Chapter 10: Cognition: Thinking and Learning
1. Thought- internal processes trying to solve a problem, use symbols or concepts to imagine
something internally and to solve problems we are said to be thinking
-make sense of our perceptions, manipulate representations in our minds-don’t have to
physically do it, behave privately
Book def- any cognitive process directed towards solving a problem, understanding language,
memory retrieval, and perceiving patterns in sensory inputs
2. Mental State- is a tendency to approach a problem in a set or predetermined way regardless of
the requirements of the specific problem ex. the water filled containers
-we apply strategies that have helped us before, instead to analyzing the current problem
Book def- in problem solving, a tendency to approach a problem in a set way
3. Confirmation bias-we seek out evidence that will confirm our hypothesis, while overlooking
contradictory evidence
-we are naturally more inclined to find instances that verify our hypothesis ex. 2,4,6 find a rule
that describes it, you say increases by 2, they say no, you can’t figure out why not until they tell
you they put the numbers in increasing order
4. Inductive reasoning-we reach a general conclusion by generalizing form a specific instance
Ex. every guy we’ve met loves watching football-you conclude that in general, all men love
football. *we can never be completely sure our conclusion is correct because one day we might
meet a guy who hates it
Book def- reasoning that draws broad conclusion by generalizing specific instances
Specific general
5. Deductive reasoning- we begin with certain general assumptions that we believe to be true, and
then use that to make conclusions for specific instances
- all birds have feathers, we can conclude that if an animal has feathers it’s a bird
*as long as we have valid assumptions, we can be confident are deductions are valid
-if we assume that all birds fly, we might incorrectly conclude that a penguin is a bird
General prediciton
6. Belief bias effect- people tend to accept conclusions that conform to their beliefs and reject
conclusions that do not conform, regardless of how logical these conclusions are
Book def- tendency to accept conclusions that conform to one’s belief (and reject conclusions
that do not conform) regardless of how logical these conclusions are
Evidence conflicts with our views-we dismiss it-believe that Global Warming was caused by
people-opposing views brought up- I'm inclined not to believe in evidence
Chapter 14: Personality: Theories and Assessment
7. Personality- a person’s unique pattern of thoughts feelings and behaviors that persist over time
and situations
-consistency in which they behave
***Covered in Class***
Personality traits- enduring dispositions within the individual that cause the person to think, act, and
feel in characteristic ways
Ex. (agreeableness- easy to get along with) ( stability- don’t fly off the handle) (extraversion-outgoing)
Disposition within- invisible thing inside you causing you to behave in a certain way
-We make distinction between basic perspectives held by type theorists and trait theorists
Type Theorists (not popular today)- believe that certain traits tend to group together within a given
type(category) of people
People within a given category are similar to each other; people in different categories are different
Ex. Any boyfriend can be put into 9 different types (categories)
Sheldon’s Constitutional Theory- Body Types/ Personality
1. Endomorphs- (soft, round) think Pillsbury Dough Boi. Traits (sociable, love comfort)
2. Mesomorphs- (strong, muscular) think Arnold Schwarzenegger. Traits (love adventure and
activity)
3. Ectomorphs- (thin, fragile) think Sheldon from Big Bang Theory. Traits (love privacy, restrained,
self-conscious, intellectual matters)
Trait Theorists- argue against grouping people into types
-Argue that each individual possesses a unique profile of traits and can be understood only in terms or
his/her uniqueness
How many personal traits?
Catell (1965) initially concluded that there are 16 personality traits
“Big Five” Dimensions of Personality (Tupes and Cristal)
1. Extraversion- talkative, adventurous, outgoing. Ex. Host on travel channel
2. Pleasantness- warm, kind, agreeable. Ex. Mr. Rodgers
3. Conscientiousness- organized, dependable, hardworking, cautious. Ex. Ant vs Grasshopper
4. Emotional Stability- calm, steady, even-tempered. Ex. Hero-strong and heroic
5. “Culture” “Openness to Experience” “Intellect”- intelligent, curious, imaginative artistic. Ex.
Leonardo DaVinci
8. Surface trait- Cattell- traits that are usually obvious (integrity, friendliness, tidiness) and can be
grouped to form source traits
Obvious to everyone- extravert-goes to sport events, likes to go out and meet new people
9. Source trait- (16) traits at the core of personality, listed them as polar opposites (trusting vs
suspicious)
Don't see in direct fashion-fundamental, deep inside me
10. Unconscious mind- Freud envisioned the mind as an iceberg- most of it hidden beneath the
surface- memories and feelings are repressed in the unconscious because they are too painful or
anxiety producing to be tolerated in the conscious mind
11. Psychoanalytic theory- psychoanalysis- Freud’s interpretation of a patient’s revelations of
normally unconscious cognitions – theory depicts personality as shaped by an ongoing conflict
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between people’s primary drives, particularly sex and aggression, and the social pressures of
civilized society ;childhood experiences play a major role d in molding personality; Freud was
convinced that unconscious thoughts and feelings are powerful molders of personality- a slip of
the tongue can provide insights into the unconscious
Unconscious motivation (you do what you do and have no idea where it came from)
Unconscious conflicts (neat freak-unconscious level you feel dirty)
Id- biological component of personality- consisting of instinctual drives that he called life
instincts (hunger, thirst, sex) and death instincts (aggression and destruction)
***driven to seek pleasure***
Unconscious- first born with Id as an infant-all id- when you're hungry you cry and won't stop
until you're fed- you're siblings eating a candy bar, your Id makes you take it, mom swats you,
can't always satisfy impulses
Libido- motivates all behavior and is a form of energy that primarily fuels the id
Book def- the energy that fuels the id motivates all behavior
Pleasure principle- seek immediate gratification of all instinctive drives, regardless of reason,
logic, or the probable impact of the behaviors it motivates
-he believed that only the id is present at birth, thus we are dominated by the id
-it cannot tolerate any tension, so it seeks immediate gratification, operates at an unconscious
level
Ego- develops gradually as the infant learns to cope with the real world, functions as an
intermediary between the instinctual demands of the id and the reality of the
-explains how the id-dominated infant who might cry helplessly for food, evolves into a toddler
who is able to reach for food
Suppresses the id long enough to find a rational way to satisfy its needs
***test reality***
Once you make the decision you can't always satisfy impulses, conscious, realize you won't
starve to death, you get food within certain rules
Just Id and ego we would be a world full of sociopaths and psychopaths- thinking we can get
away with whatever
Reality principle- the ego operates according to this, it seeks to satisfy the id’s wants and needs
in ways that are consistent with reality
-ego must be largely conscious and in direct contact with the external world and include our
abilities to think, learn, and remember (now called cognitive processes)
Book def- the tendency to behave in ways that are consistent with reality, it governs the ego
Superego- a composite of the moral values and standards of parents and society that we
incorporate into our personalities as we develop
Makes the task of the ego much harder by forcing it to consider not just what is real, but what is
right
2 distinct subsystems: the “should nots” of behavior that stem form parental punishment or
punishing ourselves through guilt, the ego ideal is the “shoulds” of behavior for which we
receive approval and/or reinforcement
-guilt and pride are essential in the functioning
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-tries to block id impulses totally…if it is too successful the result is rigid, guilt-ridden, inhibited
personality and if it is too weak the result is self-centered, self-indulgent, antisocial personality
It shares some characteristics with the id (its rational) and the ego (its controlling)
***striving for perfection***
Conscious and unconscious, chose not to grab candy bar when mom's not home because it
would be wrong
Anxiety (as defined in Psychoanalytic Theory)- free floating fear or apprehension that may
occur with our without an easily identifiable source, Freud thought that anxiety stems primarily
from an unconscious fear that our id will cause us to do something that will result in punishment
or guilt, when the ego is not able to relieve this anxiety through rational, problem solving
methods, it resorts to defense mechanisms
Defense mechanism- shield the ego from some of the harsh aspects of reality
1. they protect the ego from anxiety by denying or distorting reality
2. they operate unconsciously so that we are not aware a distortion of reality has taken place
-not subject to normal checks and balances of reasoning
Repression- holding back or banishing from consciousness a variety of unacceptable impulses
and disturbing memories
Ex. you may repress aggressive impulses you feel toward a teacher because these feelings are
unacceptable and therefore anxiety provoking
-most basic and underlies all other defense mechanisms, massive repression of id urges, we
can’t contain all disruptive urges
RationalizationProjectionDisplacementSublimationRegressionReaction formationPsychosexual development
Oral stage-12 t0 18 months of life, lips and mouths are erogenous zones, the id’s pleasureseeking energies find an outlet in sucking, chewing, and biting, they don’t suck just because their
hungry, but because they find it sensually pleasurable
Anal stage- 18 to 24 months- the erogenous zones shift to the anal area
Phallic stage-3 to 5 or 6 years, sexual gratification shifts to genital stimulation, family romance
may emerge in which a child feels sexual attraction to the parent of the opposite sex and may
experience jealousy of the same sex parent
Oedipus complex- the attraction a male child feels towards his mother and jealousy towards his
father during the phallic stage, the child finds this stressful and represses the sexual attraction
and identifies with the same-sex parent
Focus life energy on mother-want to own her exclusively-there is a competitor (dad) creates
conflict- "can't beat them, join them" be like your father (how you learn to be like a man)
repress it below unconscious- why you don't remember
Electra complex- the female counterpart to the Oedipus complex
33. Latency period- 5 or 6 to puberty, sexual drives remain unexpressed
34. Genital stage- puberty on, sexual feelings that were dormant reemerge in full force
35. Fixation- an arrest in development at one of the early stages of psychosexual development as a
result of too little or too much gratification
Ex. children thwarted from experiencing oral stimulation (sucking, biting, and chewing) may be
inclined to eat excessively or smoke
36. Personal unconscious- Carl Jung- similar to Freud’s concept of a reservoir of all repressed
thoughts and feelings
Hate authority figures-he was abandoned by his father-unconcious hatred for authority figureshe isn't aware of where his hatred comes from *personal experience*
37. Collective unconscious-universal memory bank, that contains all the ancestral memories,
images, symbols, and ideas that humankind has accumulated throughout its evolvement
-this part of the unconscious mind is the same for all humans
Why do most people like others who are similar? "us" vs "them" whitest don't like blacks- comes
from collective unconscious-given to you from genetic endowment-didn't happen to you, but to
ancestors
38. Striving for superiority- universal urge to achieve self-perfection through successful adaptation
to life’s circumstances, meeting and mastering challenges, and personal growth
39. Reciprocal determinism- our personalities (behaviors) are shaped by the interaction between
cognitive factors (such as thoughts, feelings, and perceptions) and environmental factors
Ex. if we have a history of reinforcing experiences of meeting new people for the first time, we
are likely to perceive it in a positive way and act more sociable, our friendliness can cause them
to behave more sociable
Baudura- ex. someone is a successful student-interaction of cognitive factors and environmental
factors- born with good learning aptitude (cognitive) people notice you're doing well and put
you in private school- more enriched environment (environmental)
Why people turn out is not entirely inside you- it has an effect on environment
40. Self-efficacy- our belief that we can perform adequately and deal effectively with a particular
situation
Ex. if we think we are socially inept and boring, we are inclined to avoid social interaction with
people
-arises from our past successes or failures-anxiety and depression lowers self-efficacy
-likely to influence the amount of effort, if you perceive yourself as a good student you will
persist in your efforts to understand a difficult concept
41. Behavioral observation- personality is best assessed within the environment in which behavior
occurs
Ex. a roommate always delivers phone messages and cleans up after herself- you conclude that
she is responsible- we develop impressions of people by observing how they act
Book def- a behavioral assessment method that involves observing individual’s behavior as they
interact with the environment
42. Interview- the person is asked questions to learn about an individual’s personality
Advantages- flexibility, encourages candor, assess how they say things
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Limitations- interviewer’s interpretation, the interviewer’s style of conducting it may influence
the responses
Paper- and-pencil questionnaire-objective, self-report inventories designed to measure
scientifically the variety of characteristics or traits that make up a personality
Projective test-consist of loosely structured, ambiguous stimuli that requires the subject’s
interpretation
Subjects project their own thoughts or feelings into their responses
Project some aspect of your personality into your response- a lot of personality is unconsciousyou don't know it is repressed
Rorschach inkblot test- commonly used projection test in which the subject is asked to examine
inkblots and say what it looks like or brings to mind
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)- projection test for personality assessment in which the
subject is shown cards depicting various scenes and is asked to describe what is going on in each
scene
Make up a story about a scene on a card- the story you made up says something about your
personality based on your unconscious
Chapter 17: Social Psychology
***Covered in Class***
Social Psychology- scientific study of the way in which the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of 1
individual are influenced by the real or imagined social environment. Ex. If I joined a club- what would
my friends think?
Some of the topics studied:
Interpersonal attraction (physically attracted, run into them a lot)
Leadership
Obedience to authority (do bad things because a leader pressured them)
Aggression and violence (people beat up kids- are there environmental circumstances?) (prosocial
behavior- donate blood or not)
Attitudes and behaviors (positive attitude about different ethnic groups , environmental circumstances
can change people’s behavior)
Persuasion- the process by which a message induces changes in beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors
Why is it important? Ex. Obama Care- had to persuade people to pass it
Factors that influence whether persuasion will be effective:
Characteristics of the Communicator( the one who is attempting to persuade someone else)
1. Credibility of the Communicator- persuasion is more effective if the audience believes the
communicator has expertise. Ex. an infomercial for a workout device (use a prof. in kinesiology)
-Bachman found that scare tactics regarding the psychological and biological effects of long-term
marijuana use were effective if the info came from a credible scientific source, but were not effective if
the info came from an unreliable source
2. Attractiveness of the Communicator- persuasion is more effective if the communicator is seen as
being more attractive (this is why athletes and celebrities are often used)
a. physical appeal- arguments tend to be more effective when they come from beautiful people
b. Similarity- black middle school students were more persuaded by an appeal for dental hygiene when
they believed that the dentist making the taped appeal was also black (similar to themselves)
-we generally find people who are similar to us to be more attractive
Characteristics of the Message
1. Appeals to reason- rational, well-reasoned arguments (possibly sublimated with stats and figures)
especially with well-educated people can be effective
2. Appeals to emotion- charities for children sometimes use ads that show children living in poverty
Advertisements may play on positive emotions: Raegan “Are you better off now, than you were 4 years
ago? Negative emotions: Johnson “If you vote for Goldwater, we’re all going to die”
3. Arousing fear can be effective- ex. campaigns to discourage smoking (man singing with no voice box)
Banks et all used 2 strategies to encourage women to get mammograms
a. Positively-framed message- getting a mammogram can save your life through early detection
b. Negatively-framed message- not getting a mammogram can cost you your life
Over the next 12 months only 50% of the positively framed message group got a mammogram, 67% of
the negatively framed message group did- shows that arousing fear can be effective
47. Diffusion of responsibility- our sense of responsibility is diminished by the presence of other
bystanders, we think that they have just as much responsibility to act as we do,
48. Person schemas- forming impressions, general assumptions about certain groups of people, we
tend to only pick up on information that fits our existing schemas, ignoring the rest
Ex. if our first impression of a new neighbor is that she is unfriendly, and then she doesn’t
comment on our new car it is further evidence she is unfriendly. If she then picked up our
garbage scattered by the wind we may dismiss the act by saying she was worried it would blow
into her yard
Type of stereotype, concept of a group of individuals- meet new people and you only think of
them a certain way, says essentially same thing as stereotype in his mind, but steretypes are
more about race, gender
49. Attribution theory- we tend to attribute people’s behaviors either to dispositional (internal)
causes (motivated states, personality traits) or situational causes (environmental or external
factors)
Ex. you go to your boyfriend’s parents’ house and he acts restrained, impersonal, and physically
unresponsive. You can attribute it to external factors (he is ill at ease around his parents- don’t
feel relationship is threatened) or to internal causes (he is no longer responsive towards youyou question your relationship)
50. Fundamental attribution error- tendency to overestimate dispositional (internal) causes and to
underestimate situational (external) causes of behavior
Ex. Your friend failed a history exam. Do you think it was because of a tricky test or lack of
preparation (situational) OR because she’s not very bright (dispositional)? Many of us would say
because she’s not very bright. But if I had failed the exam and was male (I would look for
situational causes) and female (I would look for dispositional causes)
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We attribute people behavior to dispositions because we know less about what factors affect
them, we assume that’s just the kind of person they are
Why are they behaving that way? Overestimate internal. Why do you think he is homeless? He's
lazy. Not likely to say something went wrong, like he was abandoned
Illusion of control- belief that we control events in our lives, even those that are actually out of
our control (external factors)
We want to be in control of our lives, it would be less stressful to blame ourselves for losing a
job by saying I should have seen it coming when there was nothing we could do
Attitude- a favorable or unfavorable evaluative reaction toward something or someone
exhibited in ones…
-beliefs (donating blood will save someone’s life)
-feelings ( positive-I can save someone. Negative- I don’t like needles)
-intended behaviors (take up an hour of my day)
Impression management- our tendency to select carefully what information we reveal about
our attitudes, depending on how we think that info will affect the responses of others (affect
their image in the eyes of others)
Mitt Romney in 1994 promoted gay marriage, and then when he ran for president he didn’t
Stereotype threat- conforming to negative stereotypes
Ex. Blacks underperformed compared to whites when racial intelligence stereotypes were made
noticeable
Cognitive dissonance theory- beliefs and attitudes are consistent or inconsistent with one
another
A person experiences a state of discomfort, dissonance, whenever 2 related cognitions
(thoughts) are in conflict
Ex. You always support abortion, but then your friend wants to have one and you’re against it
There is a discrepancy between what you believe and how you perceive yourself acting (if you
become aware of it, you will experience cognitive dissonance)
Uncomfortable, psychological feeling when our attitudes and behaviors are inconsistent with 1
another
*important because cognitive dissonance causes attitude changes*- Global Warming is caused
by human activity- you're offered a job and you must fly a lot-doing behavior inconsistent with
attitude-you don’t like global warming, but are contributing to it- theory says something must
give- *you're going to change attitude 7/10 times*- you look around for evidence to support
flying doesn't contribute to Global Warming
What causes cognitive dissonance? What do people typically do to reproduce cognitive
dissonance?
behaviors conflict with attitude, change their attitude, not their behavior
Prejudice- negative, unjustifiable, and inflexible attitude (resistance to change) toward a group
and its members and is based on mistaken information
Stereotypes- preconceived and oversimplified beliefs and expectations about the traits of
members of a particular group that do not account for individual differences
59. Discrimination- behavioral consequences of prejudice in which victims of prejudice are treated
differently from other people
***To believe that all Mexicans are lazy, Blacks are gang member, and men are insensitive to
women are stereotypes. To devalue or feel contempt for Mexicans, Blacks, and men is to be
prejudice. To avoid hiring, associating with, renting to, or acknowledging the contributions of
such people is discrimination.
60. Conformity- to change or modify our own behavior so that they are consistent with those of
other people
These shifts in opinion or actions are accompanied by a perceived social pressure to conform
61. Compliance- form of social influence that involves an element of cohesion, we alter our
behavior in response to direct requests from others
Alter your behavior because of a request- admissions can't order him to work the open house,
but can request and make him feel bad- and he will do it
62. Foot-in-the-door technique- method of compliance in which a person is first asked to a
relatively minor request that serves as the set up for a more major request (which is the actual
goal)
Ex. salesmen- only ask you to come into the office to crunch some numbers, you will be more
likely to develop the attitude that you need the car)
Ask someone to do small task, they will be more likely to do moderate favor. Want professor
Hatcher to participate in open house- 1st ask for a small easy request (can we have someone
come talk to your class?) then ask real favor (you would be a good person to work the psych
table)
63. Door-in-the-face technique- method of compliance in which an unreasonable request is
followed by a more minor request (which is the requestor’s goal in the first place)
Ask you large request (go out on road to speak to students) then follow up with moderate
request, what you're really asking about (would you at least be willing to work the open house)
64. Obedience; what was the major finding from Milgram’s studies on obedience?
Obedience- we alter our behavior to commands or orders from people of authority
Authority figure gave you an order and you followed it
Subjects would inflict considerable pain on others merely because an authority figure instructed
them to do so- they had to shock someone each time they got an answer wrong-the volts
ranged from 15-450 volts- 65% went all the way to the 450 volt
1. feel less responsible for actions- I was only following orders
2. authority figures possess symbols of status (white coat, uniform and rank of military officer)
3. often comply with orders because they start off small and then become sucked in and comply
with more serious orders
Say "the experiment requires you must continue (order=obedience)
65. Briefly define each of the following concepts and briefly describe how they contribute to
interpersonal attraction (for example, are we more attracted or less attracted to someone
who is similar to us?)

Proximity-geographical nearness, we often develop relationships with people we see
frequently, familiarity breeds liking
 Similarity- people who are attracted to one another often share common beliefs,
values, attitudes, interests, and intellectual ability, people who are like us will
participate in the same kinds of activities, we like to communicate with those who have
similar opinions to use, there is a mutual reinforcement of behavior
 Reciprocity- people tend to react positively to flattery, compliments, and other
expressions of liking and affection , when someone likes us we tend to have warm
feelings about these people and to respond positively to them
 Physical attractiveness- physically appealing, more likely to be sought out as friends,
employers, and to be perceived as more likable, interesting, sexy, and happy.
66. Interpersonal aggression-physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt another person ( murder,
rape, robbery, or aggravated assault)
67. Frustration-aggression hypothesis- “aggression is always the result of frustration” “frustration
always leads to aggression”
Aggression may be delayed, disguised, or even displaced. Ex. we may yell at our dog after losing
a basketball game. When we are frustrated, some kind of aggression is inevitable
***CIC*** only thing that matters when it comes to aggression is frustration
Evidence supporting:
1. Cotton prices and lynching's in the South- when prices are high, people are more frustrated,
and they lynch more people
2. 2 rates exposed to inescapable shock-escape isn't possible, they turn on each other
Today in its most extreme form, it is no longer widely accepted
***Cover in Class***
Frustration- the blocking of an ongoing, goal directed behavior
-you are trying to achieve a goal, something blocks you, and you get frustrated
Frustration, Verbal Attacks, and Aggression (Green, 1968)
Most social studies are conducted in 2 stages
Stage 1: Manipulate the independent variable
Stage 2: Measure the dependent variable (the subject's level of aggression)
In Green's study
Stage 1: solve anagrams (words with jumbled letters: RAFM=FARM
Stage 2: Participate in the "Teacher-Learner" procedure- to measure the subject's level of
aggressiveness
-want to determine the average shock that you give to people: most shock intensity-verbal
attacks. Lowest shock intensity-control group
Task Frustration: make ½ the anagrams solvable and ½ of them not you increase level of
shock, even though the other person didn't do anything to you
Personal Frustration: frustrated with other person in room- won't stop talking and he's dumb
level of shock is increased more
Verbal Attack: other person tells the researcher mean, untrue things about you level of shock
increases further
***VIDEO***
In your own words, why did the men in the mob decide not to go ahead with the lynching?
Scout successfully reversed the effects of deindividuation (loss personal sense of responsibility
while in a group)
-People feel anonymous –May act more aggressively when in a group
General tend of research findings suggest that violence on TV and in movies results in…
1. Observational Learning- we learn new ways of behaving aggressively
-Bandura's "Bobo Doll" study- kid's watching a film of a person that walks into a toy room and
plays with building blocks (control) – experimental- she plays with bobo doll and beats it in the
face with a bat-now children go in room after watching that and some behave normal, while
other beat it up
-upon seeing things on film, it gives them new ideas
2. Disinhibition- a reduction in strength of the restraints against violent behavior
Inhibition- we have inhibitions against violence- if we constantly see it, we lost inhibitions
Ex. You see your dad beat up you mom, and you will probably do the same
3. Desensitization- our negative emotional reactions to violence becomes weaker when violence
is frequently witnessed
Sensitivity- most of us our sensitive- violence upsets up- if we keep seeing it, we lose sensitivity
Ex. You're watching a movie, and you don't want to look at violence-children put coats over their
heads
Study: Cline, Croft, Courier
-2 groups of children –Both groups watched film of a violent boxing match
Ones who were light viewers of TV (4 hours or less) had higher levels of physiological arousal
(how much their palms sweat- when you become upset, this happens more) Ones who were
heavy viewers of TV (25 hours or more) had lower levels of physiological arousal
Drugs and Aggression- had people drink large glasses of ginger ale (that possible contain drugs)
-later engaged in reaction time contest- loser is shocked, opponent chooses shock level
When light comes on, press a button, slower 1 is shocked- you set the dial for how much your
opponent will be shocked and vice versa
Dependent variable- dial, size of shock subject selects for opponent
Highest level of shock: Large amounts of alcohol
Lowest level of shock: Large amounts of THC