Bahan kajian pada MK. Pertanian Berlanjut
EFEK PERTANIAN
TERHADAP
LINGKUNGAN
Diabstraksikan oleh: smno.jurstnh.fpub.sept2012
Bagaimana Pertanian mengubah Lingkungan
• Pertanian merupakan aktivitas yang snagat penting
bagi kehidupan manusia, dan menjadi salah satu
sumber kerusakan lingkungan
• Problematik lingkungan yang serius:
– Soil erosion
– Sediment transport and deposition downstream
– On-site pollution from overuse and secondary effects of
fertilizers and pesticides
– Off-site pollution of other ecosystems, of soil, water and
air
Bagaimana Pertanian mengubah Lingkungan
Problematik lingkungan yang serius:
–
–
–
–
–
–
Deforestation
Desertification
Degradation of aquifers
Salinization
Akumulasi senyawa organik toksik
Kehilangan biodiversitas
BAHAYANYA PERTANIAN Industrial
Key: AWL to Study, Low-frequency Vocabulary
What are the hazards of industrial agriculture?
PERTANIAN ORGANIK: SEDANG BERKEMBANG
• Consumer demand for organic farming is rising at 20%
per year.
• The highest growth is in Argentina, US, and China.
• People are growing conscious of adverse effects of
industrial agriculture,
where there is a focus on
maximizing profits
at the expense of health
and the environment.
Bagaimana pemikiran anda bahwa pertanian-industrial
berkontribusi pada pemanasan global dan pencemaran
air?
RISIKO KESEHATAN : METODE Industrial
• Pesticide residues on produce
 remain after washing and peeling.
 have links to cancer.
• Antibiotics we ingest
 from plant and animal sources
 lead to the development of
untreatable
superbugs
Apakah anda khawatir tentang adanya residu pestisida atau antibiotik di
dalam bahan pangan produk pertanian ?.
RISIKO KESEHATAN
• Plant and animal growth hormones
 disrupt endocrine system.
 lead to early puberty.
• Biological engineering
 Unregulated items are
virtually invisible in stores.
 Manipulation of genetic code could impact health.
How do you think genetically modified food might impact your
health?
BAHAYA LINGKUNGAN
• Environmental hazards comprise air pollution,
global warming, and other problems.
• Synthetic fertilizers
 largest source of nitrous oxide
emissions
 300 times more toxic than carbon
dioxide gases
 will affect air pollution and intensify
global warming if continued
Are you concerned about air pollution in your
country? Why or why not?
TANAH YANG TIDAK LESTARI
• Industrial mono-cropping: one crop is planted
repeatedly on a single field.
The process relies on the use of synthetic fertilizers.
Mono-cropping kills microorganisms needed to
produce soil nutrients.
Infertile soil leads to erosion,
unsustainable farmlands,
and reduced biodiversity.
If mono-cropping is destroying farmlands and biodiversity, what is the
alternative?
PERTANIAN ORGANIK
• Organic farming prohibits
the use of synthetic fertilizers
and pesticides, hormones,
antibiotics, and genetically
modified organisms.
• It ensures soil sustainability
and overall quality.
What are the advantages of eating organic
food?
ROTASI TANAMAN
• Holistic farming techniques
infuse soil with essential nutrients.
ensure different crops are planted every year.
vary the nutrient demand in soil.
create sustainable soil.
KESEJAHTERAAN TERNAK
• Small-scale organic farms are
less likely to confine livestock to small spaces.
against the use of antibiotics.
• Free-range farms
allow animals to roam freely.
reduce stress and susceptibility to disease.
How do you feel about confining animals to small spaces in order to produce
food?
The Plow Puzzle
• Nothing in nature like the plow
– Big difference between soils of an unplowed forest
and soils of previously forested land that has been
plowed and used for ag
• Soil difference noted in Marsh’s book
– Man and Nature in 1864
The Plow Puzzle
Semakin kritis
kondisi tanah,
semakin banyak
input produksi
yang diperlukan,
seperti pupuk,
pestisida, air
irigasi dan
lainnya.
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
http://www.ipm.iastate.edu/ipm/icm/2001/1-29-2001/soilerosion.html…………
22/10/2012
TANAH YANG TEREROSI = LAHAN KRITIS
• When land cleared of its natural vegetation, the
soil begins to lose its fertility
– Physical erosion
• Became a global issue in the world
– Intense plowing + drought
– Loosened soil blow away
TANAH YANG TEREROSI = LAHAN KRITIS
• The land that became the Dust Bowl had been
prairie
– Deep rooted grasses that held soil in place
– After plowing soil exposed to elements
• When original vegetation is cleared soil changes
– Crops harvested and removed, less organic matter
returning to soil
– Soil exposed to sunlight which speeds rate of
decomposition
TANAH YANG TEREROSI = LAHAN KRITIS
• Traditionally decline in soil fertility combated using
organic fertilizers
– Animal manure
• In the 20th century crop production increased
– Chemical or artificial fertilizers
– Add nitrogen and phosphorous to the soil
TANAH YANG TEREROSI = LAHAN KRITIS
Lahan kritis telah mengalami
kerusakan baik secara fisika,
kimia, maupun biologi. Jumlah
lahan kritis di Indonesia semakin
meningkat seiring adanya
pembukaan dan penggundulan
hutan, penambangan, serta
eksploitasi yang berlebihan
terhadap tanah.
Diperkirakan saat ini luas lahan
kritis mencapai 77,8 juta hektare,
yang terdiri dari lahan agak kritis
mencapai 47,6 juta hektar, lahan
kritis seluas 23,3 juta hektar, dan
lahan sangat kritis mencapai 6,8
juta hektar.
Diunduh dari sumbernya: http://gerbangtani.wordpress.com/2012/08/18/perbaikan-lahan-kritis/ ………… 22/10/2012
Kemana material tanah yang tererosi
• A lot of it travels down streams and rivers
– Deposited at their mouths
– Fill in water ways
– Damage fisheries and coral reefs
• Sedimentation has chemical effects
– Enrichment of waters, eutrophication
– Transport of toxic chemical pesticides
Bagaimana melestarikan tanah
• Soil forms continuously
– But very slowly
– 1mm of soil formation takes 10-40 years
• To be truly sustainable soil lost should equal
amount of new soil produced
Pengolahan tanah menurut kontur
• Land is plowed perpendicular to the slopes
and as horizontally as possible.
– One of the most effective ways to reduce soil
erosion
– Also uses less fuel and time
Pertanian Tanpa Olah Tanah (TOT)
• Involves not plowing the land, using
herbicides and integrated pest management
to keep down weeds, and allowing some
weeds to grow.
– The goal is to suppress and control weeds but not
eliminate them at the expense of soil
conservation
– Additional benefit reduces the release of CO2
Pengendalian Hama
• Pests are undesirable
– Competitors, parasites, and predators
• In agriculture pests are mainly
– Insects, nematodes, bacterial and viral diseases,
weeds and vertebrates.
• Loss can be large
– Estimated at 1/3 of potential harvest and 1/10 of the
harvested crop
Pengendalian Hama
• Because a farm is maintained in a very early
stage of ecological succession and enriched by
fertilizers and water
– It is a good place for crops
– AND early-successional plants (weeds)
• Weeds compete for all resources
– Light, water,nutrients, and space to grow.
Sejarah Pestisida
• Pre- Industrial Revolution methods
– Slash and burn agriculture
– Planting aromatic herbs that repel insects
• Modern science-based agriculture
– Search for chemicals that would reduce abundance of
pests
– The first, like arsenic, toxic to all life
• Killed pest and beneficial organisms
Sejarah Pestisida
• Second stage began in the 1930
– Petroleum based sprays and natural plant chemicals
(e.g., nicotine)
• Third stage was the development of artificial
organic compounds
– DDT, broad-spectrum
– Aldrin and dieldrin used to control termites
• Toxic to humans, has been found in breast milk
Sejarah Pestisida
• Forth stage is a return to biological and
ecological knowledge.
• Biological control- the use of biological
predators and parasites to control pests
– The use of Bacillus thuringiensis (BT)
– Proved safe and effective
Sejarah Pestisida
• Other biological control agents
– Small wasps that parasitize caterpillars
• Both effective and narrow spectrum
– Ladybugs
– Sex pheromones (chemicals released to attract
opposite sex) used as bait in traps
Integrated Pest Management
(Pengelolaan Hama Terpadu)
Integrated Pest Management
(Pengelolaan Hama Terpadu)
• No-till or low-till agriculture another feature of
IPM
– Helps build levels of natural enemies of pests
Monitoring Pesticida di Lingkungan
• World pesticide use exceeds 2.5 billion kg
– US use exceeds 680 million kg
– $32 billion worldwide, $11 billion in US
• Once applied may decompose in place or be
carried by wind and water
– Breakdown products can also be toxic
– Eventually fully decompose but can take a very
long time
Integrated Pest Management
(Pengelolaan Hama Terpadu)
• To establish useful standards for pesticide
levels in the environment and to understand
the environmental effects, it is necessary to
monitor the concentrations.
– Standards have been set for some but not all
compounds
Genetically Modified Crops
(Tanaman rekayasa genetik)
• Three methods
– 1. Faster and more efficient development of new
hybrids
– 2. Introduction of the “terminator gene”
– 3. Transfer of genetic properties from widely
divergent kinds of life
Hibrida Baru
• From an environmental perspective, genetic
engineering to develop hybrids w/in a species is likely
to be a benign as the development of agricultural
hybrids has been w/ conventional methods.
• Concern that genetic modification may produce
– “superhybrids”
– Could become pest or transfer genes to closely related weeds
The Terminator Gene
• Makes seeds from a crop sterile
– Done for environmental and economic reasons
– Prevents a gmo from spreading
– Protects the market for the corporation that
developed it
• Critics note
– Farmer’s in poor nations must be able to grow next
years crops from their own seeds
TRANSFER GEN
• Genes transfer from one major life form to
another
– Most likely to have negative and undesirable impacts
• E.g. Bacillus thuringiensis
– Produce toxin that kills caterpillars
– Gene identified and transferred to corn
– Engineered corn now produces its own pesticide
TRANSFER GEN
• Bt plants thought to be a constructive step in
pest control
– No longer need to spray pesticide
• Bt plants produce toxin in all cells
– Even in pollen that can spread
– Monarch butterflies that eat pollen may die
Grazing on Rangelands
• Almost half of the Earth's land area is used as
rangeland
– 30% of Earth’s land area is arid rangeland
• Arid rangeland easily damaged especially in
time of drought
• Steams and rivers also damaged
– Trampling banks and fecal matter
Traditional and Industrial Use of Grazing
and Rangelands
• In modern industrialized agriculture
– Cattle initially raised on open range
– Then transport to feed lots
– Major impact is local pollution from manure
• Traditional herding practices
– Damage land through overgrazing
– Impact varies depending on density relative to
rainfall and soil fertility
Biogeografi Ternak-Pertanian
• Everyplace people have dispersed they have
bought animals w/ them
– Pre-industrial and throughout western civilization
• Environmental effects of introductions
– Native vegetation may be greatly reduced and
threatened w/ extinction
– Introduced animals may compete w/ native herbivores,
threatening them w/ extinction as well
DAYA DUKUNG LAHAN GEMBALAAN
• Carrying capacity– the maximum number of species per unit area that can
persist w/o decreasing the ability of that population or its
ecosystem to maintain that density in the future.
• When the carrying capacity is exceeded, the land is
overgrazed.
DAYA DUKUNG LAHAN GEMBALAAN
• Overgrazing
– Slows the growth of vegetation
– Reduces the diversity of plant species
– Leads to dominance by plant species that are
relatively undesirable to the cattle
– Hastens loss of soil by erosion
– Subject the land to further damage from trampling
PERKEMBANGAN DESERT (GURUN)
• Deserts occur naturally where there is too little
water for substantial plant growth.
– The warmer the climate the greater the rainfall
needed to convert an area from desert to non-desert
– The crucial factor is available water in the soil for
plant use
– Factors that destroy the ability of a soil to store water
can create a desert
PERKEMBANGAN DESERT (GURUN)
• Earth has five natural warm desert regions
– Primarily between 15o and 30o north and south of
the equator
• Based on climate 1/3 of Earth’s land area
should be desert
– 43% of land is desert
– Addition area due to human activities
PERKEMBANGAN DESERT (GURUN)
• Desertification – the deterioration of land in
arid, semiarid, and dry sub humid areas due to
changes in climate and human activities.
• Serious problem that affects 1/6 of world
population (1 billion people)
APA YANG MENYEBABKAN DESERTS
• The leading cause of desertification are bad
farming practices.
–
–
–
–
Failure to use contour plowing
To much farming
Overgrazing
Conversion of rangelands to croplands in marginal
areas
– Poor forestry practices
APA YANG MENYEBABKAN DESERTS
• Desert like areas can be created anywhere by
poisoning of the soil
– World wide chemicals account for 12% of soil
degradation
– Irrigation in arid lands can cause salts to build
up to toxic levels
MENCEGAH PERKEMBANGAN DESERT
• Tahap pertama adalah mendeteksi gejala-gejala
–
–
–
–
–
Lowering of water table
Increase in the salt content of soil
Reduced surface water
Increased soil erosion
Hilangnya vegetasi alamiah
• Dapat dicapai dnegan sisitem pemantauan yang
bagus
MENCEGAH PERKEMBANGAN DESERT
• Next step
– Proper methods of soil conservation, forest
management and irrigation
• Good soil conservation includes
– Use of wind breaks
– Reforestation
APAKAH PERTANIAN MENGUBAH Biosphere?
• 1st – Pertanian mengubah tutupan lahan
–
–
–
–
Resulting in changes in reflected light
The evaporation of water
The roughness of the surface
Rate of exchange of chemical compounds
• 2nd – Pertanian modern meningkatkan emisi CO2
– Major user of fossil fuels
– Clearing land speeds decomposition
APAKAH PERTANIAN MENGUBAH Biosphere?
• 3rd Affect climate through fires
– Associated w/ clearing land
– Add small particulates to the atmosphere
• 4th Artificial production of nitrogen
– Alters biogeochemical cycle
• 5th Affects species diversity
– Reduces diversity and increases # of endangered
species
RUNOFF
DAN
PENCEMARAN
AIR
Protecting Water Quality from
Agricultural Runoff
Youngs Creek Watershed Project
Gabe Robertson-Watershed Coordinator
Information/Pictures Courtesy of:
US EPA
USDA-NRCS
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
PROBLEMATIK PERTANIAN
• Agricultural nonpoint source (NPS) pollution is
the leading source of water quality impacts on
rivers and lakes.
• Activities that cause NPS pollution include poorly
located or managed animal feeding operations,
overgrazing, plowing too often and improper use
of fertilizers and pesticides.
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
POLUTAN PERTANIAN
•
•
•
•
Sediment (Soil washed off fields)
Nutrients (Fertilizers)
Pathogens (Bacteria and viruses)
Pesticides
(Insecticides, Herbicides, Fungicides)
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
Sedimentation
The main source of water pollution caused by farming
activities is soil that is washed off fields. Rain carries soil
particles (sediment) and dumps them into nearby streams or
lakes.
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
Problem Sedimentasi
• Clouds the water reducing the amount of
sunlight that reaches aquatic plants.
• Clogs the gills of fish and smothers fish larvae.
• Other pollutants such as fertilizers and
pesticides are often attached to soil particles
and can cause algal blooms.
• Decreases the depth of waterbodies.
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
Unsur Hara Pupuk
Manage nutrient application to avoid ammonium losses to surface water
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Practice timely tillage to incorporate manure, balancing the risk of soil compaction
with the losses of nitrogen to the atmosphere if the manure is not incorporated
quickly.
Avoid applying manure near surface water or on steeply sloping land.
Keep application rates low enough to prevent runoff.
Mix manure into the soil as soon possible after applying it.
On tile-drained land, keep application rates of liquid manure below 40 m3/ha (3,600
gal/ac) or pre-till the field before applying it. This will help prevent the movement of
manure directly to tile through cracks or earthworm channels.
Use buffer strips and erosion control structures to filter runoff before it enters
surface water. Buffer strips in riparian zones have proven to reduce nutrient
movement off the field into nearby surface water sources. Buffer strips consume
excess nutrients before they flow into surface water and enhance opportunities for
groundwater denitrification.
Diunduh dari sumbernya: . http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/engineer/facts/05-073.htm ………… 22/10/2012
Problematik Unsur-Hara Pupuk
Manage fields to avoid excess nitrate that could leach to groundwater
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Identify fields and areas sensitive to nitrogen in areas where nutrient applications are
planned. For instance, sandy or gravelly soils, and soils with shallow water tables are more
susceptible to nitrogen leaching.
Match nitrogen applications with crop requirements. Use the spring or pre-sidedress soil
nitrogen test where available (e.g., for corn and barley).
In your Nutrient Management Plan, account for nitrogen contributions from green manure
crops and any previous crop rotations.
In your Nutrient Management Plan, account for nitrogen from any manure or biosolid
application.
Apply most of the nitrogen just before the time of maximum crop uptake (e.g., sidedress
corn).
Split applications of nitrogen through techniques such as fertigation.
Practise crop rotations to make efficient use of nitrogen and maintain healthy soils.
Establish cover crops as needed to "tie up" any excess nitrogen at the end of the season.
Diunduh dari sumbernya: http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/engineer/facts/05-073.htm ………… 22/10/2012
Pathogens (bacteria, viruses)
Animal waste can be a major source of pathogens in lakes and
streams.
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
Problematik Pathogen
• Waterborne pathogens may cause diseases, such
as eye, ear and skin infections as well as a
number of other health related problems.
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
Pestisida
Insecticides, herbicides, and
fungicides are used to kill
agricultural pests. These
chemicals can enter and
contaminate water through
direct application and runoff.
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
Problematik Pestisida
• Can poison fish and wildlife
• Contaminate food sources and destroy the habitat
that animals use for protective cover.
• Can pose a health threat to humans that come in
contact with or drink water polluted with
pesticides.
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
Best Management Practices (BMPs)
Diunduh dari sumbernya: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167880901003541 ………… 22/10/2012
Pengelolaan Hutan-Pertanian
• Adds income to
your farm
• Adds beauty to
your farm
• Ground cover
provides wildlife
habitat, reduces
soil erosion, and
improves water
quality
Diunduh dari sumbernya: http://autonopedia.org/garden_and_farm/Permaculture/Permaculture.html ………… 22/10/2012
Planned Grazing Systems
1. Improves vegetative cover, reducing erosion and improving
water quality
2. Increases harvest efficiency and helps ensure adequate
forage throughout grazing season
3. Increases forage quality and production which helps
increase feed efficiency and can improve profits
4. Rotating also evenly distributes manure nutrient resources
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
Pengelolaan Pupuk Kandang
Manure storage structures protect water bodies
from manure runoff by storing manure until
conditions are appropriate for field application.
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
Farm Pond
1. Prevents soil erosion and
protects water quality by
collecting and storing
runoff water
2. Provides water for
livestock, fish, wildlife,
and recreational activities
3. Adds value and beauty to
a farm or farmstead
4. Provides a water supply
for emergencies
Kolam pemanen air hujan
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
Wildlife – Hutan Habitat
1. Ground cover reduces
soil erosion, adds
organic matter to the
soil, filters runoff, and
increases infiltration
2. It can add value to
your farmstead
Habitat hutan jati di musim kemarau
Foto:smno-saradan-htnjati-nop2012
3. Planned wildlife
habitat provides food
and cover for wildlife.
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
Filter Strips – Pertanian Kontur
1.
Grass, trees and
shrubs provide cover
for small birds and
animals
2.
Ground cover reduces
soil erosion
3.
The vegetative strip
moves rowcrop
operations farther from
a stream.
4.
Vegetation prevents
contaminants from
entering water bodies,
protecting water quality
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Pengolahan tanah menurut garus kontur
pada lahan miring
Foto:smno-pujon-horti-nop2012
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
Penanaman Lahan-Kritis
Critical area
plantings consist of
grass or other
vegetation that
protects badly
eroding areas from
soil erosion.
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Penanaman lahan di bawah tegakan hutan
Foto:smno-pujon-wanatani-nop2012
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
Contour Strip-cropping
1. Contour stripcropping is crop
rotation and contouring
combined in equal-width
strips of corn or soybeans
planted on the contour and
alternated with strips of oats,
grass, or legumes.
2. Contour stripcropping
reduces soil erosion and
protects water quality
Pengolahan tanah dan penanaman
menurut garis kontur
Foto:smno-pujon-horti-nop2012
3. Contour stripcropping may
help reduce fertilizer costs by
providing nutrient inputs
naturally
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
Diversion
1. Reduces soil erosion on lowlands by catching runoff water
and preventing it from reaching farmland below
2. Vegetation in the diversion channel filters runoff water,
improving water quality
3. Vegetation provides cover for small birds and animals
4. Allows better crop growth on bottomland soils
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
Saluran Air Berumput
1. Grass cover protects the drainageway from gully
erosion
2. Vegetation may act as a filter, absorbing some of
the chemicals and nutrients in runoff water
3. Vegetation provides cover for small birds and
animals
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
Contour Buffer Strips
• Vegetation provides cover
and habitat for small birds
and animals
• The strips reduce erosion by
slowing water flow and
increasing water infiltration
into soil
• By reducing siltation and
filtering nutrients and
chemicals from runoff, grass
strips improve water quality
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
Contour Farming
• Contouring can reduce soil
erosion by as much as 50%
from up and down hill
farming
• By reducing sediment and
runoff, and increasing
water infiltration,
contouring promotes
better water quality
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
Field Borders
• Vegetative cover reduces sheet
and rill erosion by slowing water
flow
• Vegetation filters runoff,
improving water quality
• Grass and legume strips may be
harvested in some cases and are
easier to turn on than end rows
• Vegetation provides cover and
habitat for small birds and
animals
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
Perlindungan Sumur
Well protection is necessary
when changing farming
practices which occur on or
near the farmstead in order
to reduce the risk of
contamination of water
sources--mainly the well.
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
PEREDAM ANGIN = Windbreak
1. A windbreak reduces
wind erosion, conserves
energy, reduces heating
bills and beautifies a
farmstead
2. Trees serve as a sound
barrier, muffling road
noise
3. Trees and shrubs provide
wildlife food and cover
4. Improved livestock
weight gains can be
expected when livestock
are protected from winter
winds and snow
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Pepohonan peneduh dan penangkal
angin di kampus UB
Foto:smno-pkampus ub-nop2012
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
Pasture Planting
1. Heavy grass cover slows water flow, reducing soil
erosion
2. Good pastures protect water quality by filtering
runoff water and increasing infiltration
3. Lush pastures offer wildlife cover and habitat
4. As plants recycle and roots die, organic matter in
the soil is improved
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
Perlindungan Sungai
1. Streambanks are covered with rocks, grass, trees,
or other cover to reduce erosion
2. Better water quality results from reducing amounts
of nutrients, chemicals, animal waste, and sediment
entering the stream
3. Buffer zones provide cover and habitat for birds and
small animals
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
Pengujian Pupuk Kandang
1. Manure testing is used to sample and test manure to
determine nutrient content.
2. This promotes proper nutrient application to fields.
3. Preventing over-application of manure to crop fields
results in improved water quality
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
Penanaman Pohon
1. Improving stands of woodlands can increase profits
2. Ground cover created by trees and associated debris protects soil
for rill and sheet erosion
3. Ground cover also protects water quality by filtering excess
nutrients and chemicals from surface runoff and increasing
infiltration rates
4. Healthy, well-managed woodlands provide long-term wildlife
habitat
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
Olah-Tanah Konservasi
Conservation
tillage involves
leaving last
year’s crop
residue on the
soil surface by
limiting tillage.
Residu panen daun tebu digunakan sebagai
mulsa permukaan
Foto:smno-mulsa-dau-agst2012
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
Pengolahan-Tanah Konservasi
• Ground cover prevents soil erosion and protects water
quality
• Residue improves soil tilth (health) and adds organic
matter to the soil as it decomposes
• Fewer trips and less tillage reduces soil compaction
• Time, energy and labor savings are possible with fewer
tillage trips
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
Pengolahan-Tanah Konservasi
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
Pengelolaan Hara
1. Sound nutrient management reduces input costs
and protects water quality by preventing over
application of commercial fertilizers and animal
manure
2. Correct manure and sludge application on all
fields can improve soil tilth and organic matter
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
Rotasi (Pergiliran) Tanaman
• Pesticide costs may be
reduced by naturally
breaking the cycles of
weeds, insects, and
diseases
• Grass and legumes in
a rotation protect water
quality by preventing
excess nutrients or
chemicals from
entering water
supplies
• Meadow or small
grains cut soil erosion
dramatically
• Crop rotations add
diversity to an
operation
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Sumber:
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378429010003205
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
Wetlands
• Wetlands can provide natural pollution control.
• They remove nutrients, pesticides, and bacteria
form surface waters and can act as efficient,
lowcost sewage and animal waste treatment
practices
• Wetlands filter and collect sediment from runoff
water
• Because wetlands slow overland flow and store
runoff water, they reduce both soil erosion and
flooding downstream
• Many wetlands release water slowly into the
ground which recharges groundwater supplies
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
PENGELOLAAN HAMA
• Scouting and spot treatment of only those pests that
are threatening can save money
• Using fewer chemicals improves water quality
• Specific treatments for specific pests on specific areas
of a field prevents over treatment of pests
Diunduh dari sumbernya: Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. …………
LAHAN BER-TERAS
A terrace is an
earthen
embankment
around a
hillside that
stops water
flow and stores
it or guides it
safely off a
field.
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012
PENGGUNAAN
LAHAN
&
EROSI TANAH
Land Use & Soil Erosion
•
•
•
Agriculture =
dominant land use
Urban Sprawl =
new land use threat
Excessive soil
erosion – soil
components moved
to new location due
to water or wind
Sumber: http://www.metacafe.com/watch/yt-x2CiDaUYr90/u_s_dust_bowl_of_1930s/
Proses terjadinya erosi oleh angin
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
TIPE EROSI TANAH
• Erosi geologis (alamiah)
- continuous slow rate of erosion
- 0.02 to 0.25 mm /yr for bare rock
- 2 mm /yr on stable soil surface
• Erosi dipercepat – human-caused
- 10 tons/A/yr
(natural replacement = 0.5 tons/A/yr)
- splash, sheet, rill, & gully erosion
- Dust Bowl (1930s)
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
PENGELOLAAN EROSI-TANAH
• USDA – 3,000 Soil & Water Conservation
Districts
• Are we controlling soil erosion?
- rate today = rate during 1930s)
- 4 B tons /yr
- mostly on farmland (50% water-based
& 60% wind-based)
- 80% farmland > natural replace. rate
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
TOLERANSI KEHILANGAN TANAH
= Tolerable Soil Loss
• USDA – erosion loss of 1 to 5 tons/A/yr
without impacting crop production
• No scientific basis for this measure
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
BIAYA-BIAYA EROSI-TANAH
•
•
•
•
Lower soil fertility / crop production
Air (dust) & water (sediments) pollution
Estimates of on-site costs = $27 B/yr
Estimates of off-site costs = $17 B/yr
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
FAKTOR EROSI-TANAH oleh AIR
1) Rainfall
• Amount, Intensity, Seasonality
2) Surface Cover (erodibility)
• Soil structure (related to water-stable
aggregates)
water-stable aggregates: material that aids
in soil particles clumping together in
water (e.g., organic matter)
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
FAKTOR EROSI-TANAH oleh AIR
Pupuk Hijau:
plowing under of cover
crop in order to
increase soil fertility
(N fixation), increase
organic matter, reduce
erosion
cover crops: vegetation
grown before/after
primary crop for
protection of soil
surface (e.g., clover,
alfalfa, winter wheat)
– related to green
manure
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
FAKTOR EROSI-TANAH oleh AIR
3) Topography
• Slope grade and
length
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
Mengendalikan Erosi Tanah
Clean tillage: crop residues turned into soil
soon after harvest; often fall plow
1) contour farming
2) Strip cropping
3) Terracing
4) Gully reclamation
5) Conservation tillage
6) Cropland Reduction Programs
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
Pertanian Garis Kontur
• Farming
perpendicular to
slope (across slope)
-- Jefferson
• Reduces water
runoff (65%),
erosion, and
siltation
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
http://bebasbanjir2025.wordpress.com/teknologipengendalian-banjir/pengolahantanahpenanaman-menurut-kontur/…………
22/10/2012
Pengolahan tanah / penanaman mengikuti garis kontur
dilakukan pada lahan miring untuk mengurangi erosi dan
aliran permukaan. Garis kontur adalah suatu garis khayal
yang menghubungkan titik-titik yang tingginya sama dan
berpotongan tegak lurus dengan arah kemiringan lahan.
Bangunan dan tanaman dibuat sepanang garis kontur dan
disesuaikan dengan keadaan permukaan lahan.
Penanaman pada garis kontur dapat mencakup pula
pembuatan perangkap tanah, teras bangku atau teras
guludan, atau penanaman larikan. Pengolahan tanah dan
penanaman mengikuti kontur banyak dipromosikan di
berbagai daerah di Indonesia dalam mengembangkan
pertanian yang berkelanjutan.
Keuntungan
1. Mengurangi aliran permukaan dan erosi
2. Mengurangi kehilangan unsur hara
3. Mempercepat pengolahan tanah apabila
menggunakan tenaga ternak atau traktor karena luku
atau alat pengolah tanah yang lain.
Strip Cropping
• Alternate strips of crops across a slope
• Rotate crops (crop rotation), i.e., rotate
strips
• Example:
Corn
Corn-Oats-Alfalfa
Oats
Alfalfa
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
Terrasering
• Ancient practice from
mountain cultures
• Create bench-like steps on
steep slopes
• ridge terraces (broad-base
or grass backslope) – broad
flat steps in slope
• channel terraces – dig
channel across slope; used
in high runoff sites
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
Terasering adalah penanaman dengan membuat terasteras yang dilakukan untuk mengurangi panjang
lereng dan menahan atau memperkecil aliran
permukaan agar air dapat meresap ke dalam tanah.
Jenis terasering antara lain teras datar, teras kredit,
Teras Guludan, dan teras bangku
Teras Datar (level terrace)
Teras datar dibuat pada tanah dengan kemiringan
kurang dari 3 % dengan tujuan memperbaiki
pengaliran air dan pembasahan tanah. Teras datar
dibuat dengan jalan menggali tanah menurut garis
tinggi dan tanah galiannnya ditimbunkan ke tepi luar,
sehingga air dapat tertahan dan terkumpul. Pematang
yang terjadi ditanami dengan rumput
Diunduh dari sumbernya: http://risetanalyst.blogspot.com/2011/11/terasering-adalah.html
Pengolahan Tanah Konservasi
• Limit or restrict plowing (tilling) of soil in
order to reduce soil erosion
• < 50% of US cropland
1) Minimum Tillage – field cultivator & disc
for working top few inches of soil (vs.
moldboard plow turning 6+ inches)
2) No Till – field machinery cuts narrow slit
into soil & drops seed; maximal surface
residue; maximal soil protection
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
Pertanian Tanpa-Olah-Tanah
• Keunggulan:
- reduces labor, fuel consumption, soil
erosion
- increases crop yield
• Kendala-kendala:
- need special equipment
- not universal
- disease & crop pest problems (herbicide
& pesticide use)
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
TOT = Tanpa Olah Tanah
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Diunduh dari sumbernya:
www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan....
………… 22/10/2012
Keuntungan Mulsa:
Melindungi permukaan tanah dari pukulan
langsung butir-butir air hujan serta mengurangi
aliran permukaan, erosi dan kehilangan tanah.
Menekan pertumbuhan tanaman pengganggu
(gulma) sehingga mengurangi (biaya tenaga kerja
untuk penyiangan.
Mulsa yang berupa sisa-sisa tanaman menjadi
sumber bahan organik tanah
Meningkatkan aktivitas jasad renik
(mikroorganisme tanah), sehingga memperbaiki
sifat fisika dan kimia tanah
Membantu menjaga suhu tanah serta mengurangi
penguapan sehingga mempertahankan
kelembaban tanah sehingga pemanfaatan
kelembaban tanah menjadi lebih efisien.
Tergolong teknik konservasi tanah yang
memerlukan jumlah tenaga kerja / biaya rendah.
TOT dengan Mulsa seresah sisa panen
Mulsa sisa tanaman
Mulsa ini terdiri dari bahan
organik sisa tanaman (jerami
padi, batang jagung),
pangkasan dari tanaman pagar,
daun-daun dan ranting tanaman.
Bahan tersebut disebarkan
secara merata di atas
permukaan tanah setebal 2-5
cm sehingga permukaan tanah
tertutup sempurna.
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
http://bebasbanjir2025.wordpress.com/teknologipengendalian-banjir/mulsa/
PESTICIDA
pesticide: chemical that kills pests (animal &
plant)
herbicide – weeds
insecticide – insects
rodenticide – rodents
Silent Spring – Rachel Carson (1960s)
1960s to present (6X > herbicide)
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
Pertanian Alternatif
conventional farming: agrochemicals, new
crop varieties, bigger equipment
alternative agriculture: use organic,
biodynamic, integrated, low-input or notill concepts
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
Pertanian Alternatif
organic farming: no agrochemicals; combats
disease/insects via cultural treatments
(e.g., crop rotation, green manures,
compost)
biodynamic farming: use soil preparations
made from animal manure, silica, and
plants
low-input farming: minimize use of material
from outside of farm
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
The Ecology of Farming
• Native communities = dynamic
equilibrium
• Human-altered systems = monocultures,
ecosystem simplification
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
“Cutting-Edge” Agriculture
Integrated Pest Mgt (IPM): limit pesticide
use by combating insect pests with broadspectrum (integrated) approach (e.g.,
biological, chemical, cultural…)
precision farming: use satellites (Global
Positioning System = GPS) to map fields
and spatial data (crop yield, fertilizer
application); manage smaller units (i.e.,
field sub-units)
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
Precision Farming
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
SIFAT & CIRI TANAH
• comprised of: minerals
organic matter
water
air
• Properties = texture, structure, organic
matter, life, aeration, moisture content,
pH, fertility
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
TEKSTUR TANAH
• Coarse fraction (rock, gravel) vs. fineearth fraction (sand, silt, clay)
• Sand > Silt > Clay
• textural classes (soil texture pyramid,
p.105, fig 6.2)
• adsorption: process of forming chemical
bonds (ionic bonds) between nutrients (+)
and soil (clay -) – relates to
leaching/fertility
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
Adsorption
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
Soil Structure
• arrangement/grouping of soil into
aggregates (or clumps)
• Influenced by “natural” physical factors
(e.g., freezing/thawing, burrowing) and
human alterations (e.g., tilling)
• Affects soil permeability (air & water)
and plant growth (roots)
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
Soil Organic Matter (OM) & Life
• OM = living & dead organisms in soil
• humus: top layer of soil produced via
decomposition; improves structure,
permeability, stability, fertility, habitat
• microorganisms vs. macroorganisms
• mycorrhizae (pl.): “fungus root”
symbiotic relationship between plant &
fungus – nutrient uptake from soil (e.g.,
conifers and fungi)
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
Aeration & Moisture Content
• pore space: space between soil particles
filled with air or water; relation to
structure & texture (sand vs. clay)
• Pore space (aeration/moisture content)
increased by OM
• At soil saturation, all pores filled with
water – correlated with surface runoff
intensity / erosion
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
pH (Kemasaman, reaksi) Tanah
• soil reaction: pH of soil (acid, neutral,
basic) – depends on H+ or OH- ions
• wet & mesic soils – acidic to neutral
• dry soils -- basic
• pH & agriculture
- lime (CaCO3) – Ca+ ions reduce acidity
- fertilizers (N, P) – with water… acidic
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
KESUBURAN TANAH
• soil fertility: capacity to provide all
nutrients needed for maximum growth
• macronutrient vs. micronutrient
- N vs Fe
• relation to pH
• some nutrient sources:
• fixation, decomposition, animal waste
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
PEMBENTUKAN TANAH
Five Factors:
1) Climate (temp. & precipitation)
physical & chemical changes in soil/rock
(weathering) – clay, leaching
2) Parent material
- weathering in place or transported
- outwash plain, alluvial, lacustrine,
dunes, tephra
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
PEMBENTUKAN TANAH
Five Factors:
3) Organisms (macro and micro)
4) Topography – relation to water movement
& soil condition/type
5) Time
*4.5 - 3.5 billion yrs before present(ybp)
* relation to other 4 factors
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
PROFIL TANAH
• soil profile: cross-section view of soil
horizons
• horizon: layers of soil that share
attributes of texture, structure, etc…
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
PROFIL TANAH
Major Horizons:
•
•
•
•
•
•
O horizon (organic layer)
A horizon (topsoil, humus, life)
E horizon (leaching zone)
B horizon (subsoil, accumulation zone)
C horizon (parent material, field stone)
R horizon (bedrock)
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
Water Resources
Water Shortage?
1) Human Population
2) Consumption - ag.,industry,resident
3) Efficiency
4) Distribution Problems
5) Pollution (air, soil, water)
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
Water Cycle?
replacement period: time to complete cycle
(9 days to 37,000 years)
• Unequal distribution of precipitation
- US
102 cm
- MI
81 cm
- Death Valley
4 cm
- Pacific NW
368 cm
• Evaporation & Transpiration
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
AIR PERMUKAAN & Groundwater
• Surface water (lakes, streams)
- may be potable, municipal use
• Groundwater – water infiltrates into soil
• percolation into aquifer (porous soil stratum of
sandstone or limestone)
• zone of aeration: plant roots, capillary water in
pore spaces
• zone of saturation: pore filled from water table
down to bedrock
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
DAERAH ALIRAN SUNGAI
watershed: area drained stream/river
• U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Flood Control
1) Levees – raise river banks with
earthen/stone dikes
• develop floodplains
• floods prevented, almost
• increase flood severity?
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
Flood Control (cont.)
2) Dredging – removal of sediments (Corps) –
pollutants?
3) Channelization – straightening streams
(NRCS) – floods & drainage, Everglades
4) Dams – water impoundment – public works
projects
• potable water, irrigation, recreation,
energy
• loss of habitat, evaporation,
sedimentation,
$$
Diunduh
dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan....
………… 22/10/2012
Protecting Watersheds &
Floodplains
• watershed protection as proactive &
sustainable flood control mgt.
• USDA, BLM, Army Corps, TVA
• floodplain zoning & Federal Flood
Disaster Protective Act of 1973
• nonstructural flood control
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
TIPE-TIPE PENCEMARAN
1) Sediment
2) Inorganic Nutrient
3) Thermal
4) Disease-Producing Microorganisms
5) Toxic Organic Chemicals
6) Heavy Metals
7) Organic Wastes
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
PENGELOLAAN PENCEMARAN
pollution control: (output control)
manage pollutant post hoc
- pollutant dispersion
pollution prevention: (input control)
avoid pollution a priori
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
1) Sediment Pollution
- linked to soil erosion /poor land use
Sources: agriculture, logging, construction, strip
mines
Costs:
$1 million per day in US
clog irrigation canals, hydro- electric
turbines, harbors, life of
dams shortened
- carries toxins
- turbid water & sedimentation
“kills” coldwater fish/bivalve habitat
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
Controlling Sediment Pollution
- input control includes:
conservation tillage
contour-strip farming
shelter belts
terracing
cover crops/increase OM
- output control includes: $$$$$
sediment filtration systems (artificial & natural)
dredging
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
2) Inorganic Nutrient Pollution
- aquatic systems require certain chemical
elements to exist & support life
- includes C, O, N, H, P among others
- N & P often are limiting factors because of their
reduced abundance;
- P > N in importance as limiting factor
- > N & P = > productivity of aquatic system
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
Lake Productivity Gradient
1) oligotrophic: nutrient-poor lake
- low productivity
- low plant/animal biomass
- e.g., Lake Superior = young lake
2) mesotrophic: moderate nutrient base
- swimming, fishing
3) eutrophic: nutrient rich
- dense algal blooms
- reduced dissolved oxygen, diminished
fishery
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
3) Polusi Thermal
- increase temperature of aquatic system
- Harmful effects:
- reduced dissolved oxygen
- reduced fish reproduction
- spread of disease
- Manfaat:
- increase growth rate of some fish
- heating homes
- Use of coolant towers
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
4) Organisme yg menghasilkan penyakit
- infectious organisms introduced to water;
cholera, typhoid fever, dysentery, polio,
Cryptosporidium
- better sanitation & water treatment can reduce
disease
e.g., chlorination for bacteria and oxygenation
for enteric disease (intestine-dwelling;
anaerobic)
- coliform bacteria count: index of
microorganism-based water pollution
coliform = usually harmless bacteria in human
gut
Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012
5) Toxic Organic Chemicals
- Carbon-based compounds; synthetic derivatives
such as Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) =
toluene
- Synthetic Organics = resist decomposition &
therefore persistent
- Disrupt normal enzyme function in organisms;
interfere with normal chemical reactions in cells
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Water Pollutants
1) Review Table 11.4, p 268
2) Your choice, pick 1 of the pollutants and,
a) be able to name it;
b) provide an explanation of its use;
c) indicate its source & its prevalence in
the Great Lakes; and
d) explain its effects on human health
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6) Heavy Metals
e.g., lead, mercury, arsenic, cadmium
(fundamental chemical elements)
- Mines & contaminated groundwater
- Mines & tailings (Clarks Fork of
Yellowstone)
- interfere with normal enzyme function
- lead contamination (soil & water) from
paint & plumbing pipe (solder)
- mercury contamination (methyl Hg in air
& water) from industry; in muscle tissue
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7) Organic Waste: reduce available oxygen
- decomposition of wastes by bacteria uses
oxygen; release of nutrients -- cyclic
- Oxygen-demanding organic wastes
biological oxygen demand (BOD): index of
amount of organic matter in water
sample; indexed via rate of oxygen use by
bacteria
- aquatic indicator species (bio-sentinels or
bio-indicators) – also application to other
pollutants (may flies, trout, bullheads,
carp, sludge worms, mink)
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7) Organic Waste: reduce available oxygen
- decomposition of wastes by bacteria uses
oxygen; release of nutrients -- cyclic
- Oxygen-demanding organic wastes
biological oxygen demand (BOD): index of
amount of organic matter in water
sample; indexed via rate of oxygen use by
bacteria
- aquatic indicator species (bio-sentinels or
bio-indicators) – also application to other
pollutants (may flies, trout, bullheads,
carp, sludge worms, mink)
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Gulf of Mexico - Watershed
• hypoxic zone
• dissolved oxygen
concentration less
than 2 mg/L, or 2
ppm
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Gulf of Mexico - Watershed
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DAMPAK
LINGKUNGAN
AKIBAT
PESTISIDA
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES.
An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 ..
. Soil contamination
Pesticides enter the soil via spray drift during foliage treatment, wash-off from treated
foliage, release from granulates or from treated seeds in soil. Some pesticides such as
soil fumigants and nematocides are applied directly into soil to control pests and plant
diseases presented in soil.
The transport, persistence or degradation of pesticides in soil depend on their chemical
properties as well as physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil. All these
factors affect sorption/ desorption, volatilisation, degradation, uptake by plants, runoff, and leaching of pesticides.
Persistent organochlorine pesticides (OC) in soils
Persistence of pesticides in soil can vary from few hours to many years in case of OC
pesticides. Despite OC pesticides were banned or restricted in many countries, they are
still detecting in soils
(Shegunova et al., 20071; Toan et al., 20072; Li et al., 20083; Hildebrandt et al., 20094;
Jiang et al., 20095; Ferencz and Balog 20106).
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES.
An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 ..
. Sorption is the most important interaction between soil and pesticides and
limits degradation as well as transport in soil. Pesticides bound to soil organic
matter or clay particles are less mobile, bio available but also less accessible to
microbial degradation and thus more persistent.
Soil organic matter is the most important factor influencing sorption and
leaching of pesticides in soil. Addition of organic matter to soil can enhance
sorption and reduce risk to water pollution. It has been demonstrated that
amount and composition of organic matter had large impact on pesticides
sorption. For example soil rich on humus content are more chemically reactive
with pesticides than nonhumified soil (Farenhorst 2006).
Farenhorst, A. (2006): Importance of Soil Organic Matter Fractions in SoilLandscape and Regional Assessments of Pesticide Sorption and Leaching in Soil.
Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 70(3), pp 1005-1012.
Sumber: https://www.soils.org/publications/sssaj/articles/70/3/1005
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES.
An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 ..
. High yield agriculture, as it is widely practised in Europa, depletes soil
organic matter and will reduce sorption.
Fast sorption usually occurs in short time after pesticide application. With time
sorption is much slower. However, it has been observed for many pesticides
that increasing time, repeated application could increase their sorption and
formation of bound, non-extractable residues.
Although bound residues are considered of low significance because they are
inactive and nonavailable, it has been detected that they can release in some
time. Change in soil pH or addition of nitrate fertilizers can induced a release
of this residues. There exist also evidences that some organisms, e.g. plants and
earthworms, can uptake and remobilise old tightly bound residues (Gevao et
al., 2000).
Gevao, B., Mordaunt, C., Semple, K.T., Piearce, T.G., Jones, K.C. (2000):
Bioavailability of Nonextractable (Bound) Pesticide Residues to Earthworms.
Environmental Science & Technology 35(3), pp 501-507.
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES.
An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 ..
. . Water contamination
Pesticides can get into water via drift during pesticide spraying,
by runoff from treated area, leaching through the soil. In some
cases pesticides can be applied directly onto water surface e.g. for
control of mosquitoes. Water contamination depends mainly on
nature of pesticides (water solubility, hydrophobicity), soil
properties, weather conditions, landscape and also on the distance
from an application site to a water source. Rapid transport to
groundwater may be caused by heavy rainfall shortly after
application of the pesticide to wet soils.
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES.
An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 ..
. During 90ies, herbicide Atrazine and Endosulphan were found most often in surface waters
in the USA and Australia due to their widespread use. Other pesticides detected included
Pronofos, Dimethoate, Chlordane, Diuron, Prometryn and Fluometuron (Cooper 1996).
More recent studies also reported presence of pesticides in surface water and groundwater
close to agriculture lands over the world (Cerejeira et al., 20031; Konstantinou et al., 20062;
Añasco et al., 20105). In general, the compounds most frequently detected were currently
used pesticides (herbicides Atrazine, Simazine, Alachlor, Metolachlor and Trifluralin,
insecticides Diazinon, Parathion methyl, and organochlorine compounds due to their long
persistance (lindane, endosulfan, aldrin, and other organochlorine pesticides).
Cerejeira, M.J., Viana, P., Batista, S., Pereira, T., Silva, E., Valério, M.J., Silva, A., Ferreira, M., SilvaFernandes, A.M. (2003): Pesticides in Portuguese surface and ground waters. Water Research 37(5), pp 10551063.
Cooper, B. (1996): Central and North West Regions Water Quality Program 1995/1996. Report on Pesticide
Monitoring. TS96.048, NSW Department of Land & Water Conservation, Sydney, Australia
Konstantinou, I.K., Hela, D.G., Albanis, T.A. (2006): The status of pesticide pollution in surface waters (rivers
and lakes) of Greece. Part I. Review on occurrence and levels. Environmental Pollution 141(3), pp 555-570.
Añasco, N., Uno, S., Koyama, J., Matsuoka, T., Kuwahara, N. (2010): Assessment of pesticide residues in
freshwater areas affected by rice paddy effluents in Southern Japan. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment
160(1), pp 371-383.
.
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES.
An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 ..
The geographic and seasonal distribution of pesticide occurrence follows
patterns in land use and pesticide use. Streams and rivers were
frequently more polluted that groundwaters and more near the areas
with substantial agricultural and/or urban land use. Pesticides usually
occurred in mixture of multiple compounds, even if individual pesticide
were detected bellow limits. This potentially can lead to underestimation
of toxicity when assessments are based on individual compounds.
High levels of pesticides chlordecone were detected in coastline, rivers,
sediments and groundwater in the Caribbean island of Martinique due
to its massive application on bananas plantations (Bocquené and Franco
2005).
Bocquené, G., Franco, A. (2005): Pesticide contamination of the coastline of
Martinique. Marine Pollution Bulletin 51(5-7), pp 612-619.
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES.
An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 ..
. Effects on organisms
Soil organisms and processes
Soil microorganisms play a key role in soil. They are essential for maintenance of soil structure,
transformation and mineralization of organic matter, making nutrients available for plants. Soil
microorganisms are also able to metabolise and degrade a lot of pollutants and pesticides and thus
are of great concern for using in biotechnology. On the other hand, microbial degradation can lead
to formation of more toxic and persistent metabolites. Although soil microbial population are
characterized by fast flexibility and adaptability to changed environmental condition, the
application of pesticides (especially long-term) can cause significant irreversible changes in their
population. Inhibition of species, which provide key process, can have a significant impact on
function of whole terrestrial ecosystem.
Fungicides were found to be toxic to soil fungi and actinomycetes and caused changes in microbial
community structure (Liebich et al., 20034; Pal et al., 20055).
Liebich, J., Schäffer, A., Burauel, P. (2003): Structural and functional approach to studying pesticide
side-effects on specific soil functions. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 22(4), pp 784-790.
Pal, R., Chakrabarti, K., Chakraborty, A., Chowdhury, A. (2005): Pencycuron application to soils:
Degradation and effect on microbiological parameters. Chemosphere 60(11), pp 1513-1522.
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES.
An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 ..
. A ew studies show that some organochlorine pesticides suppress symbiotic nitrogen
fixation resulting in lower crop yields. Authors found out that pesticides
Pentachlorphenol, DDT and Methyl parathion at levels found in farm soils
interfered signalling from leguminous plant such as alfalfa, peas, and soybeans to
symbiotic soil bacteria. This effect, loosely comparable to endocrine disruption
effects of pesticides in human and animals, significantly disrupt N2 fixation. As
consequence increased dependence on synthetic nitrogenous fertilizer, reduced soil
fertility, and unsustainable long-term crop yields occur. The observations also may
explain a trend in the past 40 years toward stagnant crop yields despite record high
use of pesticides and synthetic fertilizers worldwide (Fox et al., 20078; Potera 20079).
Fox, J.E., Gulledge, J., Engelhaupt, E., Burow, M.E., McLachlan, J.A. (2007): Pesticides
reduce symbiotic efficiency of nitrogen-fixing rhizobia and host plants. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 104(24), pp 10282-10287.
Potera, C. (2007): Agriculture: Pesticides Disrupt Nitrogen Fixation. Environ Health
Perspect 115(12).
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES.
An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 ..
. Soil invertebrates
Nematodes, springtails, mites and further micro-arthropods, earthworms, spiders, insects and
all these small organisms make up the soil food web and enable decomposition of organic
compounds such as leaves, manure, plant residues and they also prey on crop pests. Soil
organisms enhance soil aggregation and porosity and thus increasing infiltration and
reducing runoff.
Earthworms represent the greatest part of biomass of terrestrial invertebrates (>80 %) and
play an important role in soil ecosystem. They are used as bioindicator of soil contamination
providing an early warning of decline in soil quality. They serve as model organisms in
toxicity testing. Earthworms are characterized by high ability to cumulate a lot of pollutants
from soil in their tissues, thus they are used for studying of bioaccumulation potential of
chemicals.
A recent review of pesticides effects on earthworms showed on negative effects on growth
and reproduction by many pesticides (Shahla and D'Souza 2010).
Shahla, Y., D'Souza, D. (2010): Effects of Pesticides on the Growth and Reproduction of
Earthworm: A Review. Applied and Environmental Soil Science 2010, pp Article ID 678360,
9 pages.
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES.
An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 ..
. Glyphosate, nonselective herbicide, and chlorpyrifos, insecticide, belong to the
most worldwide used pesticides, especially on transgenic resistant crops. An
integrated study on a Roundoup resistant soya field in Argentina showed
deleterious effect of these pesticides on earthworm population. Earthworms
avoided soil with glyphosate, their feeding activity and viability were reduced.
Glyphosate and chlorpyrifos caused also several adverse effects at cellular level (DNA
damage) that indicated physiological stress. Author concluded that the effects
observed on the reproduction and avoidance caused by glyphosate could contribute to
earthworm decrease, with the subsequent loss of their beneficial functions (Casabé et
al., 2007).
Casabé, N., Piola, L., Fuchs, J., Oneto, M.L., Pamparato, L., Basack, S., Giménez, R.,
Massaro, R., Papa, J.C., Kesten, E. (2007): Ecotoxicological Assessment of the Effects
of Glyphosate and Chlorpyrifos in an Argentine Soya Field. Journal of soil sediments
7(4), pp 232-239.
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES.
An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 ..
. Other non-target species
Effect of pesticides on bees are closely watched because their crop pollination.
However, little is known about the impacts of pesticides on wild pollinators in
the field. In recent study conducted in Italian agricultural area, authors
monitored species richness of wild bees, bumblebees and butterflies were
sampled after pesticides application. They detected decline of wild bees after
repeated application of insecticide fenitrothion. Lower bumblebee and
butterfly species richness was found in the more intensively farmed basin with
higher pesticide loads (Brittain et al., 2010).
Brittain, C.A., Vighi, M., Bommarco, R., Settele, J., Potts, S.G. (2010): Impacts of a
pesticide on pollinator species richness at different spatial scales. Basic and Applied
Ecology 11(2), pp 106-115.
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES.
An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 ..
. Impact of pesticides on insect is determined by the timing of application
because susceptibility to exposure differs between species and at different
life stages. Therefore, unconsidered agricultural practises can harm
butterfly populations.
It has been shown that using herbicides to control of invasive plants can
significantly reduce survival, wing and pupa weight of butterfly at
treated areas. Author highlighted the importance of careful consideration
in the use of herbicides in habitats harboring at-risk butterfly populations.
Reduction of adverse effect may be reached by applications in late summer
and early fall, post flight season and during larval diapause (Russell and
Schultz 2009).
Russell, C., Schultz, C.B. (2009): Effects of grass-specific herbicides on butterflies: an experimental
investigation to advance conservation efforts. Journal of Insect Conservation 14(1), pp 53-63.
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES.
An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 ..
. Water organisms – invertebrates, amphibians, fishes
Pesticides can enter fresh water streams directly via spray drift or indirectly via surface
runoff or drain flow. Many pesticides are toxic to freshwater organisms. Acute and
chronic effects are derived from standart toxicity tests. Within the ecological context,
sublethal effects of toxic contaminants are very important. For example, downstream drift
of stream macroinvertebrates in common reaction to various types of disturbance,
including chemical contamination and may result in significant changes of structure of
lotic communities.
Downstream drift was shown for several pesticides such as pyrethroid, neonicotinoid,
organochlorine, organophosphate insecticides or lampricides. Neurotoxic insecticides
exhibited the strongest drift-initiating effects on stream-dwelling insects and crustaceans.
Moreover, it was detected that macroinvertebrate drift can be induced even by short-term
pulse exposures (within 2 hours) at field-relevant concentrations (already 7–22 times
lower than the respective acute LC50 values) (Beketov and Liess 2008).
Beketov, M., Liess, M. (2008): Potential of 11 Pesticides to Initiate Downstream Drift of
Stream Macroinvertebrates. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology
55(2), pp 247-253.
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES.
An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 ..
. In ecotoxicologial risk assessment of pesticides, attention is also focused on the
ability of treated aquatic ecosystems to recover. After pesticide application
structural and functional changes in ecosystem were monitored. Whereas some
species can be reduced, other may profit from lower predation and food
competition. The time needed for recovery depends on biotic factor such as
presence of dormant forms, life cycle characteristics, landscape as well as on the
season when exposure occur.
It has been detected, isolated ecosystems were more susceptible to damage and
community structure changed to lower biodiversity states. Recovery in these
ecosystems depends on the availability of immigrating organisms (Caquet et al.,
2007). Long-living species might not recover until very long time (7 months of
experiment) (Beketov et al., 2008).
Beketov, M.A., Schäfer, R.B., Marwitz, A., Paschke, A., Liess, M. (2008): Long-term stream invertebrate
community alterations induced by the insecticide thiacloprid: Effect concentrations and recovery
dynamics. Science of The Total Environment 405(1-3), pp 96-108.
Caquet, T., Hanson, M.L., Roucaute, M., Graham, D.W., Lagadic, L. (2007): Influence of isolation on
the recovery of pond mesocosms from the application of an insecticide. II. Benthic macroinvertebrate
responses. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 26(6), pp 1280-1290.
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES.
An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 ..
Birds
Decline of farmland bird species has been reported over several past decades and often
attributed to changes in farming practises, such as increase agrochemical inputs, loss of mixture
farming or unfarmed structures. Besides lethal and sub lethal effects of pesticides on birds,
concern has recently focused on the indirect effects. These effects act mainly via reduction of
food supplies (weeds, invertebrates), especially during breeding or winter seasons. As
consequence insecticide and herbicide application can lead to reduction of chick survival and
bird population. Time of pesticides application plays also important role in availability of
food.
Several practises (generally Integrated crop management techniques) can be used to minimize
unwanted effects of pesticides on farmland birds, such as use of selective pesticides, avoiding
spraying in during breeding season and when crops and weeds are in flower, minimise spray
drift or creation of headlands.
Evidences of this important indirect effect of pesticides has been reported e.g. By Boatman et
al., 20042; Taylor et al., 20063.
Boatman, N.D., Brickle, N.W., Hart, J.D., Milsom, T.P., Morris, A.J., Murray, A.W.A., Murray, K.A.,
Robertson, P.A. (2004): Evidence for the indirect effects of pesticides on farmland birds. Ibis 146, pp 131-
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES.
An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 ..
. Effects of pesticides and farming practises on biodiversity
Intensive pesticides and fertilizers usage, loss of natural and semi-natural habitats and
decreased habitat heterogeneity and all other aspects of agricultural intensification have
undoubted impact on biodiversity decline during last years.
Intensive agriculture
A current Europe-wide survey in eight West and East European countries brought
alarming evidence of negative effects of agricultural intensification on wild plants,
carabid and bird species diversity. Authors demonstrated that, despite decades of European
policy to ban harmful pesticides, pesticides are still having disastrous consequences for
biodiversity on European farmland. Insecticides also reduced the biological control
potential. They conclude that if biodiversity is to be restored in Europe, there must be a
Europe-wide shift towards farming with minimal use of pesticides over large areas
(Geiger, F., Bengtsson, J., Berendse, F., Weisser, W.W., Emmerson, M., Morales, M.B., Ceryngier, P., Liira, J.,
Tscharntke, T., Winqvist, C., Eggers, S., Bommarco, R., Pärt, T., Bretagnolle, V., Plantegenest, M., Clement,
L.W., Dennis, C., Palmer, C., Ońate, J.J., Guerrero, I., Hawro, V., Aavik, T., Thies, C., Flohre, A., Hänke, S.,
Fischer, C., Goedhart, P.W., Inchausti, P. (2010): Persistent negative effects of pesticides on biodiversity and
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES.
An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 ..
. Taking a landscape in Great Britain as an example, it has been showed that impact of
agriculture intensification on biodiversity differs among agricultural land use and
depends on specific agricultural pressure like land use changes, land cover or crop
management. Authors found out that, as result of eutrohication and N surplus, vegetation
diversity surrounding cropped land shifted to a composition typical for more fertile
conditions. However, species richness of plants and breeding birds were more affected by
broad habitat diversity (Firbank, L.G., Petit, S., Smart, S., Blain, A., Fuller, R.J. 2008. Assessing the
impacts of agricultural intensification on biodiversity: a British perspective. Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 363(1492), pp 777-787.).
The pressures of agricultural changes may be reduced by:
- minimizing loss of large habitats,
- minimizing permanent loss of agricultural land,
- maintaining habitat diversity in agricultural landscapes in order to provide ecosystem
services,
- minimizing pollution from nutrients and pesticides from the crops themselves.
Sumber: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/363/1492/777.full