AP Comparative Government
Introduction
Comparative Method
 Cold War – 1st, 2nd, 3rd Worlds
 Today
 “Advanced” democracy – high level of economic development, open
elections (Britain, US)
 Communist/Post-Communist – system that limits freedoms to divide
wealth equally (Russia, China)
 Less developed, newly industrializing – rapid growth, political
instability (Mexico, Iran, Nigeria)
Nation vs. state
 Nation – a group of people who share common cultural
traits (ethnicity, language, religion)
 Nationalism - a sense of self identification enabling them to be
distinguished from other groups of people
 State – a political unit (think “Country”)
 These political units are separated by legal borders
 Every “state” has the right to make laws for the territory within
the boundaries
States:
 Right to issue rules:
 states claim the right to issue rules binding for people
within their borders––laws, administrative regulations,
and court decisions.
 Enforcement:
 in order to survive, states need to be able to enforce the
rules (both internally and against external threats)
 Legitimacy:
 long-term stability requires that a state has legitimacy,
that is, a significant segment of the citizenry must believe
that the state acts with moral authority
Nation vs. state
 Nations
 States
 Arabs
 Iran
 Latino
 Mexico
 Jews
 Israel
 Palestinians
 Scottish
 UK
 Quebecois
 Canada
 Kurds
 Iraq
 Koreans
 South Korea
 Protestants
 USA
Regime
 The set of rules by which political power is
allocated. How leaders are selected, whom they
answer to, what powers and duties they have, and how
they are removed.
 Two main types:
 Democracies
 Authoritarian regimes
 Regime change (from D to A or vice versa): more
common than state change
Sovereignty:
 sovereignty—the ability to carryout actions or policies
within a territory independently from external actors or
internal rivals
 Internal Sovereignty
 Right to determine matters regarding one’s own citizens
without intervention
 External Sovereignty
 Right to conclude binding agreements with other states
Sovereignty Today
 Traditional forms joined by new forms
 Supranational organizations
 European Union
 North American Free Trade Agreement
 United Nations
 Eg: 1994 17 peacekeeping missions, 100,000 peacekeepers
 United Nations subunits or related orgs:
 FAO, WHO, UNESCO, IMF, World Bank
Legitimacy
 Belief of people that their gov has the right to rule over them
 Hobbes – people give up rights to the gov in exchange for
security
 Locke – people give up rights to the gov in exchange for
protection of property
bases of legitimacy:
historical traditions/longevity Built by
habit and custom over time, stresses
history, strongly institutionalized—rituals
and ceremonies reinforce it—change
difficult-assumes something is valid b/c “that’s the
way its always been “-they are
inseparable from the people themselves
The Queen delivers her speech in the House of Lords.
Photograph: PA
bases of legitimacy:
Ideology
The Three
Represents
Forces of
production,
culture and
masses
Charisma as basis of legitimacy
embodied by a person who can move public thru ideas and way
they are presented—some individuals posses this magnetism—
Built on force of ideas and presence of leader—weakly
institutionalized—so tenuous—tho often gets transformed into
traditional legit
Rational-Legal legitimacy
 Built on rules and procedures and the offices that enforce
those rules; strongly institutionalized; the office is legit—not
the person—once person leaves, that individual loses the
legit
Elections are a form of legitimacy?
True
False
Bases of legitimacy:
Elections (“consent”)
Peaceful transitions of power (retirement age in China followed)
2000: A watershed in Mexican Politics
 What comes AFTER elections is important!
 Does acceptance of election outcomes reflect legitimacy?
 Even in authoritarian systems, elections facilitate participation.
 What if election outcomes are challenged?
 How the government responds to post-election challenges impacts
its legitimacy.
Elections and Legitimacy
 Leaders of losing parties often challenge election results and
promote protests that the government must address.
Challenged
results
Post-election
protests
Government
response
 Failure to stop such protests undermines the government’s
ability to rule and its legitimacy.
Post-election Protests & Government Response
 HOW the government addresses post-election protests is
important.
 Can it be done without coercion?
 Is coercion needed?
Post-election
protests
No coercion
Reinforces
legitimacy?
Coercion
Undercuts
legitimacy?
Post-election Protests and Legitimacy
 Institutions and processes to resolve election disputes help to
absorb conflict.
 Forms…election commissions or courts
Results challenged
Election
Results accepted
Adjudicated by
election courts or
commission
Reinforces
legitimacy?
No institutions for
dispute resolution
Undercuts
legitimacy?
Reinforces
legitimacy?
Post-election Remedies Matter!
 Percentage of eligible votes cast
 Would you believe 100% participation?
 Size of “gap” between winner and losers
 What’s sparks protests, close races or landslides?
 Reports of post-election protests and government responses
 How widespread/intense are protests?
 Is force is used to suppress them?
 Length of time between election date and date of final declaration
of winner
 Is a longer period “better”?
What to look for after elections…
Mexico
• 2006
• Calderon win
challenged
Nigeria
• 2007
• Yar’Adua win
challenged
Iran
Three Cases
• 2009
• Ahmadinejad win
challenged
 Turnout: 59%
 Winner: Filipe Calderon (35.89%)
 Closest rival: Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador (35.31%)
 Election date: July 2
 Confirmed: September 5 by the Electoral Tribunal of the Federal
Judiciary (TEPJF)
Mexico 2006
 Turnout: est. 57.5%
 Winner: Amadu Yar’Adua (70%)
 Closest rival: Muhammadu Buhari (18.72%)
 Election date: April 21
 Confirmed: April 23 by Independent National Election
Commission (INEC)
Nigeria 2007
 Turnout: 85%
 Winner: Mahmoud Ahmadinejad (62.63%)
 Closest rival: Mir-Hossein Mousavi (33.75%)
 Election date: June 12
 Confirmed: June 29 by the Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei
(Guardian Council asked him to extend the required election
complaint period an additional five days.)
Iran 2009
Rational-Legal legitimacy
Rule of law: government can take no action not authorized by law and
citizens can only be punished for actions that violate the law--constitution
is supreme law
Constitutions: define both the role and constituent parts of a government
and the limits and obligations of government with respect to the rights of
citizens
Transparency
Means citizens are not obeying the person, but the
office
FOIA in the UK and Mexico
Unwritten constitution
 Lack of a written constitution
Law: Collection of rules laid down by
government
 Common Law: (case law): judicial decisions based on
precedent (stare decisis). Emphasis on judicial independence
to interpret the law.
 Code Law: detailed statutes produced and interpreted by the
government. Code is authority not previous judicial
decisions.
 Religious Law: Sharia (Islamic Law)
What two countries we study practice
Sharia law?
Nigeria and Russia
Britain and China
Nigeria and Iran
Common Law Countries
Sharia Law
Concept/Country Comparison
Legal System
Judicial Review
Independent
China
Code law
No
No
Great Britain
Common law
No
Yes
Iran
Sharia
No
No
Nigeria
Common law
Sharia
Yes
Yes
Russia
Code law
Yes
No
Mexico
Code law
Yes
Yes
What’s NOT rule of law
GUOJIATUO, China — He Qingzhi's teenage daughter, Yuan, and her two
friends lived on the same street near the Yangtze River, attended the same
middle school and were crushed to death in the same traffic accident late last
year. After that, the symmetry ended: under Chinese law, Yuan's life was worth
less than the others'.
Mr. He, 38, who has lived in this town in central China for 15 years, was told
that his neighbors were entitled to roughly three times more compensation from
the accident because they were registered urban residents while he was only a
migrant worker.
Outraged, Mr. He and his lawyer are considering a lawsuit, saying that the
decision was discriminatory and that the family was entitled to full
compensation under the Chinese Constitution. The problem with that argument
is the Chinese Constitution. More Chinese citizens like Mr. He are claiming
legal rights and often citing the Constitution, but it is actually a flimsy tool for
protecting individual rights.
The problem is not that the document lacks lofty ideals or is considered
unimportant. But for citizens in China, the Constitution is largely inaccessible.
Even as it describes a broad range of rights, the Chinese legal system
essentially does not allow people like Mr. He to use the Constitution as a
mechanism to challenge laws or policies that they believe infringe on those
rights.
Even so, some legal reformers in China believe that advancing the notion of
constitutional law is critical in establishing the rule of law. So, increasingly,
reformers are pushing ideas like creating a new and assertive constitutional court.
Liberal reformers believe that expanding the reach of the Constitution could
ultimately provide a greater check on the Communist Party.
The Constitution has been rewritten or amended several times over the
past half century, most recently in 2004, to include protections for private
property rights. Such constitutional amendments are considered
guidelines when the government drafts laws or regulations. But the
Constitution does not stand above the Communist Party and ultimately,
expanding the power of the Constitution or increasing the power of the
courts could mean introducing changes in the political system, a move
the Communist Party has resisted.
What Interest Group did we look at that would
identify if a county adheres to the rule of law?
Freedom House
Gini Index
TED
OECD
Gapminder
Bases of Legitimacy
Nationalism
KURSK DISASTER
Nuclear sub became an
underwater tomb for 118 sailors
President Mahmoud
Ahmadinejad of Iran said his
country was seeking better
ways to make atomic fuel. December - Soviet anthem
reintroduced to replace that
NYT 4/17/2006
2000
brought in by Yeltsin. New words
are written for it by poet Sergey
Mikhalkov who penned the Soviet
version as well
Beijing Accuses Taiwan Leader of 'Grave
Provocation'
March 1, 2006
Bases of Legitimacy:
Economic performance / basic services/ stability and order
States that can’t are “failed”
GINI INDEX
Gini Index: measure of income inequality. It is a number between 0 and
1 where 0 corresponds to perfect equality (i.e. everyone has the same
income) and 1 corresponds to perfect inequality (i.e. one person has all
the income, while everyone else has zero income
GINI INDEX: a measure of
inequality
NOTE: Correlation with per-capita GDP
Poor countries (those with low per-capita GDP) have Gini coefficients that fall
over the whole range from low (0.25) to high (0.71), while rich countries have
generally low Gini coefficient (under 0.40).
US income gini coefficients over time
Gini coefficients for the United States at various times,
according to the US Census Bureau:
1970: 0.394
1980: 0.403
1990: 0.428
2000: 0.462
2005: 0.469[1]
Legitimacy and Corruption
Political Change
 Government change
 Reform – change happens in the system of gov without
overthrowing the basic institutions
 Revolution – removal of an existing institution
 Coup d’etats – leader is removed, military take over of power
The Iranian Revolution of 1979 was the last
revolution in the 6 countries we study.
True
False
Political Change
Attitudes or beliefs about change
 Radicalism – demands rapid, immediate change
 Liberalism – gradual change
 Conservative – less supportive of changes
 Reactionary – will fight to prohibit change
Radicalism
Liberalism
Conservative
Reactionary
Governing the Economy
 State survival:
 success of states in maintaining their authority is greatly
affected by their ability to assure that an adequate volume
of goods and services is produced to satisfy the needs of
their populations.
 Economic development:
 An important goal of all countries is to achieve durable
economic development.
 Political economy:
 a term used to describe how governments affect
economic performance and how the economy in turn
affects a country’s political processes.
Governing the Economy
 capitalism:
 an economic system in which the means of production are mostly privately owned, and capital is
invested in the production, distribution and other trade of goods and services, for profit in a
competitive free market; also known as market economy or free enterprise.
 socialism:
 the broad array of doctrines or political movements that favor a socioeconomic system in which
property and the distribution of wealth are subject to social control. As an economic system, socialism
is associated with state or collective ownership of the means of production.
 communism:
 a system of social organization based on the common ownership of land and coordination of
production. According to Marxism, communism is a culminating stage of history, following capitalism
and socialism.
 command economy:
 a form of socialism in which government decisions rather than market mechanisms are the major
influences in determining the nation’s economic direction; also called central planning.
 mixed economy:
 an economy that has a mix of economic systems. It is usually defined as an economy that contains both
privately-owned and state-owned enterprises or that combines elements of capitalism and socialism,
or a mix of market economy and command economy.
How Much Democracy?
 The Democratic Idea:
 the claim by citizens that they should, in some way,
exercise substantial control over the decisions made by
their states and government
 Appeal of democracy:
 may represent a stand-off or equilibrium among political
contenders
 widespread desire for dignity and equality
Classification by the Relationship Between Legislative and Executive Branches
1
Chapter 1, Section 2
How Much Democracy?
 Authoritarianism:
 a system of rule in which power depends not on popular
legitimacy but on the coercive force of the political
authorities. Hence, there are few personal and group
freedoms.
 It is also characterized by near absolute power in the executive
branch and few, if any, legislative and judicial controls.
 Authoritarian Regimes and the Democratic Idea:
 even in states based on unchecked or arbitrary power,
democracy has an appeal––authoritarian states claim their
attachment to “democracy.” (ex:Iran)
How Much Democracy?
How Much Democracy?
 Democratic Republic
 System in which voters elect people to represent them and
make laws/policy for them
 Direct Democracy
 Does not exist at the state/country level
Liberal Democracy
 Equal rule of law
 Civil liberties
 Neutral judiciary
 Open civil society (ex. Free press)
 Civilian military control
 Illiberal democracy – state has competitive elections, but
missing some of the above
Political Systems: Liberal Democracy
 Liberal Democracy:
 A government which has regular, free and fair
competitive elections and guarantees civil liberties, rule
of law, neutrality of the judiciary, an open civil society
and civilian control of the military.
 Liberal Democracies
 United Kingdom of Great Britain & Northern Ireland
(UK)
 European Union (EU): proof of a liberal democracy is
required for membership in the “Euro club”
Political Systems: Liberal Democracy
 Ideal Characteristics of a Liberal Democracy:
 political accountability:
 must be formal procedures by which those who hold political power are
chosen by and held accountable to the people of the country. Key
mechanism––> regular, free, and fair elections in which the voters may elect
or defeat candidates for office.
 political competition:
 political parties must be free to organize, present candidates for office,
express their ideas, and compete in fair elections. The winning party must be
allowed to take office, and the losing party must relinquish power through
legal and peaceful means.
 pluralism:
 a guiding principle which permits the peaceful coexistence of different
interests, convictions and lifestyles. Unlike totalitarianism, pluralism
acknowledges the diversity of interests and considers it imperative that
members of society accommodate their differences by engaging in good-faith
negotiation
Political Systems: Liberal Democracy
 Ideal Characteristics of a Liberal Democracy (cont’d):
 political freedom:
 all citizens must possess political rights and civil liberties
 right to participate in the political process
 freedom of assembly, organization and political expression
 right to criticize the government
 protection against arbitrary state intrusion into their private lives
 political equality:
 all citizens must be legally entitled to participate in politics and their
votes must have equal weight in the political process. Members of
political, ethnic, or other minority groups must have equal rights as
citizens.
Political Systems: Liberal Democracy
 Realities of a Liberal Democracy:
 Unreachable standards:
 No government has ever fully lived up to the ideals.
 Limited ideals:
 The characteristics of democracy are limited, not
absolute.
 Interpretation:
 Interpretations of the ideals are debatable and often the
root of political disagreement.
 Economic inequality:
 Wealth often determines a person or group’s ability to
affect political decisions.
Political Systems: Liberal Democracy
 Key areas of policy difference
 Distribution of taxes:
 who pays how much in taxes is often a source of intense political
debate.
 Government economic priorities:
 where the government should focus its economic investment is a
critical factor (ex., restraining inflation or reducing unemployment).
 Government spending for social programs:
 not all agree on to what extent the government should provide for
health care, unemployment compensation, old-age pensions and
assistance to the needy.
 Foreign policy:
 what is the role of the country in foreign affairs and international
relations.
Political Systems: Liberal Democracy
 Main political systems
 Presidential system:
 the chief executive and the national legislature are chosen in separate
elections, and there is a clear separation of powers between the
executive branch and the legislature.
 Parliamentary system:
 executive and legislative powers are fused––the chief executive and
the cabinet are themselves legislators who remain members of the
legislature even when serving in the executive branch.
 Often the legislature serves as a forum for dramatic policy debate.
 Semi-presidential system:
 Combines elements of presidential and parliamentary systems.
Political Systems: Liberal Democracy
 Main electoral systems: SMP
 Single-member Plurality (SMP):
 an electoral system in which candidates run for a single seat from a
specific geographic district
 Advantages/Disadvantages of SMP?
 relatively simple and easy to administer; may be easier for voters to
understand
 upholds principle of “one person, one vote”
 personal accountability for constituency
 government is likely to be dominated by two national parties
(Duverger’s Law)
 system favors national parties with broad-based support and regional
parties with localized support
 minor national parties are less likely to gain representation in the
legislature
Political Systems: Liberal Democracy
 Main electoral systems: Party List PR
 Proportional Representation (PR):
 an electoral system delivering a close match between the
percentage of votes that groups or parties of candidates
obtain in elections and the percentage of seats they
receive, usually in legislative assemblies.
 Advantages/Disadvantages of PR?
 can increase participation of smaller, nationally-based
parties (multi-party system)
 can lead to centrist-leaning coalition governments
 it is possible for single-issue candidates/parties
(supported by special interest groups) to be elected
Political Systems: Illiberal
Democracy
 Illiberal Democracy:
 A government which has regular, free and fair competitive elections, but
does not guarantee civil liberties, rule of law, neutrality of the judiciary,
an open civil society or civilian control of the military.
 Illiberal Democracies
 Russia
 Mexico
 Nigeria
 NOTE: Some political scientists categorize the above countries as
“developing democracies” because they are neither true liberal
democracies nor are they true illiberal democracies.
 Russia, Mexico & Nigeria tend to lean in one direction or the other,
depending on the political winds and the current regime.
Political Systems: Illiberal Democracy
 Characteristics of an Illiberal
Democracy
 political parties may not be free to






compete
votes may not be counted fairly
elected officials/parties may not be
allowed to take office
political officials may not be held
accountable through elections and
independent judicial inquiries
press may not be open and free
corruption may be prevalent
relatively short period of democratic
practice/experience
M.K. Abiola
Elected president of Nigeria in 1993,
but imprisoned after election.
Political Systems: Non-Democracies
 Characteristics of an Non-Democracy
 Executive overwhelmingly stronger than other branches of
government
 authoritarian-style government, often led by an individual or an allpowerful party
 other branches may exist on paper, but have no power to balance or
challenge the authority of the executive
 elections may be held, but they are neither free nor fair
 no independent judiciary
 political competition is severely limited
 opposition parties may not be tolerated
 poorly developed or respected
Political Systems: Non-Democracies
 Characteristics of a Non-Democracy
 media not free
 individual rights not guaranteed
 government may employ fear and repression to maintain authority
 may suffer from widespread corruption
 citizens have little freedom to participate in and dissent from official
policies
 citizens of different genders, racial groups, religions, and so on may
not enjoy equal rights
 Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) may not be free to operate
 Non-Democracies
 People’s Republic of China
 Iran
Patron-Client Politics (Clientelism)
 Patron-client politics
 an informal aspect of policymaking in which a
powerful patron offers resources in return for support
from lower status and less powerful clients.
 corruption, preferential treatment and inequality are
characteristic
 can exist in all states, but patron-client politics are
more pervasive in developing democracies and nondemocracies
 Clientelism referred to as “prebendalism” in
Nigeria
 Democratization
 No demilliberal demsubstantive dem
 Democratic consolidation [process]
 Command Economy
 Market economy
 Marketization
 Privatization
 Economic liberalization
 Mixed economy
ECONOMY
Political Efficacy
 refers to one’s perception of
their own political effectiveness.
 It is a concept used to help
explain political participation
(or lack thereof)
 the more one believes in their
own political efficacy, the more
likely one is to vote, lobby,
donate money, etc.
 the less one believes in their own
political efficacy, the less likely
one is to participate in any way.
Globalization
 the intensification of worldwide
interconnectedness associated with the
increased speed and magnitude of
cross-border flows of trade, investment
and finance, and processes of
migration, cultural diffusion, and
communication.
 process of globalization has been going
on for centuries, but major geopolitical
factors (ex. collapse of Soviet Union
and satellite states) and technological
advances (ex. Wireless communication,
high speed travel) has hastened the
process in the last 50 years.
Globalization
 Globalization’s influence on governments
 International organizations can establish rules by which participating
members may agree to abide. In these instances, the government has given up
some of its sovereignty over key issues.




World Trade Organization (WTO)
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
World Health Organization (WHO), a part of the United Nations (UN)
European Union (EU)
 Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) may influence public opinion
regarding certain issues and, therefore, influence government policy (ex.,
Amnesty International, Greenpeace)
 Governments are more sensitive and vulnerable to decisions made by other
states
 States impacted by foreign economic investment and the movement of capital
in and out of a country
 Travel and tourism can impact government policy (ex., 2008 Beijing
Olympics)
Globalization
 Major issues in
globalization
 democratization
 economic
interdependence
 environment
 social justice
 economic equality
 international terrorism
 weapons
 drugs
 global warming
Globalization
Globalization
Globalization