aired in the next few days. The teacher
thought that the student would simply watch the movie
and not read the book.
Unstated assumption: Students will cheat if they think they
can get away with it. Students are lazy and will look for the
easy way out.
7. Of course, the best teachers should make the most money.
If students perform well, their teachers should be rewarded
under a “pay-for-performance” system.
Unstated assumption: Students’ test scores are an
indication of their teachers’ performance. Teachers have more
influence over their students’ academic performance than
their parents do. Teacher pay should be tied to their students’
test scores.
8. Marriage should be restricted to a union between a man
and a woman. Marriage was intended as a foundation for
procreation and for the raising of children.
Unstated assumption: Only a man and a woman satisfy
these requirements.
9. Advertising slogan for Stetson’s Men’s Cologne: “What man
has never been a cowboy?”
Unstated assumption: All men have the desire to be
cowboys.
10. The government should not require food producers to list
evidence of health claims on their labels, nor provide
warnings about possible hazards in eating their products.
Unstated assumption: Consumers aren’t interested in such
information. If they are interested, they can do the research
themselves.
11. The United States invaded Iraq in 2003 to establish an
American-style democracy in the country, which would serve
as a model for other Middle Eastern countries.
Unstated assumption: Democracy in the American style is a
desirable form of government. It is possible to impose
democracy on a foreign nation.
12. Halloween should be banned. It’s nothing more than a
celebration of Satanism.
Unstated assumption: Satanism—a worship of the devil and
of evil practices—is at the heart of the Halloween tradition.
Children will be led down the path toward evil if they are
allowed to celebrate the holiday.
What is meant by the term evidence in a critical reading
class?
It refers to information or support used
to back up a claim.
In Ch. 4 you studied paragraph development and how each
type of paragraph was different than the others and that there
was a purpose to its development for the effect the author
wanted to develop.
Here are the common ones:
 Facts, statistics, including survey or poll results
 Examples and illustrations from observation, personal
experience, or reading
 Good reasons (part of the cause-effect pattern)
 Historical analysis or citing of precedents from history
 Testimony of experts and authorities in the field
 Analogy
In judging the worth of an argument,
First annotate the main supporting points in
the margin.
Then ask if the evidence is relevant to the
claim
If it is sufficient to persuade you to accept the
claim.
If the writer uses statistics, are they current?
Is the source of the statistics provided?
Examine these excerpts from editorials and opinion
pieces. First, write a sentence stating the writer’s
argument. Then identify the type(s) of evidence used to
support the claim.
Argument:
Type(s) of evidence:
Argument: Restricting ads for unhealthy foods to
children will help stem the childhood obesity crisis.
Type(s) of evidence: examples, testimony (quotation)
from experts, good reasons
Argument: Congress’s recent corporate tax bill reveals a
shocking indifference to the massive national debt.
Type(s) of evidence: analogy
Argument: Unlike past wars, the richer, educated
classes as well as the sons of members of Congress
shared the burden of war, but today, in Iraq this is not the
case.
Type(s) of evidence: Testimony (quotations), statistics,
historical precedent (contrasting the past and the
present)
A section in the editorial or opinion piece
that anticipates the opposition and offers a
counterargument.
the concession
What is its purpose?
The refutation forces the writer to
consider differing viewpoints and to
explain where the opposition falls short.
A good work will have the refutation and it
will not be missing.
Read the passage by John McCalin and
Lieberman beginning on p. 313-315.
Then, can you find the sentence that
indicates the beginning of the refutation?
What argument are the senators
refuting?
Finally, list the two points the senators
make in their refutation.
Then, can you find the sentence that
indicates the beginning of the refutation?
“This reasoning is flawed for several
reasons.”
What argument are the senators
refuting?
The argument from antiwar advocates
who demanded an immediate withdrawal
of American troops from Iraq.
Finally, list the two points the senators
make in their refutation.
(1) A retreat will undo the gains that have
been made and will not shock the Iraqis
into reconciling the opposing parties.
(2) The increased presence of American
troops (the “surge”) is having an effect on
Iraq’s politics at the local level.
Photographs, illustrations, charts, and
graphs reinforce the message and help us learn.
Charts
Graphs
show changes over
time or how different
items relate to one
another
Graphs and charts compress data into manageable,
comprehensible visual form; they allow us to see trends, statistics,
and connections between pieces of information.
1. Graphs
2. Tables
3. Diagrams
4. Illustrations
Category
Bar graphs, line graphs, pictographs,
pie charts/circle graphs
Multirow and column matrices
Venn diagrams, flowcharts, timelines,
maps, process charts
Photos, drawings, art work
When evaluating any of these visual aids, start by
considering these elements:
• What is the title or subject of the graph or chart?
• What relationships or trends does the graph or chart
show?
• Is the chart or graph accompanied by an illustration?
Then consider the data provided in the graph:
What years does the data cover? Is it recent enough to be
reliable?
• Does the data seem complete? Are there any obvious
gaps? For example, are any years or relevant groups
missing?
• What is the source of the data? Does the source have an
agenda to promote or is it impartial?
• Does the graph or chart support the point the text is trying
to make?
Pie Charts/Circle Graphs
 Used to illustrate the ratio of the values of a category to
the total.
 The whole pie, or circle, represents 10-0% when
percentages are used or the total number of “units” when
another measurement is used.
 Each segment is labeled to show its relative value


The most important piece is typically placed at the twelve
o’clock position
The rest are arranged clockwise in a logical order such as
size.
http://www.buzzle.com/articles/circle-graphs.html
Stacked Bar Graphs
 Effective when the author wants you to concentrate
on component parts of a total.
Study the chart on p. 317.
1. What is the chart intended to show?
2. Taken together, do McDonald’s
competitors constitute more than 50
percent of the fast-food hamburger
market?
3. What numerical position is Wendy’s in
terms of the total market?
What company is its next closest
competitor?
4. What time period do the figures in the 7. By how much would Jack in
pie chart represent?
the Box have to increase its
5. Does the chart show or project trends
sales to match those of
in the industry?
Sonic?
6. Are In-N-Out Burger or White Castle
8. Is the source for these
represented in this chart?
statistics listed?
Study the chart on p. 317.
1. What is the chart intended to show?
the relative market share of
various fast-food hamburger
companies.
2. Taken together, do McDonald’s competitors
constitute more than 50 percent of the fastfood hamburger market?
Yes. McDonald’s has 46 percent,
or nearly half of the market, but
not a majority. The rest command
54 percent.
3. What numerical position is Wendy’s in
terms of the total market? third
What company is its next closest
competitor? Burger
King
4. What time period do the figures in the
pie chart represent?
2006
5. Does the chart show or project trends
in the industry? No,
because
it is limited to only one
year.
6. Are In-N-Out Burger or White Castle
represented in this chart? Not
specifically, but they probably
would be included under “all
others.”
7. By how much would Jack in the Box have to
increase its sales to match those of Sonic?
1.2%
8. Is the source for these statistics listed?
Yes, Technomic Information
Services
Does the source seem reliable in terms of
presenting accurate research on the restaurant
industry? To answer this question, go
to www.technomic.com/home_content.html and
read the description of their services. This
outfit
is a research and consulting firm
whose specialty is the food service
industry. It has over 40 years
of experience and therefore seems
like a credible source.
Then consider the data provided in the graph:
What years does the data cover? Is it recent enough to be
reliable?
• Does the data seem complete? Are there any obvious
gaps? For example, are any years or relevant groups
missing?
• What is the source of the data? Does the source have an
agenda to promote or is it impartial?
• Does the graph or chart support the point the text is trying
to make?
Bar Graphics
 Used to compare one item with another or to show
the comparison of quantities within a category.
 Usually the x-axis has numbers for the time period or
what is being measured, and the y-axis has numbers for
the amount of stuff being measured. Bar graphs are good
when you're plotting data that spans many years (or
days, weeks...), has really big changes from year to year
(or day to day...), or when you are comparing things.
Bar Graphics
 Used to compare one item with another or to show
the comparison of quantities within a category.
 Usually the x-axis has numbers for the time period or
what is being measured, and the y-axis has numbers for
the amount of stuff being measured. Bar graphs are good
when you're plotting data that spans many years (or
days, weeks...), has really big changes from year to year
(or day to day...), or when you are comparing things.
Bar Graphics
 Used to compare one item with another or to show the
comparison of quantities within a category.
 Usually the x-axis has numbers for the time period or
what is being measured, and the y-axis has numbers for
the amount of stuff being measured. Bar graphs are good
when you're plotting data that spans many years (or
days, weeks...), has really big changes from year to year
(or day to day...), or when you are comparing things.
http://nces.ed.gov/nceskids/graphing/classic/bar.asp
http://nces.ed.gov/nceskids/help/user_guide/graph/bar.asp
Bar Graphics
 Used to compare one item with another or to show the
comparison of quantities within a category.
 Usually the x-axis has numbers for the time period or
what is being measured, and the y-axis has numbers for
the amount of stuff being measured. Bar graphs are good
when you're plotting data that spans many years (or
days, weeks...), has really big changes from year to year
(or day to day...), or when you are comparing things.
http://nces.ed.gov/nceskids/graphing/classic/bar.asp
http://nces.ed.gov/nceskids/help/user_guide/graph/bar.asp
Bar Graphics
This graph accompanied a 2006
Associated Press article by medical writer
Marilynn Marchione titled “College
Weight Gain Not Limited to Freshmen,
Studies Find.” 8 The article summarizes
two comprehensive studies of weight
gain: The first, undertaken by Brown
University Medical School, studied
freshmen; the second, sponsored by the
Robert Wood Johnson Foundation,
included both freshman and sophomore
college students. The results? The
“Freshman 15” is really a myth; in fact,
freshmen gain on average only about
5 to 7 pounds, but more significant,
students continue to gain weight during
their sophomore year. This bar graph
accompanied the article.
Like the pie chart, you will see that this
bar graph is rather simple to understand
but does omit some essential information.
For example, the chart does not indicate
how many students were studied or who
conducted the studies. That information
is contained in the article: The first study
by Brown University Medical School
tracked the weight gain of 382 freshmen
at an unnamed private Northeastern
university; the second study by the
Robert Wood Johnson Foundation
tracked the weight gain of 907 students
at an unidentified public university in the
Midwest after their freshman and
sophomore years. Still, the chart is useful
for presenting basic information. Now
answer these questions.
1. Summarize in your own words the
results of the two studies.
Students gradually gain weight in
both the first two years of college,
though they don’t gain as much
weight in their freshman year as
previously thought. The second
study overturns the myth of the
Freshman 15.
2. What do the dark and light gray
blocks at the top of the chart
represent?
Each block represents one
pound of weight gained.
3. How much did men and women gain
in their freshman year? Who gained
more weight? Men gained 5.6
pounds; women gained 3.6,
for a difference of 2 pounds.
4. The chart shows that sophomore men
and women gained 9.5 and 9.2
pounds, respectively. What piece of
information does the chart include
that is crucial to understand the
significance of these figures? The
second set of figures includes
freshman weight gain. It
would be easy to misinterpret
the figures and conclude that
during the sophomore year,
students gained a little over 9
pounds.
5. Are the source and the dates of these
studies included? The
two
sources are included; the
dates are not.
The following line graph
summarizes the results. As
you read it, consider these
elements:
• The title of the chart at the
top
• The categories of various
weights at the left
• The four squares
representing Years One to
Four
1. What grades does this study
cover?
2. What is the trend from Year One
to Year Four for children classified
as overweight?
3. Taken together, what percentage
of Arkansas children, using the
most recent figures, are either
overweight or at risk for being
overweight?
4. In which year were the most
Arkansas schoolchildren assessed?
5. Should Arkansas school
nutritionists be encouraged if they
compare results from Year One to
Year Four?
1. What grades does this study
cover? K through 12
2. What is the trend from Year One
to Year Four for children classified
as overweight? There is a
slight decrease, from
20.9% to 20.6%.
3. Taken together, what percentage
of Arkansas children, using the
most recent figures, are either
overweight or at risk for being
overweight?
37.8%
4. In which year were the most
Arkansas schoolchildren assessed?
Year Three
5. Should Arkansas school
nutritionists be encouraged if they
compare results from Year One to
Year Four? A qualified yes.
Though the results aren’t
spectacular, there does seem
to be a decrease in the
number of overweight or at
risk children, even allowing for
the increase in the number of
students studied.
Photographs

Information is provided visually

A sense of character or place or emotion
is conveyed to the viewer visually

Because photographs can be so powerful, it’s
crucial to analyze them carefully to avoid a purely
emotional response.
Photographs
When analyzing photographs, consider these
following elements:
•When was the photograph taken? Under what
circumstances was it taken? What is the historical
context?
• What is the subject of the photograph? What or who is
being depicted?
• How are the figures or objects arranged? Does one
particular figure or object dominate the photograph? Are
there background elements that are of interest?
•What activity is being depicted? Of what significance is
this activity?
• Examine the faces of the person or people depicted.
What emotions or feelings do their faces reveal? What do
they seem to be thinking?
• What are the people in the photograph wearing? Does
their clothing reveal anything about them—their position,
status, occupation, or any other relevant information?
• Does the photograph appeal to the emotions or to
reason?
• How do you think the photographer intended you to
respond to the image?
• What is the larger significance of the photograph? What
is it meant to represent?
See “Propoaganda”
Powerpoint.
What is your reaction
to this photograph?
What message
do the images of
coffins draped in
American flags send
to the viewer?
Notice that the flag-draped
coffins dominate the photo and
that the uniformed soldiers in
the background are relatively
indistinct. Also, the images of
the coffins humanize the
statistics published in the
paper or on the evening news
of the numbers of war dead.
The photograph is a sobering
reminder of the Americans
dying in war.
A
Study the photos, then answer the questions which follow.
These are two photos from the Arkansas Center for Health
Improvement of 2006.
A
1. What is the significance of the first photo? Why do you
think that the ACHI chose this photo to accompany its
report?
2. What is depicted in the second photo? What subtext, or
subliminal message, is this photo suggesting?
3. Write two claims that these photos suggest.
1. What is the significance of the first photo? Why do you
think that the ACHI chose this photo to accompany its
report?
The children represent racial harmony; they are
attractive and thin. Most of all, they’re happy.
The photo suggests that good nutrition and
happiness go hand in hand.
2. What is depicted in the second photo? What subtext, or
subliminal message, is this photo suggesting?
Two girls and their father are riding bicycles.
They are thin and physically attractive; their
smiles show that they are enjoying this activity.
The subtext is that parents have the
responsibility to see that their children get
enough exercise by setting a good example.
3. Write two claims that these photos suggest.
A claim of value—maintaining a healthy weight
is equivalent to being happy. A claim of fact—
maintaining a healthy weight promotes good
health.
B
In its landmark 1954 decision in Brown v. the Board of Education ,
the Supreme Court ruled that segregation in public schools was
illegal.
This photograph from the Arkansas Democrat Gazette archives
shows a student shouting at Elizabeth Eckford, one of nine students
who attempted to attend the all-white Central High School in Little
Rock, Arkansas, in 1957. Eckford and a group of black students had
sought admission to the high school, but were turned away from the
school by the Arkansas National Guard.
B
How effective is this photograph at showing the
racial division that existed 50 years ago in the
United States? What was the photographer’s
intent? What emotions does this photograph
arouse in the viewer?
B
It is clear that the white student yelling at the
young black student is a symbol of pure racial
hatred. The photograph is meant to arouse
sympathy in us and represent the injustices of
racial segregation.
C
In June 1989, pro-democracy protestors staged an
uprising in Beijing’s Tiananmen Square. Chinese troops
sent in tanks to quell the disturbance and restore order.
This photograph shows a solitary man carrying only
two shopping bags who confronted a convoy of
approaching tanks and refused to move. To this day, the
man’s identity and fate remain a mystery. This
showdown lasted for several minutes until he was finally
pulled from danger by some onlookers.
C
Comment on the effectiveness of this photograph. What
is its particular larger significance? What emotions does
this photograph arouse in the viewer?
C
This photograph suggests the power one lone
citizen can exercise even in the face of
overwhelming military power and government
repression.
• Who is the writer? Look at the information provided in the
headnote. Does he or she represent an authority? On what
basis? (If you need more background than the headnote
provides for a particular writer, go to your favorite search
engine, type in the writer’s name + “information” or
“biography.”)
• What is the writer’s main argument or claim? State the claim
in your own words.
• What type of claim does the argument represent?
• If possible, list one or two unstated assumptions underlying
the argument.
• Is the evidence relevant to the argument? Is it sufficient to
support the claim adequately? List two or three of the main
supporting points.
• What types of evidence are represented?
• Is the argument, as the author presents it, convincing or at
least worth considering?
• Do you accept the argument? Why or why not? What other
information would you need before you could accept it?