Annotated Folio of
Practical Activities
Learning
Kardinia International College
Unit 4 VCE Psychology
Learning
Table of Contents
Prac 1: Classical Conditioning of an eye-blink......................................................................................... 3
Prac 2: Operant Conditioning – Investigating the Effectiveness of Different Schedules of
Reinforcement ........................................................................................................................................ 7
Prac 3: Application of Operant Conditioning: Shaping ......................................................................... 11
Prac 4. Does Observation enhance One’s Ability to Learn a Simple Task? ........................................... 14
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Prac 1: Classical Conditioning of an eye-blink
Source: Grivas, J., Letch, N., Down, R., & Carter, L. (2010). Psychology: VCE Units 3 & 4 (4th Ed).
Melbourne: Macmillan Education. Pps 457 – 459.
Classical conditioning of the eye-blink reflexive response is perhaps the most
thoroughly studied form of classical conditioning of mammals over the past 100 years or
so. For example, as shown in figure 10.7, it has been used in rabbits. Note the use of
electronic devices to produce an eye blink (by delivering a puff of air) and to accurately
record the reflexive response (by using an electromyograph to detect electrical activity
of muscles). What is most important about eye-blink conditioning is that in most cases it
appears similar across species, and thus results found in one species can reasonably be
expected to apply to others (Gluck, Mercado & Myers, 2008)
This practical activity enables you to apply classical conditioning procedures in
conditioning an eye-blink response using a simpler apparatus than that shown in figure
10.7. The two stimuli that will be paired to create a conditioned eye-blink response are:
• a puff of air (blown through a drinking straw and directed at the bridge of a
participant’s nose)
• a tapping sound (made by your knuckle or a pencil on a table).
You are to work in groups of three. One person will be the experimenter, one person will
be the participant, and the third person will observe and record the participant’s
responses. The three group members will take it in turns to apply the conditioning
procedure as it is outlined below. The experimenter and the participant should sit on
opposite sides of a table within reach of each other. The observer should sit next to
the experimenter with a clear view of the participant. The activity is best undertaken in
a place free from distractions such as external noise and other people. The procedure
has three stages.
Stage 1
Pre-conditioning. The experimenter should tap the pencil several times at irregular
intervals without presenting the puff of air. This is done to get the participant
habituated to the tapping alone so that they no longer respond by blinking. When the
participant shows no sign of blinking to the tapping alone, the experimenter can begin
conditioning.
Stage 2
Conditioning. There will be a total of 25 trials. In trials 1 to 15, first present the
tapping sound, then immediately blow a puff of air through the straw, aiming at the
bridge of the participant’s nose. The tap and air-puff pairings should be presented at
irregular intervals within a time period of about 90 seconds. This allows an average time
of just 3 seconds for each trial. In trials 16 to 25, present only the tapping sound (i.e.
no air-puff) for the five trials asterisked in Table 1. If the participant blinks in all of
these five trials then the response can be said to be conditioned.
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Stage 3
Post-conditioning. Tap without the air puff several times at irregular intervals until the
eye-blink response no longer occurs (is extinguished).
Results
Table 1 Individual data recording sheet
Trial no. Eye-blink response (Y/N)
Trial Number
Participant 1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16*
17
18*
19
20
21*
22*
23
24*
25
Participant 1 Participant 2 Participant 3
Participant 2
Participant 3
*Tapping sound alone presented on these trials.
Analysis and interpretation
1 Construct an operational hypothesis that could be tested by this practical activity.
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2 Compare your data with those of your two partners. Combine the class data and
evaluate it in terms of theoretical expectations.
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3 In what sense can a control and an experimental condition be seen in trials 16 to 25?
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4 Represent the combined class data in Table 2.
Table 2. Class Data for Conditioned Eye blink Experiment
Trial Number
Percentage that Blinked
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16*
17
18*
19
20
21*
22*
23
24*
25
Participant 1 Participant 2 Participant 3
Percentage that did not Blink
*Tapping sound alone presented on these trial
5 Describe the results evident in the combined data.
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6 What is the purpose of presenting the tapping sound alone for five of the 25 trials?
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Why are these five trials scheduled towards the end of the 25 trials?
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7 Identify the UCS, CS, UCR and CR in the procedure used for this activity.
UCS: ______________
CS: _______________
UCR: ______________
CR: _______________
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8 What conclusion(s) can be drawn from the results obtained from this experiment?
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9 Identify and explain any extraneous variables that might have influenced the results.
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10 Explain how the experimental design could be modified to minimise or control the
extraneous variable(s) referred to in question 9.
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Prac 2: Operant Conditioning – Investigating the Effectiveness of
Different Schedules of Reinforcement
Source: Milesi, P. (2011) The Psych Book VCE Units 3 & 4: Activities, Outcomes and Assessment 4th
Ed). Australia: Nelson Cengage Learning Pty Limited. Pps 148-150.
Schedules of reinforcement refer to the manner and frequency in which a desired
behaviour is reinforced. Responses may be randomly reinforced and unpredictable in
nature (occurring after a variable set of responses) or predictable when reinforcement
occurs after a fixed set of responses. Furthermore, reinforcement may occur after set
or random time intervals. The different schedules of reinforcement are listed below
and their effectiveness in establishing and maintaining desired responses is discussed.





A continuous reinforcement schedule is effective in rapidly establishing a
desired behaviour; however, it has a low resistance to extinction.
A fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement is most effective during the
acquisition stage of learning, as it establishes a consistent pattern of
reinforcement. After the behaviour is established, the frequency of
reinforcement may be extended.
A variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement is highly effective in establishing a
learned response, and has a high resistance to extinction, as the individual is
always anticipating the reinforcer.
A fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement is moderately effective in
establishing a response, and responses are inconsistent in nature. This is
because the individual learns when the reinforcer is due, and thus will cease
responding immediately after reinforcement. He or she may only recommence
the behaviour when he or she senses that the next time interval is approaching.
A variable interval schedule of reinforcement is more effective than a fixedinterval schedule as reinforcement is unpredictable. Such a schedule provides a
low, consistent, responding rate and therefore has a gradual extinction rate
that falls below that of a fixed-interval schedule.
AIM
The aim of this experiment is to measure the effectiveness of the different schedules
of reinforcement, and to determine which schedule is the most resistant to extinction.
1. Formulate an operational hypothesis based on the information in the
introduction and aim.
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2. What is the IV ______________________________________________
3. What is the DV ______________________________________________
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Method
Materials:
 A jar of chocolate buttons or jelly beans to be used as positive reinforcers.
 Data recording graph
 Timer
 Two pens /pencils (different colours)
Procedure:
The desired response to be demonstrated by the participant is to recite the
alphabet backwards
Step 1. Divide participants into four groups. Each group will receive a different
schedule of reinforcement. The correct response rate of the above task over a 10
minute time period will be recorded, and the resistance to extinction measured.
Within the four groups, participants are to work in groups of three with one
person acting as the ‘experimenter’ and the other as the ‘participant’. The third
person is to observe the participant’s responses and plot the cumulative number of
correct responses and periods of reinforcement on the data recording graph.
The exercise should be carried out with both the experimenter and participant
seated opposite one another at a desk, with the observer seated adjacent to them.
Group 1 is to be reinforced using a fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement. (A
reward should be given after the correct response has been demonstrated 3 times)
Group 2 is to be reinforced using a variable ratio schedule of reinforcement. (A
reward should be given after ever three correct responses on average)
Group 3 is to be reinforced using a fixed-interval schedule or reinforcement ( A
reward should be given every 60 seconds precisely).
Group 4 is to be reinforced using a variable ratio schedule of reinforcement. (A
reward is to be given every 60 seconds on average)
Step 2. During the acquisition phase of the learning process, continuous
reinforcement will be given until some learning has occurred. The participant should
recite the alphabet backwards 5 times and receive a reward after each correct
response.
Step 3. The experimenter-participant pairs should then commence partial
reinforcement with their allocated schedule over a 10-minute time period. On the
data recording graph, the observer should chart (by placing a dot) every time the
‘participant’ elicits a correct response over the 10-minute period. A dash in a
different colour should also be pencilled in on the graph whenever the
experimenter gives the participant a reinforcer.
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Step 4. Collate the class results and compare the different schedules of
reinforcement.
Figure 1. Correct Responses by subject for reverse alphabet recall
Discussion
1 Based on the results obtained, was the hypothesis supported?
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2
Which partial schedule of reinforcement was the most effective in terms of
the speed with which the response was acquired?
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3
Which reinforcement schedule seemed t be most resistant to extinction?
Measure this by observing which schedule produced the highest number of
cumulative responses over the time period.
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4
Which reinforcement schedule produced the most steady, consistent response
rate? Suggest a reason for your answer.
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5
Which reinforcement schedule produced the most erratic response rate (i.e.
the participant’s rate of response increased and decreased intermittently over
the time period)? Suggest a reason for your answer.
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Was the reinforcer used an effective incentive for the participant? If you
answered no, explain how this may have confounded the results of the
experiment.
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Prac 3: Application of Operant Conditioning: Shaping
Source: Grivas, J., & Lawrie. P. (1991). Psychology Experiments and Activities. Sydney: Harcourt Brace
Javanovich. Pps 199 & 200.
An important principle of instrumental or operant conditioning is called shaping. Shaping
involves the reinforcement of a response that takes the organism closer to a particular
behaviour, to the exclusion of other behaviours. This is similar to the ‘hot and cold’
game, where something is hidden and another person has to find or identify it. There is
no feedback other than ‘hotter’ or ‘colder’ as the person gets closer or further away
from the desired object.
Shaping has traditionally been studied with rats. There are obvious problems with using
rates in a classroom. Consequently this experiment involves two volunteer students,
acting as ‘experimental rats.’
AIMS
1. To demonstrate how behaviour can be shaped by rewarding successive
approximations
2. To illustrate principles of instrumental/operant conditioning
PROCEDURE
Step 1
Ask for two student volunteers to act as ‘experimental rats’. Have them
leave the classroom and remain out of ‘ear range’. While they are out of the room, have
the class decide on a novel behaviour for the participants to perform (but do not tell
the participants what it is). For example it could be as simple as picking up a book or
touching the board. Alternatively, it could be a more complex behaviour such as
selecting a specific book from a bookcase or cleaning the board in a particular way.
A group of students (the rest of the class) should call out the word ‘cheese’ whenever
the participant makes a positive move in the direction of the required task or goal
behaviour.
Discuss the procedure fully, as it is crucial to the success of the activity. As each
participant moves about the room, she or he will make many responses. The ‘shapers’
must identify the appropriate responses and reinforce these. Incorrect use of
reinforcement will confuse the participant. It is important that the participant can
associate the desired response with the reinforcer. Appoint one or more students to
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time the participants. Record the time taken for each participant to perform the
required task.
Step 2
Bring the first participant just inside the classroom and give her or him
these instructions: “In your new role as an ‘experimental’ rat you may explore your new
environment, groom yourself, listen to strange noises, smell strange smells and generally
potter about. You are required to complete a task but will not be told what it is. Instead, you
will receive a verbal reinforcement – the word ‘cheese’ – whenever your behaviour indicates
a move towards the task’s completion”.
Step 3
Ask the participant to begin exploring the environment. The timekeeper
should record the starting time. On each occasion the participant does something that
is related to the desired behaviour, the group or class should give the reinforcement by
calling out ‘cheese’. At first, it will be necessary to reward the participant for simply
looking in the right direction. Also, for learning to most effective, the reward must be
presented almost simultaneously with the appropriate response. When the participant
actually performs the desired behaviour, call ‘goal’ and stop timing. Record the time
taken in Table 1
Table 1.
Shaping DATA Sheet
Participant
Trial 1
Time
Trial 2
Difference
1
2
Step 4
Return the participant to the starting point. Repeat Step 3. Record the
time taken in Table 1.
Step 5
Repeat the procedures with the other participant.
DISCUSSION
1. Compare within and between individual differences in task completion. What
factors may account for any variations?
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2. What problems occurred in the shaping procedure? Was ‘cheese’ an effective
reinforcer? Were there any unexpected reinforcers?
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3. Describe the process exhibited by the ‘experimental’ rats in relation to the
Three-Phase model of operant conditioning (S = Stimulus, R = Operant Response,
C = Consequence) and suggest the effect of this activity on the participants
future behaviour.
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Prac 4. Does Observation enhance One’s Ability to Learn a Simple
Task?
Source: Milesi, P. (2011) The Psych Book VCE Units 3 & 4: Activities, Outcomes and Assessment 4th
Ed). Australia: Nelson Cengage Learning Pty Limited. Pps 139-147.
INTRODUCTION
Probably the most common image used to stereotype psychological research on learning
would be that of rats running through a maze. In such experiments, the rats are placed
into the maze and over repeated sessions they demonstrate learning by running the
maze in progressively shorter times, usually to receive the reward of cheese at the
end. These times are usually plotted onto a graph known as a learning curve, which
clearly represents the learning displayed by the experimental participants. In this
experiment, human participants will have to negotiate a simple maze to demonstrate
their ability to learn.
The maze has been constructed such that:

The path goes from left to right, which means that right-handed subjects would
obscure most of the figure as they progress through the maze

Different solutions are possible.
Before beginning the experiment the explanation below is necessary:
Standardised Briefing Statement
“My name is ________________ and I’m a Year 12 Psychology student at
__________ ____________ . We are researching processes involved in learning as a
part of our School Assessed Coursework. I was wondering if you would mind spending a
few minutes performing a simple task, namely completing a simple maze several times to
see how your performance changes with practice. Your identity will remain anonymous.
When doing the task, normal maze rules apply. Specifically, you are to begin at the
entry (the mouth) and are not to work backwards (from the exit). You are not to lift
the pen off the page, and must not cross over any of the lines – if you make an error or
go up a blind alley, then you must return to the point where the error was made without
lifting your pen off the page. You are to perform the task as quickly as possible, and I
will time how long you take for each attempt.”
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AIM
The aim of this experiment is to explore whether observational learning would
facilitate the performance of a simple learning task. The desired response is for the
participant to correctly negotiate his or her way through the maze as quickly as
possible.
1. Before beginning, formulate an operational hypothesis based on the information
in the introduction and aim.
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2. What is the IV? _____________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. What is the DV? _____________________________________________
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METHOD
Materials:

At least 5 copies of the maze for each pair of participants

Pen or Pencil

Stopwatch or timer
Procedure:
Step 1
Explain the process to the participants using the standardised briefing
statement.
Step 2
Once participants have been selected and have consented to participate
in the experiment, randomly allocate them to work together in pairs. Inform these
pairs that they will each take the role of ‘experimenter’ and ‘subject’, and ask them to
quickly organise who will take each role first. Alternatively, randomly allocate them to
their roles yourself).
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Instruct the experimenter that he or she is to closely watch the subject to ensure
that he or she follows the rules and to get an exact time, which the experimenter is to
record after each attempt with the maze.
Step 3
The experimenter gives the subject a copy of the maze and a pen or
pencil and begins to time how long it takes for the subject to complete the maze. After
the subject finishes the maze, the experimenter records the time taken (in seconds),
collects the completed mazes and covers it up.
The experimenter then asks the subject to briefly describe the process that he or she
used in order to find the way out of the maze. What type of learning strategy did he or
she apply (The experimenter records this response for discussion later.)
Step 4
The subject repeats the maze for the remaining number of trials, with
the experimenter collecting the completed maze at the end of each trial and recording
the time in seconds.
Step 5
Once the experimenter has recorded the time for the last trial, the roles
are reversed and Steps 3 & 4 are repeated.
When you are aware that the last trial has been finished, say ‘Thankyou for your
participation. It is most appreciated.’
Step 6
Collate the data for each group of participants. Calculate the mean time
for each trial for each group, and record this in the table provided.
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RESULTS
TRIAL #
Mean time taken (seconds)
for Group 1 (initial subject)
Mean time taken (seconds) for Group 2
(initial ‘experimenter’ – observer)
1
2
3
4
5
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DISCUSSION
1. What did the results show? Did your data support the hypothesis?
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2. Did the progress shown in each subsequent trial indicate gradual learning for
all subjects?
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3. What approach to learning is best illustrated within the early trials of this
experiment? Explain.
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4. Was there a difference between the first group (model) and the second
group (observer)? If so, how? How could you account for any differences
between the behaviour displayed by the two groups?
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5. Did the second group follow the same path as those they observed from the
first group? If so, what would this demonstrate? Explain.
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Appendix i: Maze Example
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