Ass. wr. wb.
PENELITIAN =
RESEARCH
Soemarno
Jurs Tanah FPUB 2012
KEPMENDIKBUD No. 212/U/1999
PENELITIAN adalah kegiatan
taat kaidah dalam upaya untuk
menemukan kebenaran dan/atau
menyelesaikan masalah dalam ilmu
pengetahuan, teknologi dan/atau
kesenian.
PENELITIAN, RESEARCH:
Kamus Oxford (1995):
Research = careful study esp in order to discover new facts or information
Kamus Webster (1966):
Research = careful or diligent search; to search or investigate exhaustively; to
search again or anew.
Kamus besar Bahasa Indonesia (2001):
Penelitian adalah:
1. Pemeriksaan yang teliti
2. Kegiatan pengumpulan, pengolahan, analisis, dan penyajian data yang
dilakukan secara sistematis dan objektif untuk memecahkan suatu
persoalan atau menguji suatu hipotesis untuk mengembangkan prinsipprinsip umum.
Woody (dalam Danim, 2002):
Penelitian merupakan metode untuk menemukan kebenaran , disamping itu juga merupakan
suatu pemikiran kritis.
Pearson (dalam Whitney, 1960):
Penelitian adalah pencarian atas sesuatu secara sistematik dan dilakukan terhadap masalahmasalah yang dapat dipecahkan.
Burnd dan Grove (1993): research = is diligent systematic inquiry or investigation to validate
and refine existing knowledge and generate new knowledge.
Penny (1975): PENELITIAN ADALAH PEMIKIRAN YANG SISTEMATIK MENGENAI
BERBAGAI JENIS MASALAH YANG Pemecahannya memerlukan pengumpuylan dan
penafsiran fakta-fakta.
Hillway (1956): “a method of study by which, through the careful and exhaustive of all
ascertainable evidence bearing upon a definable problem, we reach a solution to the problem.
Kerlinger (1986): penelitian adalah suatu penyelidikan yang sistematis , terkendali, empiris,
dan kritis mengenai fenomnena-fenomena alam yang dibimbing oleh teori dan hipoptesis
mengenai hubungan-hubungan yang diduga ada di antara fenomena-fenomena tersebut.
Jenis-jenis penelitian:
Kline (1980):
1. Perdasarkan Tujuan:
1.1. Penelitian Dasar
1.2. Penelitian Terapan
1.3. Penelitian Evaluasi
2. Berdasatkan Metode:
2.1. Penelitian Historis
2.2. Penelitian Deskriptif
2.3. Penelitian Perkembangan
2..4. Penelitian Kasus atau Studi Lapangan
2.5. Penelitian Korelasional
2.6. Penelitian Tindakan
2.7. Penelitian Komparatif
2.8. Penelitian Eksperimental
2.9. Penelitian Kualitatif
3. Berdasarkan tingkat penjelasan:
3.1. Penjelasan deskriptif
3.2. Penjelasan Asosiatif
3.3. Penjelasan Kausalitas.
Danim (2002):
Ada dua jenis metode penelitian, yaitu:
1. Metode penelitian kuantitatif
2. Metode penelitian kualitatif
Tipe-tipe penelitian kuantitatif:
1. Penelitian Deskriptif
2. Penelitian Perkembangan
3. Penelitian Tindakan
4. Penelitian Perbandingan-Kausal
5. Penelitian Korelasional
6. Penelitian Eksperimental Semu
7. Penelitian Eksperimental
Tipe Penelitian Kualitatif:
1. Penelitian Fenomenologi
2. Penelitian Grounded
3. Penelitian Etnografi
4. Penelitian Historis
5. Penelitian KAsus
6. Penelitian Fisolofis
7. Penelitian Kritik Sosial
Uma Sekaran (1992): Karakteristik utama penelitian ilmiah:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Tujuan Penelitian: jelas, pasti dan terarah
Keseriusan Penelitian: ketelitian, kehati-hatian, kepastian
Dapat Diuji: hipotesis yang dapat diuji dg metode statistik tertentu
Dapat direplikasi: temuan penelitian akan sama kalau diulang pada
kondisi yang sama
Presisi dan keyakinan: presisi mencerminkan derajat kepastian dari
temuan p[enelitian terhadap kejadian yg dipelajari. Keyakinan
menunjukkan kemungkinan dari kebenaran estimasi yang dilakukan.
Obyektivitas: kesimpulan penelitian harus didasarkan pada data yang
aktual
Berlaku Umum: dapat-tidaknya hasil penelitian diterapkan pada
berbagai keadaan.
Efisien: kerangka penelitian yang melibatkan sedikit variabel yg dapat
menjelaskan suatu kejadian
John W Best (1982): Sebelas karakteristik penelitian:
1.
Penelitian dirancang dan diarahkan untuk mencari jawaban atas suatu
permasalahan
2. Kerja penelitian dititik-beratkan pada pengembangan cara-cara
membuat generalisasi, prinsip dan teori-teori
3. Penelitian didasarkan atas pengalaman hasil observasi atau kejadian
empiris
4. Penelitian memerlukan observasi dan deskripsi yang akurat
5. Penelitian bertujuan untuk menemukan data yg baru dari sumber
primer , bukan sekedar data yg sudah ada sebelumnya
6. Penelitian memerlukan rancangan yg teliti dan hati-hati melalui prosedur
yg tepat dg menggunakan analisis yang rasional
7. Penelitian memerlukan keahlian
8. Penelitian menekankan pada logika dan obyektivitas yg tinggi
9. Penelitian menuntut kesabaran dan tidak dilakukan dg tergesa-gesa
10. Kerja penelitian memerlukan pencatatan dan pelaporan yang hati-hati
dan teliti
11. Kerja penelitian kadang-kadang memerlukan keberanian
Nazir (1988): Kriteria Penelitian Ilmiah:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Berdasarkan pada fakta yang nyata, bukan kira-kira
Bebas dari prasangka, berdasarkan pada alasan dan buykti yang
lengkap dengan metode epembuktian yg obyektif
Menggunakan Analisis, solusi permasalahan dicari dengan
analisis yang logis.
Menggunakan hipotesis, untuk menuntun jalan pikiran peneliti
dalam mencapai hasil penelitiannya
Menggunakan ukuran yang obyektif, dengan alat ukur yang
obyektif pula
Menggunakan teknik kuantifikasi, untuk data yang masih
memungkinkan dikuantifikasikan
Penelitian Terapan = Applied Research = Practical Research :
Penyelidikan yang hati-hati , sistematis dan terus-menerus terhadap suatu
masalah dengan tujuan untuk digunakan dengan segera bagi keperluan
tertentu.
Ciri-ciri penelitian terapan:
1. Kegiatan untuk menemukan kebenaran yang obyektif, bukan kegiatan
spekulasi, atau untung-untungan
2. Memerlukan metode yang tepat dan dilaksanakan secara cermat
3. Menggunakan teori-teori yang “applied” untuk menyusun kerangka
konsep penelitian, dan pembahasan
4. Memerlukan analisis yang tajam, rasional, kritis, dan obyektif,
5. Data lengkap dan objektif,
6. Tidak cukup dengan menyajikan data, tetapi harus diadakan
pengolahan data, baik secara kuantitatif maupun kualitatif.
7.
METODE PENELITIAN KUALITATIF
Newman (1997): enam ciri utama penelitian kualitatif:
1. The context is critical, mengutamakan konteks sosial
2. The value of the case study, menggunakan pendekatan studi kasus
3. Researcher integrity
4. Grounded theory, membangun teori dari data, induktif
5. Process and sequence, mencermati proses dan urutan perintiwanya
6. Interpretation, interpretasinya mendalam:
i. The first order intrerpretation
ii. The second order interpretation
iii. The third order interpretation, menhubungkan dengan teori-teori
umum.
Lincoln dan Guba (1985): 14 karakteristik penelitian
kualitatif:
1. Natural setting
2. Human instruments
3. Utilization of tacit knowledge
4. Qualitative methods
5. Purposive sampling
6. Inductive data analysis
7. Grounded theory
8. Emergent design
9. Negotiated outcomes
10. Case study reporting mode
11. Idiographic interpretation
12. Tentative application
13. Focus determined boundaries
14. Special criteria for trustworthiness.
APA PENELITIAN KUALITATIF ITU ?
Strauss dan Corbin (1997): qualitative research adalah penelitian yang
menghasilkan temuan yang tidak dapat dicapai dg menggunakan prosedur
statistik atau dengan cara kuantifikasi lainnya.
Bogdan dan Taylor (1975): prosedur penelitian yang bertujuan
mengumpulkan dan menganalisis data deskriptif berupa tulisan, ungkapan
lisan dari orang dan perilakunya yang dapat diamati.
Kirk dan Miller (1986): penelitian kualitatif merupakan tradisi dalam ilmu
sosial yang secara fundamental bergantung pada pengamatan pada amanusia
dalam kawasannya sendiri dan berhubungan dengan orang-orang tersebut
menurut bahasa dan peristilahannya
Penelitian kualitatif bertujuan mengumpulkan data dalam setting alamiah,
yang akan digunakan untuk menyusun teori melalui analisis data secara
induktif.
JENIS PENELITIAN KUALITATIF
Bogdan dan Biklen (1982):
1. Interpretative research
2. Verstehen
3. Hermeneutics
4. Ethnomethodology
5. Ethnography
6. Cognitive research
7. Field research
8. Idealist research
9. Subjectivist
10. Phenomenological research
11. Symbolic interactionism
12. Naturalistic
13. Constructivism
14. Grounded research
15. Studi Kasus
16. Perspektif ke dalam
17. Ekologis
18. Deskriptif.
Danim (2000): tujuh jenis penelitian
kualitatif:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Penelitian Fenomenologi
Penelitian Grounded
Penelitian Etnografi
Penelitian Historis
Penelitian Kasus
Inquiry Filosofis: fundasional, filosofis,
etik
7. Teori kritik sosial
Beberapa Istilah lain
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Policy Research: menjawab masalah sosial yang bersifat fundamental
dan hasilnya dimanfaatkan oleh pembuat kebijakan untuk menjawab
masalah-masalah fundamental dan mendesak
Philosophycal Inquiry: menekankan analisis intelektual yang dipandu
dengan pertanyaan filosofis dan mempertimbangkan ide dan isu-isu dari
semua perspektif, eksplorasi yang luas dan mendalam
Critical Social Theory: menemukan pemahaman mengenai cara
seseorang berkomunikasi dan dalam mengembangkan makna simbolik
dalam masyarakat.
Developmen Research: mempelajari pola pertumbuhan dan
perkembangan subyek tertentu, baik secara terus-menerus atau secara
periodik yang mendalam untuk menyempurnakan, memperbaiki atau
mengembangkan sesuatu yang telah ada
Evaluation research: mengukur suatu program, produk atau aktivitas
tertentu, dengan maksud untuk memperbaikinya
Verstehen: menggunakan pola pikir divergensi, kreatif, inovatif untuk
memperoleh pemahaman yang mendasar dan mendalam
Descriptive Research: mengungkap suatu maslaah atau keadaan tertentu
sebagaimana adanya sehingga dapat memberikan gambaran secara tepat
tentang keadaan sebenarnya dari obyek yang diselidiki dalam ranghka
memecahkan masalah tertentu yang spesifik.
8. Action Research: untuk medeskripsikan, konsepsi, pengambilan keputusan secara
kritis berdasarkan rekaman , pemantauan dan evaluasi terhadap tindakan dan
hasil tindakan.
9.
Phenomenological Research: untuk memahami respon dari suatu unit tertentu
secara utuh termasuk interaksinya dengan lingkungan sekitarnya
10. Historical Research: merekonstruksi kondisi masa lampau secara obyektif ,
sistematis, dan akurat guna merumuskan kesimpulan yang lebih kuat dan akurat
11. Field Research: penelitian dilakukan secara langsung di lokasi penelitian untuk
dapat memahami secara mendalam lingkungan masyarakat atau obyek tertentu
baik melalui wawancara maupun pengamatan
12. Penelitian Kasus: tujuannya untuk mempelajari secara mendalam suatu fenomena
tertentu sehingga diperoleh gambaran yang menyeluruh dan utuh pada keadaan
sekarang apa adanya.
13. Penelitian Etnografi: penelitian dimaksudkan untuk memahami mudaya atau
aspek kebudayaan dalam kehidupan sosial masyarakat
14. Interaksionisme Simbolik: untuk memahami makna perilaku manusia dalam
kehidupan: motif, wawasan, internalisasi nilai.
15. Naturalist Inquiry: penelitian untuk memahami fenomena interaksi, perilaku,
yang pengkajiannya dalam latar belakang alamiah.
16. Grounded Research: penelitian untuk memahami permasalahan yang muncul
dalam suatu fenomena tertentu untuk menyusun, mengembangkan, dan
merekonstruksikan teori berdasarkan data yang digali dari bawah secara
langsung, induktif.
PENELITIAN KUANTITATIF VS KUALITATIF
Penelitian Kuantitatif
Penelitian Kualitatif
1. Ilmu-ilmu keras
Ilmu-ilmu lunak
2. Fakus ringkas dan sempit
Fokus kompleks dan luas
3. Reduksionistik
Holistik dan menyeluruh
4. Obyektif
Subyektif atau prspektif etnik
5. Penalaran logis dan deduktif
Penalaran dialektif-induktif
6. Basis pengetahuan: Hubungan
sebab-akibat
Basis pengetahuan: Makna dan
temuan
7. Menguji teori
Mengembangkan/ membangun teori
8. Kontrol atas variabel
Sumbangsih tafsiran
9. Instrumen
Komunikasi dan observasi
10. Elemen dasar analisis: angka
Elemen dasar analisis: kata-kata
11. Analisis statistik atas data
Interpretasi individual
12. Generalisasi
Keunikan
POSITIVIST vs. NATURALIST
Lincoln and Guba (1985)
Axiom About
Paradigma Positivistik
Paradigma Naturalistik
Ontologi: Nature of reality
Reality is single, tangible
and fragmentable
Realities are multiple,
constructed, holistic
Epistemologi: relationship
of knower and known
Knower and known are
independent, a dualisme
Know the known are
interactive, inseparable
Possibility of generalization Time and context-free
generalization
Only time and context
bound working hypotheses
( idiographic statement)
are possible
Possibility of causal
linkages
There are real causes,
temporally precedent to or
simultaneous with their
effect
All intities are in state of
mutual simultaneous
shaping so that it is
impossible to distinguiosh
causes from effects
Aksiologi: To role of values
in inquiry
Inquiry is value free
Inquiry is value bound
ASUMSI PARADIGMA KUANTITATIF DAN KUALITATIF
Asumsi
Questions
Kuantitatif
Kualitatif
Asumsi
ontologis
What is the nature
of reality?
Reality is objective and
singular, apart from the
researcher
Reality is subjective and
multiple as seen by participant
in a study
Asumsi
What is the
epistemolog relationship of the
is
researcher to that
researched?
Reality is independent
from that being researched
Researcher interact with that
being researched
Asumsi
aksiologis
What is the role of
values?
Value-free and unbiased
Value-bound and biased
Asumsi
rhetoris
What is the
language of
research?
Formal; based on set
definitions; impersonal
voice; use of accepted
quantitative words
Informal; evolving; decisions;
personal voice; accepted
qualitative words
Asumsi
metodologi
s
What is the
process of the
research?
Deductive process; cause
and effect; static design
categories isolated before
study; context-free;
genaralization leading to
prediction, explanation,
and understanding;
accurate and reliable
through validity and
reliability
Inductive process; mutual
simultaneous shaping of
factors; emerging design
categories identified during
research process; context
bound; patterns, theories
developed for understanding;
accurate and reliable through
verification.
PERMASALAHAN PENELITIAN
Kamus Oxford (1995): problem is a thing that is difficult to deal with or understand
; a question to be answered or solved; esp. by reasoning or calculating.
Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (2001): masalah diartikan sebagai sesuatu yang
harus diselesaikan (dipecahkan); soal, persoalan.
Permasalahan: hal yang menjadikan masalah; hal yang dimasalahkan; persoalan
Pertanyaan berarti sesuatu yang ditanyakan; soal; permintaan keterangan;
perbuatan bertanya.
Masalah adalah faktor yang dapat menyebabkan tidak tercapainya tujuan.
“Ada permasalahan” berarti ;
“ada kesenjangan” antara das Sollen dan das Sein;
ada perbedaan antara “apa yang seharusnya” dan “apa yang ada dalam kenyataan”
Antara harapan dan kenyataan
Antara “apa yang diperlukan” dan “apa yang tersedia”
BAGAIMANA MEMILIH MASALAH PENELITIAN
Dalam dunia nyata banyak masalah yang harus diselesaikan dengan segera
dalam waktu tertentu.
Namun tidak semua maslaah tersebut dapat diangkat menjadi maslaah
penelitian.
Oleh karena itu perlu dilakukan identifikasi masalah
Ada beberapa cara yang dapat ditempuh:
1. Analisis literatur, terutama publikasi hasil-hasil penelitian yang relevan,
rekomendasi tindak lanjut hasiul penelitian
2. Kerja dan kontak profesional bidang keilmuan, forum-forum ilmiah
3. Pernyataan pemegang otoritas, baik ilmuwan maupun birokrasi
4. Pengamatan sepintas atas sutau kejadian atau peristiwa tertentu
5. Pengalaman pribadi peneliti dalam bidang tertentu yang menarik untuk
diteliti
BEBERAPA PERTIMBANGAN DALAM PEMILIHAN
MASALAH
1.
2.
3.
Pertimbangan ilmiah
Pertimbangan non-ilmiah
Pertimbangan dari sudut pandang peneliti
Pertimbangan ilmiah:
1. Apakah maslaah tersebut dapat diteliti secara ilmiah? Yaitu masalah yang
realitasnya dapat diamati dan datanya tersedia dan dapat dikumpulkan
2. Apakah masalah tersebut memberikan manfaat dalam pengembangan ilmu
pengetahuan?
3. Dengan metode bagaimana masalah dapat diteliti?
Pertimbangan non-ilmiah:
1. Apa manfaat hasil penelitian bagi kepentingan praktis atau masyarakat?
2. Apakah masalah terlalu peka untuk diteliti? Resistensi sosial, budaya, ideologi
Pertimbangan peneliti:
1. Penguasaan teori dan metodologi
2. Minat peneliti terhadap masalaah
3. Kemampuan pengumpulan dan analisis data
4. Ketersediaan waktu, dana dan sumberdaya
Beberapa ciri khusus masalah
penelitian:
1. Masalah penelitian hendaknya dapat
mencerminkan kebutuhan yang dirasakan
2. Masalah penelitian merupakan kenyataan
yang betul-betul ada yang merupakan hasil
dari proses identifikasi masalah
3. Masalah penelitian relevan, dalam arti
merupakan permasalahan yang betul-betul
baru dan dapat dilaksanakan dengan baik dan
benar.
PERUMUSAN MASALAH PENELITIAN.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Merumuskan masalah berarti mendeskripsikan dengan jelas masalah
yang dihadapi
Perumusan masalah merupakan proses penyederhanaan maslaah yang
rumit dan kompleks, menjadi maslaah yang dapat diteliti
Perumusan masalah adalah merumuskan kaitan-kaitan antara
kesenjangan pengetahuan ilmiah atau teknologi yang akan diteliti dengan
kesenjangan pengetahuan ilmiah yang lebih luas.
Rumusan maslaah penelitian biasanya terdiri atas beberapa kalimat
pertanyaan yang dibuat secara jelas dan tegas yang dapat mengarahkan
solusi atau alternatif solusinya.
Beberapa hal yang perlu diperhatikan adalah:
a. Rumusan masalah dinyatakan secara singkat , jelas dan padat
b. Rumusan masalah akan lebih baik jika menggunakan kalimat tanya
c. Rumusan masalah akan lebih baik jika bersifat menghubungkan dua
variabel (atau faktor, atau indikator) atau lebih
d. Rumusan maslaah hendaknya berisi implikasi adanya data untuk
pemecahan masalah
e. Rumusan masalah hendaknya relevan dengan judul dan perlakuan
yang akan diteliti
PERUMUSAN MASALAH DALAM
PENELITIAN KUALITATIF
1. Rumusan maslaah penelitian bersifat tentatif
yang dapat berubah dan disempurnakan.
2. Maslaah penelitian ada di lapangan, dan
perumusan masalah merupakan upaya untuk
menemukan teori dari dasarnya (grounded
theory)
3. Rumusan maslaah sering disebut “fokus
penelitian” yang dirumuskan dalam bentuk
“pertanyaan penelitian”.
PERTANYAAN PENELITIAN.
1. Pertanyaan penelitian – Permasalahan Penelitian –
Fokus penelitian
2. Pertanyaan yang harus dijawab melalui penelitian
3. Pertanyaan penelitian menekankan pada fakta dan
pengumpulan informasi
4. Pertanyaan penelitian dapat dirinci menjadi
“Pertanyaan penyelidikan” (Investigative question)
5. Pertanyaan pengukuran (measurement question):
pertanyaan yang diajukan kepada para responden
Arikunto (1998):
12 langkah dalam penelitian:
1. Memilih masalah
2. Studi pendahuluan
3. Merumuskan masalah
4. Merumuskan anggapan dasar
5. Merumuskan hipotesis
6. Memilih pendekatan
7. Menentukan variabel dan sumber data
8. Menentukan dan menyusun instrumen
9. Mengumpulkan data
10. Analisis data
11. Menarik kesimpulan
12. Menulis laporan
Husein Umar (1999):
Sembilan Langkah dalam penelitian:
1. Mendefinisikan dan merumuskan maslaah
2. Melakukan studi kepustakaan
3. Memformulasikan hipotesis
4. Menentukan Model
5. Mengumpulkan data
6. Mengolah dan menyajikan informasi
7. Menganalisis dan menginterpretasi
8. Membuat generalisasi dan kesimpulan
9. Membuat laporan
ETIKA DALAM PENELITIAN
Etika merupakan norma atau standar perilaku yang menjadi pedoman moral
perilaku seseorang dan huungannya dengan orang lain
Tujuan etika dalam penelitian adalah untuk menjamin agar tidak ada
seorangpun yang dirugikan atau mendapat dampak negatif dari kegiatan
penelitian.
Cooper dan Emory (1996): kegiatan-kegiatan tidak etis dapat berupa:
1. Pelanggaran persetujuan tentang kerahasiaan
2. Salah menyajikan hasil dan temuan penelitian
3. Menipu orang
4. Menagih biaya yang tidak wajar
5. Menghindari tanggung-jawab hukum
6. Dan lainnya
O’Sullivan dan Ressel (1989):
Tiga pedoman etika thd responden:
1. Memulai pengumpulan data dengan
menjelaskan kepada responden mengenai
manfaat yang diharapkan dari penelitian.
2. Menjelaskan kepada responden bahwa hakhaknya dan kesejahteraannya dilindungi
secukupnya dan bagaimana caranya
3. Memastikan bahwa pewawancara mendapat
persetujuan dari responden.
Primary Research
Primary research (also called field research)
involves the collection of data that doesn't already
exist.
This method of research is always used as the first
technique, this can then lead on to Field research.
The term is widely used in market research.
Methods of collection primary data
Observation: Looking at and recording what people do
and how they behave. Today, store cameras can be used to
observe consumer behaviour
Experiments: Market researchers can use experimental
techniques. e.g. test marketing, blind taste tests
Surveys: Involves asking questionnaires to respondents
Consumer panels: A select group of consumers that the
company regularly surveys to identify changing attitudes
Secondary research
Secondary research (also known as desk research) involves the
summary, collation and/or synthesis of existing research rather
than primary research, where data is collected from, for
example, research subjects or experiments.
The term is widely used in market research and in medical
research.
The principle methodology in medical secondary research is
the systematic review, commonly using meta-analytic statistical
techniques, although other methods of synthesis, like realist
reviews and meta-narrative reviews, have been developed in
recent years.
Analytic frame
Analytic frame is a detailed sketch or outline of some social
phenomenon, representing initial idea of a scientist analyzing
this phenomenon.
Charles C. Ragin defines it as one of the four building blocks of
social research (the other three being ideas (social theories),
evidence (data) and images (new ideas synthetised from
existing data).
Thus analytic frames are used to elaborate on starting
ideas and they would usually consist of a list of some key
elements found in most of the analysed phenomena (for
example, social movements).
Two specific types of analytic frames are case and aspect
based frames.
Framing by case refers to researchers using concepts to
classify the phenomena they study, while framing by
aspect refers to using concepts to characterize the
phenomena.
For example, a scientists describing a restaurant, a bus, a
coffeehouse and a waiting room as a noninteraction places
is assigning them into the same category, thus framing
them by case.
Framing by aspect is going further and differentiating
between cases in a given category (how exactly is
noninteraction achieved in those places, what forms of
SOCIAL INTERACTION are permitted in those places,
etc.).
Frames can be also divided into fixed, fluid or flexible.
Fixed frame are those which won't change in later
research states - they are common in QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH , and are used to test and prove or falsify a
HYPOTHESIS.
Flexible frames are common in COMPARATIVE
RESEARCH, where they show which factors may be more
relevant in specific research context, helping to explore the
problem without making specific hypothesis.
Fluid frames are used when researcher wants to limit the
influence of the existing, more established theories; they are
thus subject to much change and the researcher can use
several frames switching between them depending on the
gathered data.
Fluid frames are most common in the QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH.
Analytic induction
Analytic induction refers to a systematic examination of similarities between various
social phenomena in order to develop concepts or ideas. Social scientists doing social
research use analytic induction to search for those similarities in broad categories and
then develop subcategories. For example, social scientist may examine the category of
'marijuana users' and then develop subcategories for 'uses marijuana for pleasure'
and 'uses marijuana for health reasons'. If no relevant similarities can be identified,
then either the data needs to be reevaluated and the definition of similarities changed,
or the category is too wide and heterogeneous and should be narrowed down. (Ragin
1994)
In the earlier sociological papers (from 1940s and 1950s) this term could also be used
to mean the search for "universals" in social life, where "universal" meant an
invariant, complete, positivistic propriety (i.e. "all black males between 35 and 40
vote for Democrats"). (Ragin 1994)
Analytic induction
In the earlier sociological papers (from 1940s and 1950s) this term could also be used
to mean the search for "universals" in social life, where "universal" meant an
invariant, complete, positivistic propriety (i.e. "all black males between 35 and 40
vote for Democrats"). (Ragin 1994)
This principle was formulated in 1934 by Florian Znaniecki. He formulated it to
identify universal propositions and causal laws. He contrasted it with enumerative
research, which provided mere correlations and could not account for exceptions in
statistical relationships. This procedure was refined by Alfred Lindesmith (1947) and
Donald Cressey (1950) in their respective studies of opiate addiction and embezzlers,
and was used by Howard S. Becker (1963) in his study of marijuana users. (Taylor &
Bogdan 1998) Eventually it became one of the classic research methods in
ethnography.
Analytic induction
Znaniecki wrote that this procedure, known to natural sciences (if never named so)
involves "inducing laws from a deep analysis of experimentally isolated instances"
and can be contrasted with defining and using terms in advance of research.
Therefore it is a method involving inductive reasoning (rather than deductive).
Analytic induction allows for modification of social concepts and their relationships
throughout the process of doing research, with the goal of most accurately
representing the reality of the situation.
Cohort study
A cohort study is a form of longitudinal study used in
medicine and social science.
It is one type of study design.
In medicine, it is usually undertaken to obtain evidence to
try to refute the existence of a suspected association
between cause and disease; failure to refute an hypothesis
strengthens confidence in it.
Crucially, the cohort is identified before the appearance of
the disease under investigation.
The study groups, so defined, are observed over a period
of time to determine the frequency of new incidence of the
studied disease among them.
The cohort cannot therefore be defined as a group of people who already
have the disease. Distinguishing causality from mere correlation cannot
usually be done with results of a cohort study alone.
A cohort is a group of people who share a common characteristic or
experience within a defined time period (e.g., are born, leave school, lose
their job, are exposed to a drug or a vaccine, etc.).
Thus a group of people who were born on a day or in a particular time
period, say 1948, form a birth cohort.
The comparison group may be the general population from which the
cohort is drawn, or it may be another cohort of persons thought to have had
little or no exposure to the substance under investigation, but otherwise
similar.
Alternatively, subgroups within the cohort may be
compared with each other. The largest cohort study in
women is the Nurses' Health Study.
Started in 1976, it is tracking over 120,000 nurses and has
been analyzed for many different conditions and outcomes.
Some cohort studies track a group of children from their
birth, and record a wide range of information (exposures)
about them. The value of a cohort study depends on the
researchers' capacity to stay in touch with all members of
the cohort.
Some of these studies have continued for decades. An
example of a cohort study that has been going on for more
than 50 years is the Framingham Heart Study.
An example of an epidemiologic question that can be
answered by the use of a cohort study is: does exposure to X
(say, smoking) correlate with outcome Y (say, lung cancer)?
Such a study would enroll a group of smokers and a group of
non-smokers (the unexposed group) and follow them for a set
period of time and note differences in the incidence of lung
cancer between the groups at the end of this time.
In this example, a statistically significant increase in the
incidence of lung cancers in the smoking group as compared
to the non-smoking group is evidence in favor of the
hypothesis. However, rare outcomes, such as lung cancer, are
generally not studied with the use of a cohort study, but are
rather studied with the use of a case-control study.
Shorter term studies are commonly used in medical
research as a form of clinical trial, or means to test a
particular hypothesis of clinical importance. Such studies
typically follow two groups of patients for a period of time
and compare an endpoint or outcome measure between the
two groups.
Randomized controlled trials, or RCTs are a superior
methodology in the hierarchy of evidence, because they
limit the potential for bias by randomly assigning one
patient pool to an intervention and another patient pool to
non-intervention (or placebo). This minimises the chance
that the incidence of confounding variables will differ
between the two groups.
Nevertheless, it is sometimes not practical or ethical to
perform RCTs to answer a clinical question.
To take our example, if we already had reasonable evidence
that smoking causes lung cancer then persuading a pool of
non-smokers to take up smoking in order to test this
hypothesis would generally be considered quite unethical.
A "prospective cohort" defines the groups before the study is
done, while a "retrospective cohort" does the grouping after
the data is collected.
Constructive research
Constructive research is perhaps the most common
computer science research method. This type of approach
demands a form of validation that doesn’t need to be quite
as empirically based as in other types of research like
exploratory research.
Nevertheless the conclusions have to be objectively argued
and defined. This may involve evaluating the “construct”
being developed analytically against some predefined
criteria or performing some benchmark tests with the
prototype.
The term “construct” is often used in this context to refer
to the new contribution being developed.
Construct can be a NEW THEORY, ALGORITM,
MODEL, SOFTWARE, or A FRAMEWORK.
The following phrases explain the above figure.
The “fuzzy info from many sources” tab refers to different info
sources like training materials, processes, literature, articles,
working experience etc.
In the “solution” tab, “theoretical framework” represents a
tool to be used in the problem solving.
The “practical relevance” tab it refers to empirical knowledge
creation that offers final benefits.
The “theoretical relevance” tab it gives the new theoretical
knowledge that needs scientific acceptance: the back arrow to
“theoretical body of knowledge” tab.
Steps to be followed in “practical utility” tab (a):
Set objectives and tasks
Identify process model
Select case execution
Interview case organization
Prepare simulation
Run simulation
Interpret simulation results
Give feedback
Steps to be followed in “epistemic utility” tab (b):
Constructive research
Case research
Surveys
Qualitative and quantitative methods
Theory creating
Theory testing
Cross-sectional study
Cross-sectional studies (also known as Cross-sectional analysis)
form a class of RESEARCH METHOD that involve
observation of some subset of a population of items all at the
same time.
The fundamental difference between cross-sectional and
LONGITUDINAL STUDIES is that cross-sectional studies take
place at a single point in time and that a longitudinal study
involves a series of measurements taking over a period of time.
Cross-sectional studies are used in most branches of science, in
the social sciences and in other fields as well.
Cross-sectional studies
Cross-sectional studies can be thought of as providing a
"snapshot" of the frequency and characteristics of a disease in a
population at a particular point in time.
This type of data can be used to assess the prevalence of acute or
chronic conditions in a population. However, since exposure and
disease status are measured at the same point in time, it may not
always be possible to distinguish whether the exposure preceded or
followed the disease.
The cross-sectional survey--which, like a snapshot, "freezes" a
specific moment in time--aims at finding the same kind of
relationships that might be shown by the "moving picture" of the
cohort study, but at far less cost.
In a cross-sectional survey, a specific group is looked at to see if
a substance or activity, say smoking, is related to the health
effect being investigated--for example, lung cancer.
If a significantly greater number of smokers already have lung
cancer than those who don't smoke, this would support the
hypothesis that lung cancer is caused by smoking.
Cross-sectional analysis studies the relationship between
different variables at a point in time.
For instance, the relationship between income, locality, and
personal expenditure. Unlike time series, cross-sectional
analysis relates to how variables affect each other at the same
time.
Longitudinal study
A longitudinal study is a correlational research study that
involves repeated observations of the same items over long
periods of time, often many decades.
Longitudinal studies are often used in psychology to study
developmental trends across the life span.
The reason for this is that unlike cross-sectional studies,
longitudinal studies track the same people, and therefore the
differences observed in those people are less likely to be the
result of cultural differences across generations.
Longitudinal studies are also used in medicine to uncover
predictors of certain diseases.
Because longitudinal studies are OBSERVATIONAL, in the
sense that they observe the state of the world without
manipulating it, it has been argued that they may have less
power to detect CAUSAL RELATIONSHIPS than do
EXPERIMENT.
But because of the repeated observation at the individual
level, they have more power than cross-sectional
observational studies, by virtue of being able to exclude timeinvariant unobserved individual differences, and by virtue of
observing the temporal order of events.
Longitudinal studies allow social scientist to
distinguish short from long-term phenomena, such as
POVERTY.
If the poverty rate is 10% at a point in time, this may mean that
10% of the population are always poor, or that the whole
population experiences poverty for 10% of the time.
It is not possible to conclude which of these possibilities is the
case using one-off cross-sectional studies.
Types of longitudinal studies include cohort studies and panel
studies.
COHORT STUDIES sample a cohort, defined as a group
experiencing some event (typically birth) in a selected time
period, and studying them at intervals through time.
PANEL STUDIES sample a cross-section, and survey it at
(usually regular) intervals.
A RETROSPECTIVE STUDY is a longitudinal study that
looks back in time. For instance a researcher may look up the
medical records of previous years to look for a trend
Operations research
Operations research or operational research (OR) is an
interdisciplinary science which uses scientific methods like
mathematical modeling, statistics, and algorithms to help
with decision making in complex real-world problems
which are concerned with coordination and execution of
the operations within an organization. The nature of the
organization is immaterial. The eventual intention behind
using this science is to elicit a best possible solution to a
problem scientifically, which improves or optimizes the
performance of the organization.
The terms operations research and management science are
often used synonymously. When a distinction is drawn,
management science generally implies a closer relationship
to the problems of business management.
Operations research also closely relates to Industrial
engineering. Industrial engineering takes more of an
engineering point of view, and industrial engineers typically
consider OR techniques to be a major part of their toolset.
Some of the primary tools used by operations researchers
are statistics, optimization, stochastics, queueing
theory, game theory, graph theory, decision analysis,
and simulation.
Because of the computational nature of these fields, OR
also has ties to computer science, and operations
researchers regularly use custom-written or off-theshelf software.
Operations research is distinguished by its ability to look at
and improve an entire system, rather than concentrating
only on specific elements (though this is often done as well).
An operations researcher faced with a new problem is expected
to determine which techniques are most appropriate given
the nature of the system, the goals for improvement, and
constraints on time and computing power.
For this and other reasons, the human element of OR is vital.
Like any other tools, OR techniques cannot solve problems
by themselves.
Scope of operations research
A few examples of applications in which operations research is
currently used include:
1. Designing the layout of a factory for efficient flow of materials
2. Constructing a telecommunications network at low cost while still
guaranteeing QoS (quality of service) or QoE (Quality of Experience)
if particular connections become very busy or get damaged
3. Road traffic management and 'one way' street allocations i.e.
allocation problems.
4. Determining the routes of school buses (or city buses) so that as few
buses are needed as possible
5. Designing the layout of a computer chip to reduce manufacturing
time (therefore reducing cost)
6. Managing the flow of raw materials and products in a supply chain
based on uncertain demand for the finished products
7. Efficient messaging and customer response tactics
8. Roboticizing or automating human-driven operations processes
9. Globalizing operations processes in order to take advantage of cheaper
materials, labor, land or other productivity inputs
10. Managing freight transportation and delivery systems (Examples: LTL
Shipping, intermodal freight transport)
11. Scheduling:
Personnel staffing
Manufacturing steps
Project tasks
Network data traffic: these are known as queuing models or
queuing systems.
Sports events and their television coverage
Blending of raw materials in oil refineries
Operations research is also used extensively in government where evidencebased policy is used.
Systems thinking
Systems thinking is an approach to analysis that is based on the belief that
the component parts of a system will act differently when isolated from its
environment or other parts of the system. Because the whole is greater than
the sum of its parts, (the relationship between the parts is what should be
under observation) any atomistic analysis, is considered reductionistic.
Standing in contrast to Descartes's, and others', reductionism, it proposes to
view systems in a holistic manner.
Consistent with systems philosophy, systems thinking concerns an
understanding of a system by bringing the linkages and interactions to bear
between the elements that comprise the entirety of the system. It depicts all
human-activity systems as open systems, that they are affected by the
environment in which they exist.
Systems thinking attempts to illustrate that, in complex
systems, events are separated by distance and time; hence,
small catalytic events can cause large changes in a system.
Acknowledging that a change in one area of a system can
adversely affect another area of the system, it promotes
organizational communication at all levels in order to
avoid the silo effect.
Both systems thinkers and futurists consider that:
a "system" is a dynamic and complex whole, interacting as
a structured functional unit;
information flows between the different elements that
compose the system;
a system is a community situated within an environment;
information flows from and to the surrounding
environment via semi-permeable membranes or
boundaries
systems are often composed of entities seeking equilibrium
but can exhibit oscillating, chaotic, or exponential growth
or decay behavior.
What is a system?
A system is any set (group) of interdependent or
temporally interacting parts. Parts are generally systems
themselves and are composed of other parts, just as
systems are generally parts or holons of other systems.
Systems thinking techniques may be used to study any
kind of system — natural, scientific, human, or
conceptual.
The Systems approach rests on two tenets:
"The Whole is more than the sum of the parts" — Aristotle
The development ethic.
Examples
Systems thinking often involves considering a "system" in different ways:
Rather than trying to improve the braking system on a car by looking in great
detail at the composition of the brake pads (reductionist), the boundary of the
braking system may be extended to include not only the components of the car,
but the driver, the road and the weather, and considering the interactions between
them.
Looking at something as a series of conceptual systems according to multiple
viewpoints. A supermarket could be considered as a "profit making system" from
the perspective of management, an "employment system" from the perspective of
the staff, and a "shopping system" — or perhaps an "entertainment system" —
from the perspective of the customers. As a result of such thinking, new insights
may be gained into how the supermarket works, why it has problems, or how
changes made to one such system may impact on the others.
Methods
The application of Systems thinking has been grouped into
three categories based on the techniques used to tackle a
system:
HARD SYSTEMS —
involving simulation, often using computers and the techniques
of operations research. Useful for problems that can justifiably
be quantified.
However it cannot easily take into account unquantifiable
variables (opinions, culture, politics, etc), and may treat people
as being passive, rather than having complex motivations.
SOFT SYSTEMS —
For systems that cannot easily be quantified, especially those
involving people holding multiple and conflicting frames of
reference.
Useful for understanding motivations, viewpoints, and
interactions and addressing qualitative as well as quantitative
dimensions of problem situations.
Soft systems are a field that utilizes foundation methodological
work developed by Peter Checkland, Brian Wilson and their
colleagues at Lancaster University.
Morphological analysis is a complementary method for
structuring and analysing non-quantifiable problem
complexes.
Evolutionary systems —
Bela H. Banathy developed a methodology applicable to the
design of complex social systems.
This technique integrates critical systems inquiry with soft
systems methodologies.
Evolutionary systems, similar to dynamic systems are
understood as open, complex systems, but with the capacity to
evolve over time.
Banathy uniquely integrated the multidisciplinary perspectives
of systems research (including chaos, complexity, cybernetics),
cultural anthropology, evolutionary theory, and others.
Applications
Systems thinking is increasingly being used to tackle a
wide variety of subjects in fields such as:
Computing,
Engineering,
Epidemiology,
Information science,
Health,
Manufacture,
Management, and
Environment.
References
Charles C. Ragin, Constructing Social Research: The Unity and Diversity of
Method, Pine Forge Press, 1994, ISBN 0-8039-9021-9
Steven J. Taylor, Robert Bogdan, Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods,
John Wiley & Sons, 1998, ISBN 0-471-16868-8
Epidemiology for the Uninitiated by Coggon, Rose, and Barker, Chapter 8,
"Case-control and cross-sectional studies", BMJ(British Medical Journal)
Publishing, 1997
Research Methods Knowledge Base by William M. K. Trochim, Web Center for
Social Research Methods, copyright 2006