The Prime Minister and executive
What is the UK government?
• All members of the government must sit in
Parliament, the vast majority- 90 are also
elected MPs.
• MPs from the party which is in government are
not members of the government and so are not
bound by the same rules.
• PM appoints members of the government and
he alone can dismiss them.
• All members of the government are bound by
the doctrine of CMR. However the formation of
the coalition has muddied the waters with the
principle of agreement to differ e.g. AV.
Factors influencing ministerial
selection
• Political reliability- although well known
dissidents are appointed- Mo Mowlem, Robin
Cook, Clare Short
• Potential- applies to appointment junior
ministers
• Ideological similarity- however, the formation of
the coalition has muddied the waters here
• Managerial skills- ministers will have a large
body of civil servants, advisers and other bodies
to manage.
Other forms of government
• Minority
• Coalitions in the UK. At Westminster, no coalition since 1945.
However Scotland with Lab/LibDem 1998-2007, local government
and Westminster 2010+
• Majority Coalitions- 2 parties to create a parliamentary majority
• Grand coalitions- 2 parties to create an overwhelming majority
• Rainbow coalitions- a larger number- this was suggested as a
progressive coalition 2010 to keep the Tories out- this would have
involved the nationalist parties and the greens!.
• National coalitions- all parties in times of crisis e.g. 1931 and WW2
Arguments on coalitions
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Coalition most common form government in EU- 20 of the 27
member states.
Not true lack legitimacy- pre election pacts Republic Ireland
and in Germany- also post election an investiture vote
whereby a coalition secures parliamentary approval- Scotland
and Wales.
Stable coalitions in Scotland 1999-2003 and 2003-7
Evidence from Yong and Hazel- How the Coalition
Government Works- evidence from western Europe suggests
that coalitions no more likely to break up over internal party
conflict than single party governments. On Constitutional
reform- Cons agree to referendum on AV- LibDems agree AV
in place STV, LibDems agree on EU bill (referendum before
agree to any new treaty transfer powers to Brussels) Cons
agree to fixed term Parliaments and LibDems to reduction
number MPs (they would lose out) and Cons agree drop
manifesto pledge to scrap HRA in place of a Bill of Rights
Commission which would look for an ECHR+ alternative not
minus ECHR.
Evidence from Yong and Hazell also suggest a high degree of
cooperation at centre of government 2010-2011
Present coalition formed speedily election on 6th and formed
on 11th- five days in May
Long term trends such as decline in support two main parties,
rise in 3rd party vote and decline in marginals suggests
coalitions feature of future
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Against
Deadlock after an election- Belgian coalition formed November
2011 after 18 months.
Undermines CMR- 2010 agree to disagree on four
substantive policy areas in the Coalition Agreement.
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Historic hostility to coalitions- Disraeli England does not love
coalitions.
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Difficulty of LibDems as junior partners to convince public of
their distinctive contribution to the coalition- disastrous
collapse in LibDem support following tuition fees.
Impact of the coalition on the
practice of government
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Agreement to disagree on substantive policy areas.
Formation of a Coalition Cttee- E.g. Wales 2007-11 established two each chaired and co chaired
by first and deputy first minister (Coalition agreement and Presentation policy and Budget). At
Westminster- Coalition. Operations and Strategy Planning Group and final arbiter Coalition
Cttee- latter chaired by PM and deputy- each group equal membership both parties 4+10.
Use of watchdog ministers- ministerial twinning- junior minister from one party to department
headed by minister from the other- LibDems appointed alongside Conservatives in all but five
departments.
A functional coalition depends on relationship PM and the deputy- involves joint decision making
in terms of ministerial appointments, consultation on cabinet agenda, copied to all papers on
significant policy issues- the good faith no surprises principle
There has been a revival cabinet Government since its decline 1997-2010- in particular the revival
of the cabinet Cttee system as a forum for strategic and general policy discussion- in contrast
there was a chasm between NO10 and NO11 under Blair and Brown ran NO10 as a bunker
mentality.
Formation of s substantial deputy PM office as he was required to have oversight over all areas
government policy. Under the terms of the Coalition Agreement, Nick Clegg has the right to be
consulted on all policy areas/decisions.
Greater empowerment civil service- who are encouraged more to intervene in Whitehall policy
debates and to give more evidence and advice, the Cabinet Secretariat which had been sidelined
under previous PMs has been revived with revival of the Cabinet Cttee system.
Aim was to reduce number of SPADS- two per Cabinet minister and none for juniors- to beef up
resources to LibDems more were included.
Key features of Cabinet
Government
• Textbook assumption for British government up till
1960s- that is the supreme decision making body in
government
• Cabinet represented collective identity of the
government.
• All important foreign and domestic decisions made in
cabinet
• For a policy to be official required full cabinet approval
• Prime Minister considered primus inter pares. This
means he had higher status but could be outvoted
Prime Ministerial dominance
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Harold Wilson was accused by Richard Crossman and Barbara Castle of
operating a prime ministerial government…
He set up the Kitchen cabinet- cab sec and a few advisors to discuss
strategy at No.10.
He controlled agenda of meetings and did deals before the Cabinet met.
The first PM to understand the power of the TV.
By 1983 Mrs T having won the Falklands and the 1983 election was able to
pack Cabinet with supporters. Media focused on her.
Ultimately, Mrs\T alienate colleagues and she was replaced by John Major.
He promised a more collegial style- the Cabinet was less united than
before, a battleground for the warring factions within the Conservative Party.
Tony Blair combined Wilson’s manipulation government machinery, Mrs\T
domination media with controlling the flow of information his style of
leadership described as sofa politics which in itself a challenge to Cabinet.
Blair style also described as presidential- charismatic speaker who spoke
on behalf of nation- Diana death Queen of hearts…heavily involved foreign
affairs- Balkans, Iraq, Afghanistan, committing troops to Kosovo, Sierra
Leone and Iraq adopting role of commander in chief…
Weaker PMs
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John Major’s Cabinet warring factions containing some of his deadliest enemies- ‘the
bastards speech`
Gordon Brown lacked electoral mandate. He did exercise high level control
international affairs and a leading statesman in world poverty Action, Climate Change
and in response to the global credit crunch but events outside his control credit
crunch 2007-8 and recession 2008-9 undermined his authority as did the election
that never was ‘Bottler Brown’
David Cameron limited by fact he is in coalition. He also faces considerable back
bench dissent- 81 defy whips 2011 over vote on referendum on whether UK should
remain in EU and 91 vote against Government proposed TT for the Lords reform bill
just before the recess July 2012. He has tended to contract out reforms to strong
ministers such as Gove and IDS. As a result key policies end up being associated
with these men. A 2012 poll by YouGov shows only 17% voters believe he sticks to
what he believes in.
Professor King of Essex University sees power of the Prime Minister as overrated.
Rather than being like the head of a corporation with a range of departments that
report to you, it is more like being the Secretary General of the United Nations and
having to get rival nations to agree on a particular course of action.
Marginalisation of the Cabinet
• Prime ministerial dominance
• Growth in complexity of government has meant a shift to
Cabinet committees as cabinet is too unwieldy. These
can decide on government policy.
• Meetings are shorter- rarely an hour and only once a
week.
• Large departments are more independent.
• Rise of bilateral meetings
• Growth in Number 10 as a decision making body- rise in
numbers of think tanks and special advisors working
directly for Number 10 has marginalised cabinet.
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Factors influencing appointment
Cabinet- constitutionally limited to
around 22
Single Party government
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Coalition
Promises to political allies- Cameron
and Osborne, Brown and Straw
Those who represent key groups- Alan
Johnson the unions, Theresa May the
right
To silence a potential rebel
Identify men of talent
Old personal friends- brown and Balls,
Cameron and Denham
Popular figures with media/publicVince Cable
Ideological coherence- IDS represent
social conservatism which concerned
with social deprivation
Ability- Ken Clarke as justice secretary
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Consult with coalition partner about
which members of his party to be
included
Balance of membership reflects
balance of the two parties in
Commons
Coalition partner requires a prominent
role- Nick Clegg appointed as deputy
PM
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Remaining functions of the Cabinet
• Settling ministerial disputes a key role in the
Coalition
• Making decisions that cannot be made
elsewhere- GB decision to replace Trident,
Major on replacement poll tax with community
charge.
• Dealing with domestic emergencies
• Determining presentation of policy- the united
front for the media
• Legitimising decisions made elsewhere
Collective Ministerial Responsibility
• All ministers of the government are collectively
responsible for government policy.
• Ministers who cannot defend it in public must
resign- 2003 Robin Cook over Iraq and later
Clare Short following handling post war
situation.
• Limits to CMR- reported disputes in media,
publication of memoirs such as Alastair Darling
and David Blunkett, also the coalition agreement
to differ- renewal Trident, development new
nuclear plants and AV where the parties
supported the different stances on AV.
Individual Ministerial Responsibility
• Ministers are individually responsible to
Parliament for their actions and for policies
directly associated with them.
• Ministers resign if serious errors or in breach of
parliamentary rules- expenses Scandal 2009
and 2010 David Laws over expenses claims
and Liam Fox over access of a personal friend to
foreign officials and governments whilst on
overseas official visits with the minister
Functions of the Prime Minister
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Chief Policy maker- accept personal responsibility for policy John Major and
the Get Back to Basics, David Cameron and the Big Society.
Head of Government- can create new posts and abolish them- post of
Deputy PM a floating appointment with differing powers, heads the civil
service, chairs cabinet and decides on agenda, controls cabinet
committees, decides on appointments.
Chief government spokesman- Blair accepting responsibility for failure
government to listen to concerns over Iraq following 2005 election.
Cameron and the 2011 riots, Big Society
Commander in chief- ultimate say in whether to commit troops. GB the first
PM since Churchill to visit troops in ongoing warzone (Iraq). First act inside
No10 is to issue instructions to commanders of nuclear fleet
Controls national security.
Chief foreign policy maker- signs treaties and acts as head of state abroad
as the roving ambassador- Blair chaired G8 and UK presidency EU.
Cameron is using the Olympics 2012 as opportunity to chair a host of
international conferences with visiting heads of state
Parliamentary leader, especially significant if he has an electoral mandate
Sources of Prime Ministerial
authority
• The ruling party- the leader of the largest
parliamentary majority
• The royal prerogative
• Popular mandate- electoral mandate Blair
1997 and 2001 especially, reduced 2005
and Brown never had this nor has
Cameron
• Parliament- the leader of the largest party,
TB especially 1997-2001
Limits to Prime Minister’s power
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The size of the parliamentary majority. This is especially a problem given the increased tendency of backbenchers to defy the whip- note
Cameron's clashes with backbenchers- the Parliaments elected 2005 and 2010 the most rebellious ever.
Unity of the ruling party- 1992-7 John Major’s party split over Europe and the economy. Also sizeable rebellions against Cameron 2011
(EU) and 2012 (Lords reform).
Media image- when TB announced 2003 he would not seek a fourth term his authority ebbed away. GB a poor media relationshipbottler Brown and from Joseph Stalin to Mr Bean.
Cabinet support- MrsT lost backing of her colleagues 1990 and forced to resign, John Major and the bastards, John Redwood resignation
to stand against him, splits and resignations in the Brown cabinet. The coalition is naturally divided.
Events Dear boy events- premierships can get high jacked- Coalition announcement that the financial crisis was worse than thought,
impact of the EUROZONE crisis on UK economy, GB premiership highjacked by the credit crunch and the recession which followed… GB
is example of a PM whose power was destroyed by world events. The formal charging of Andy Coulson former PM director of
Communications and Rebekah Brooks (both former editors NOW) and latter a personal friend of the PM has raised questions over his
judgement for appointing Coulson in the first place and controversial issue of how much influence Rupert Murdoch exerts over
government- the saga will not die down and has been subject to public hearings of the Media, Culture and Broadcasting Select Cttee,
Leveson inquiry and the announcement of the formal phone hacking charges of 600 including Milly Dowler and John Tulloch (7/7) survivor
coincided with Jubilee lunch hosted at No 10 attended by Queen and four of the surviving Prime ministers.
Also consider the economy- July 2012 government under intense pressure from business, the City and opposition to reconsider austerity
programme following evidence of deepening double dip recession in UK economy, even calls for replacement of George Osborne with
Vince Cable. This follows on from U turns over tax increases in the budget e.g. the so called pasty tax…
Unforeseen ministerial slip ups- forced resignations David Laws and Liam Fox forced a mini reshuffle- that of Laws was embarrassing as
it was so early on in the new government and Liam Fox a potential right wing rebel who could no longer be silenced by ministerial office.
The party- forced marriage with LibDems has created problems with hardliners in his own party who dominate the executive of the 1922
Cttee. Being in coalition means a huge drain on PMs chances of pleasing his party. To keep party on board, Cameron always meets
groups of backbenchers in Commons after PMQs, regular drinks receptions No.10, invites to Chequers.
Appearance of a weak/vacillating government- the budget U-turns 2012- Limit on tax relief charitable donations, VAT on pasty sales
(pasty tax), tax on stationery caravans, tax on CofE restoration costs.
Cameron won the vote on allowing ministers full voting rights on 1922 Cttee but was defeated in his choice for chair- wanted Richard
Ottaway instead a known opponent Graham Brady
The case that the Prime Minister is
presidential
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The effective head of state – the roving ambassador, chair of G8,
international conferences, emergencies such as war, terrorist threats etc…
Extensive network personal advisors, think tanks and working groups serve
him alone like a US President. Growth of an unofficial Prime Minister’s
department at Number 10- the Court of King Tony. Downing Street machine
has shifted from serving government as a whole to serve mainly Prime
minister, becoming ever more concerned with policy devlopment.
Growing importance of the media helps to focus attention on the Prime
Minister and his immediate family, especially true of Blair but wives of Prime
ministers known as first lady- Cherie was leading public figure and
‘SamCam’.
Growth of importance foreign and military affairs- Thatcher, major and Blair
have all stood shoulder to shoulder with US President on White House lawn
and all have led their nations into major foreign conflicts.
Spatial leadership (Michael Foley in the Rise of the British Presidency)Presidents are separate because elected separately, therefore a different
source of authority. PM as role more dominant and appeals directly over
government to the people- Blair post election 2005
Case against presidential thesis
• Peter Hennessy- the office of the Prime Minister
is flexible depending on the style of the premierHeath, Major, Callaghan.
• PMs seem more presidential due to media
attention on them, but subject to same
constraints- Mrs T lost Cabinet support over poll
tax.
• Elastic band theory of Professor Jones- as PM
tries to stretch powers further longer they are in
office the greater become forces of constraintMrs T and perhaps Blair. Also GB hardly fits the
presidential mould
Ministers and civil servants
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Ministers
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Civil Servants
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Appointed by the PM
Top minister has title Secretary of State
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Minister of State
PM appoints from short list provided by
Senior Appointments Selection Committeegenerally civil servants chosen by this but
can choose outsiders.
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Parliamentary Under Secretary of State
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Top civil servant is the permanent secretary.
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Special advisers- political advice, conduct
research, help ministers in relations with
parliament, public and media- appointed by
ministers
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Distinction between civil servants and
ministers blurred by appointment special
advisers. There is a high turnover in senior
posts. According to Professor King (Essex
University) once an incoming minister
would be briefed by civil servants who
had been in the ministry for years, now
they are both likely to be new to the job…
In the view of Professor King this is because
the city and the law are more attractive
professions for high flyers who previously
contemplated a life in public service.
Tasks
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Minister
Set the political agenda
Determine priorities
Decide between alternatives
Obtain Cabinet and PM
approval for policies.
• Steer proposals through
Parliament
• Accountable to Parliament for
policies
• Accountable to parliament for
departments
• Civil Servant
• Gather information for policy
making
• Provide alternatives
• Advise on consequences
• Draft legislation
• Provide briefings for ministers
• Advise on implementation
• Organise implementation
policy
• Draft answers to parliamentary
questions
Status
• Ministers
• Political
• Expected to make political
decisions
• Temporary
• High public profile
• Publicly accountable
• Civil Servants
• No political allegiance to be
displayed
• Expected to be anonymous
and neutral in advice given
• Permanent
• Cabinet Office Minister Sir
Francis Maude wants ministers
given a formal input into
annual appraisal of civil
servants affecting their grades
and bonuses and to be able to
have a say in short listing of
candidates for the position of
permanent secretary.
Decline of the civil service
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Sonia Purnell- The Sunday Times 26/08/12 Danger: Kids are in the
counting house- reference to the Treasury- what was once Whitehall’s
praetorian guard is beginning to look more like a school cadet force.
Figures obtained from the Freedom of Information Act show that the
number of Treasury senior civil servants over the age of 50 has fallen
by about half in just five years to ‘fewer than five’ at the very top level.
The process began when Gordon Brown was chancellor because
some mandarins felt excluded; others found working with him and his
temper intolerable. The steam of departures has continued,
encouraged by redundancy terms that persuaded some of the best
economic brains to pursue careers elsewhere.
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Others departed because of what is described as ‘hamster-wheeling’:
panic decisions taken without consulting senior officials, often
followed by even panickier reversals as we saw after the budget (U
turns pasty/granny/stationery home taxes…) and an overall ‘lack of a
sense of direction’- staff turnover is 28% a year- reportedly higher than
among the burger flippers at McDonalds’.
More on special advisors (SPADS)
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In the past a career in public or private sector seen as essential apprenticeship prior to a
parliamentary career- however rise of SPADS who as young graduates enter politics via this route
before taking up a political career- Ed Miliband, David Cameron, Nick Clegg, George Osborne etcspadocracy. The ease with which some then progress into Parliament and Cabinet has created a
narrow and youthful British political class.
Cameron as part of the coalition agreement promised to limit their number which had grown under
Labour. 2009 there were 74 and now 79. Most cabinet ministers a couple but best paid are in
Downing Street- Andrew Cooper head of strategy and Craig Oliver director of communications.
Nick Clegg has ten more than he did 2010.
Ultimately ministers are responsible for their special advisors’ behaviour- but failure Jeremy Hunt
as culture secretary to resign over behaviour of his adviser during News Corporation bid for
BSKYB muddied the waters. Cost of the advisors risen 2010-2012 from £4.5M to £6.2M
Why special advisors- spads help a government implement democratic mandate over Whitehall
resistance. This is, of course, problematic with a coalition which lacks such democratic legitimacy
but Michael Gove who as education secretary struggled to manage a department staffed by
people hired by Ed Balls was given wider discretion by No 10 to hire his own staff and the
education department is one of the most radically reforming of the departments in the present
government….
Depriving a cabinet minister of loyal ideologically committed aides has been likened to forbidding
a corporate executive to hire his own staff