Chapter 5: Life Span Development Development Defining Terms Developmental Psychology Branch of psychology that specifically examines the physiological, cognitive, and emotional changes in an organism from conception to death. Developmental Psychologists utilize a number of different methods of inquiry to gather this information. Developmental Research Methods Cross-Sectional Study Longitudinal Study Study people of different ages at the same point in time Advantages? Disadvantages? Study the same group of people over time Advantages? Disadvantages? Biographical or Retrospective Study Participant’s past is reconstructed through interviews and other research about their life Advantages? Disadvantages? Prenatal Development: Terms Prenatal period Zygote Embryo Fetus Placenta Teratogens Definition Examples Fetal alcohol syndrome? Prenatal Development Critical periods? The Newborn Baby aka NEONATE I WANT BACK IN! The Competent Newborn: Reflexes Rooting Sucking Swallowing Grasping Stepping Babinski Moro Crawling The Competent Newborn: Temperament Temperament refers to characteristic patterns of emotional reactions and emotional self-regulation Thomas and Chess identified three basic types of babies (1977) + Kagan (1988) added a fourth Easy Difficult Slow-to-warm-up Shy Child Temperament may predict later disposition The Competent Newborn: Sensory Learning In addition to reflexes present at birth, neonates also have the ability to learn Habituation - basic type of learning involving decreased response to a stimulus judged to be of no importance/novelty Visual learning – focus on FACES Olfactory learning – fully functioning; smell of mother Auditory learning – response to mothers voice Taste – Fully functioning; preference for sweets! The Competent Newborn: Visual Perception Dude. I’m not going that way! Clear for 8-10 inches Good vision by 6 months Depth perception The Visual Cliff Visual cliff research Mother beckons infant to cross cliff – infant hesitates Most infants 6 to 14 months of age were reluctant to crawl over the cliff Nature AND Nurture…? Perception of Scale Perception of Scale Infancy and Childhood Stop touching me. Ooh. How did you get your hair so silky soft? Physical Development: Body and Brain Children grow about 10 inches and gain about 15 pounds in first year Growth occurs in spurts, as much as 1 inch overnight! Growth slows during second year Neural “pruning and paving” Motor and Memory Development Developmental norms “Milestones” Occurs in a proximodistal and cephalocaudal manner “Back to Sleep” movement to reduce SIDS may delay crawling Maturation Automatic biological unfolding of development in an organism as a function of passage of time Relatively uninfluenced by experience Memory not solidified until after 3rd birthday “Infantile amnesia” Development of hippocampus? Cognitive Development Cognition – all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating Jean Piaget Studied intellectual development in children Stage-based theory of cognitive development Intellectual growth as a process of adaptation (adjustment) to the world. This happens through Formation of schemas Assimilation Accommodation Adjusting schemas (equilibration) when new information doesn’t fit existing ones (disequilibrium) Piaget’s Stages of Development Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 years) Preoperational Stage (2-7 years) Egocentrism; intuitive over logical reasoning Development of a theory of mind The Mountain problem Concrete Operations (7-11 years) Take in world through senses Object permanence and the A not B error Logical reasoning about concrete events Principles of conservation Formal Operations (12 through adulthood) Hypothetical problems solving Understand abstract ideas Piaget’s Stages - Summary Criticisms of Piaget's Theory Lev Vygotsky believed development was a function of social interaction Many developmental theorists such as Vygotsky questioned the assumption that there are distinct stages in cognitive development Criticism of notion that infants do not understand world Piaget may have underestimated influence of social interaction in cognitive development Social Development: Attachment Stranger Anxiety Attachment through Contact Humans form a bond with those who care for them in infancy Based upon interaction with caregiver Harry Harlow’s work: on attachment Attachment through Familiarity Top: Harlow’s experiment; Bottom: Lorenz and imprinting Appears around 8 months – coincides with mobility Protective mechanism Imprinting (Lorenz) Occurs in many species of animals in a critical period Social Development: Attachment Attachment Differences Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Secure attachment Anxious-ambivalent insecure attachment Anxious-avoidant insecure attachment: Erikson’s “Basic Trust” Deprivation of Attachment Impact of denying infant monkeys physical comfort from their mother Cases of “Genie” and “Victor” Daycare – does it matter? Self Concept and Parenting Styles Mirror Test Self Concept: understanding of who we are “Mirror Test” By 18 months, children know THEY are the image in the mirror, and that it is not another person Children with a positive self concept are more confident, assertive, optimistic, and sociable, but how is this achieved? Diana Baumrind’s 4 Parenting Styles may help explain… Authoritarian Permissive Neglectful Authoritative Impact of parenting styles on children? Authoritative appears to be best, but… Correlational NOT causational research! Baumrind’s Parenting Styles: Comparison Relationships With Other Children Solitary play Parallel play Cooperative play Peer group Parallel Play vs. Cooperative Play A network of same-aged friends and acquaintances give one another emotional and social support When children start school, peers begin to have greater influence Sex-Role Development Gender identity Gender constancy Gender-role awareness Gender stereotypes Sex-typed behavior Adolescence The Nature of Adolescence A “Carefree Time” vs. G. Stanley Hall’s “Storm and Stress” The American experience? Trends today? Cultural differences? Physical Changes Growth spurt Begins about age 10½ in girls and about 12½ in boys Sexual development Primary (reproductive) vs. Secondary (non-reproductive) sexual characteristics Puberty Menarche Onset of sexual maturation First menstrual period for girls Neurological changes – frontal lobe maturation Physical Changes: Sexual Activity Early and late developers: Implications? Adolescent sexual activity Approximately ¾ of males and ½ of females between 15 and 19 have had intercourse Average age for first intercourse is 16 for boys and 17 for girls Teenage pregnancy Rate of teen pregnancy has fallen in the last 50 years Highest in U.S. of all industrialized nations Cognitive Changes David Elkind’s Theories Imaginary audience: delusion that everyone else is always focused on them Personal fable: delusion that they are unique and very important Invulnerability Nothing can harm them Reckless behavior Moral Development: Kohlberg vs. Gilligan Kohlberg’s Theory Preconventional (preadolescence) Conventional (adolescence) “Good” behavior is mostly to avoid punishment or seek reward Behavior is about pleasing others and, in later adolescence, becoming a good citizen Postconventional (adulthood...maybe) Emphasis is on abstract principles such as justice, equality, and liberty Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development The “Heinz Dilemma” A woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to produce. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about $1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it." So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug for his wife. Should Heinz have broken into the store to steal the drug for his wife? Why or why not? The response is not as important as the reasoning WHY in determining which stage of moral reasoning a person is in Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory Research shows that many people never progress past the conventional level Theory maintains that our rationale remains consistent – does it? Theory does not take cultural differences into account Theory is considered by some to be sexist in that girls often scored lower on tests of morality Personality and Social Development Major task in adolescence is identity formation Forming an identity (James Marcia, 1980) Achievement Foreclosure Explore various identities, but unable to commit Diffusion Settle for identity others wish for them Moratorium Successfully find identity Unable to “find themselves” – refusal to deal with the task; escapist techniques Erikson’s 8 Psychosocial Stages Identity vs. Role Confusion (teens to early 20s) Intimacy vs. Isolation (early 20s to early 40s) Personality and Social Development Relationships with peers Adolescents often form cliques, or groups with similar interests and strong mutual attachment Relationships with parents Adolescents test and question every rule and guideline from parents Can be a difficult time for parents AND children Some Issues of Adolescence Declines in self-esteem Depression and suicide Related to appearance Satisfaction in appearance is related to higher self-esteem Rate of suicide among adolescents has increased 600% since 1950, but has leveled off since ’90s Suicide often related to depression, drug abuse, disruptive behaviors, or child abuse Youth Violence Emerging Adulthood – trends in lengthening this period Adulthood Love, Partnerships, and Parenting Forming partnerships First major event of adulthood is forming and maintaining close relationships Erikson’s Intimacy vs. Isolation Parenthood Having children alters dynamics of relationships Marital satisfaction often declines after birth of child Marital Satisfaction Other Issues… The World of Work Cognitive Changes Fluid intelligence declines with old age Crystallized intelligence does NOT decline, and even can increase as learning continues throughout life Personality Changes Many parents report feeling a sense of relief when their children move out! Balancing career and family obligations is a challenge Many adults define who they are by what they do Less self-centered, better coping skills Some men and women have a midlife crisis (or midlife transition) Empty Nest Myth Late Adulthood Physical Changes In late adulthood, physical deterioration is inevitable As early as the twenties, strength, reaction times, sensory abilities and cardiac capacity decline, though in late adulthood we may finally notice Menopause and the end of fertility Social Development I can’t wait to swill my whiskey from this vessel! I’m too cool for ceramic s Independent and satisfying lifestyles – Erikson’s Generativity vs. Stagnation Retirement Most people will stop working and face challenges with that sudden change Redefining of self Marital satisfaction Sexual behavior Research shows that many older couples continue to be sexually active It is not until age 75 that half of men and most women report a complete loss of interest in sex Cognitive Changes Checkmate, Sucka! Research has demonstrated that those who continue to “exercise” their mental abilities can delay mental decline Even PHYSICAL exercise seems to have a positive impact on cognitive maintenance However, Alzheimer’s disease afflicts approximately 10% of people over 65 and perhaps as many as 50% of those over 90 Facing the End of Life Elizabeth Kubler-Ross’s stages of grief/death Denial Anger Bargaining Depression Acceptance Giraffe: Stages of Dying Erikson’s Integrity vs. Despair