‫‪General English‬‬
‫تعداد واحد درسي‪3 :‬‬
‫منبع‪ :‬زبان انگليسي عمومي‬
‫مولفان‪ :‬محمود عليمحمدي‪ ،‬حسن خليلي‬
‫تهيه كننده اساليد‪ :‬محمود عليمحمدي‬
General English
This volume is designed
on the basis of the
demands of university
students for reading
English textbooks in their
relevant fields of study.
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The reading selections
not only acquaint you
with a variety of reading
skills but also improve
your study skills.
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The purpose of the book
is to enhance your
reading comprehension
ability by increasing your
vocabulary, improving
your reading
comprehension,
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and knowledge of
grammatical points, and
by helping you learn the
skills involved in using
context clues.
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The general aim and
behavioral objectives are
listed at the beginning of
each unit to draw your
attention to the main
points and activities on
which you are expected
to concentrate.
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Study Guide
In each unit of this
book, there is a
reading passage
which functions as
the core around
which the unit is
structured.
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The material within the
passage is used for
contextualizing the
vocabulary and
designing the various
exercises and activities
that improve reading
comprehension.
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Word Definitions and
Exemplifications
The key words of the
passage presented in
each unit are defined
and exemplified.
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Reading Passage
Each unit comprises a
reading selection which
functions as its main
part. The exercises
preceding and following
the passage are
somehow related to it.
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Word Formation
Exercises -3 and -4
These exercises
familiarize you with
prefixes and suffixes
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Word Formation Chart
This chart is presented in
each unit and includes
different forms of the
words in the reading
passage.
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Comprehension Exercises -6,
-7, -8, and –9
The exercises will help you find
the references of some of the
pronouns in the passage,
improve your ability in
guessing the meaning of
idioms and words from the
context,
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and check your reading
comprehension through
True-False and Multiple
Choice questions.
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Structure Review
The dominant or
complex structural
patterns of each unit are
briefly discussed in this
part.
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Appendix I: Answer Key
You can find the answers
to all questions of each
unit in this part.
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Appendix II: Index of
Prefixes, Roots and
Suffixes
The list of common
prefixes, roots and
suffixes as well as the
comprehensive lists of
English prefixes and
suffixes are presented in
this part.
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Appendix III: Word List
The English-Persian
Word List includes all the
important words and
phrases used in the
book.
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Unit 1
Word Elements: Prefixes,
Roots and Suffixes
General Aims
• This unit is designed to
help you learn a number of
words and the skills
involved in using context
clues, and to promote your
reading comprehension
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Behavioral Objectives
After carefully reading this
unit, you are expected to:
1.
Define the meaning of the
words presented at the
beginning of this unit, and do
Exercises 1-1 and 1-2.
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2. Do Word Formation
Exercises 1-3 and 1-4.
3. Do Word Formation Chart
Exercise 1-5.
4. Do Comprehension
Exercises 1-6, 1-7, 1-8 and
1-9.
5. Do Structure Review
Exercise 1-10.
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Unit 1 Summay
Word Elements: Prefixes, Roots and
Suffixes
There are three kinds of word
elements: prefixes, roots, and
suffixes:
A prefix is a group of letters
that attaches to the beginning
of a word root.
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A root is the central, or main portion of a word.
A suffix is a group of letters that attaches to the
end of a word root.
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Example: impolitely:
im- is the prefix,
polite is the root,
im- means “not.”
impolite means “not polite”.
and –ly is the suffix.
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co- (together) + exist = coexist (to exist together)
co- (together) + operate = cooperate (to work or
operate together)
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Types of roots: base words and combining roots
A base word is simply an English word that can
stand alone, such as polite or operate, and may
be joined to a prefix or a suffix.
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Combining roots cannot stand alone as English
words; they are derived from words in other
languages.
Example: ject is derived from the Latin word jacere,
which means “to throw”.
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Ject combines with many prefixes to form new
words.
Examples: reject and eject
e- (“out”) + ject (“throw”) = eject
re- (“back”) + ject ( “throw”) = reject
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Prefixes and roots often give an image of a word
rather than a precise definition.
This image can help you to remember the
meaning of a word.
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Most suffixes change a word from one part of
speech to another.
Example
Impolite is an adjective but impolitely is an adverb.
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Suffixes may also indicate a plural or a past
tense:
Examples: boys, reached
A few suffixes extend the basic meaning of a word
root.
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Example
The root, psych (mind), and the suffix –logy
(study of) are joined to form psychology (the
study of the mind).
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Using Word Elements
Word elements provide valuable clues to the
meanings of unknown words, but they must be
used carefully.
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Some word elements have more than one
spelling.
Example: the root ject is occasionally spelled jac.
The prefix anti- is also spelled ant- (as in antacid
and antagonist).
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Some word elements have more than one
meaning.
Example, the combining root gen can mean both
“birth” and “type”( as in generate or generic)
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If you combine your knowledge of word elements
with context clues, you can usually determine
the most appropriate meaning.
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Finally, when you see a certain combination of
letters in a word, those letters may not always
form a word element.
1.
2.
The antihero is a villain.
We anticipate you will come.
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The use of word elements is an excellent way to
increase your vocabulary.
Prefixes, roots, and suffixes can help you unlock
the meanings of thousands of difficult words.
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Structure Review
Look at these sentences:
a.
A prefix is a group of letters. The group of
letters attaches to the beginning of a word root.
b. A prefix is a group of letters that attaches
to the beginning of a word root.
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You can combine the two sentences in ‘a’ to
form a new sentence like ‘b’ by an adjective
clause.
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In ‘b’, ‘that attaches to the beginning of a word
root’ is an adjective clause used as an adjective,
because it describes the noun phrase ‘a group
of letters’.
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Unit 2
Word Power and a World Power
General Aims
This unit is designed to help
you learn a number of words
and the skills involved in
using context clues, and to
promote your reading
comprehension
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Behavioral Objectives
After carefully reading this
unit, you are expected to:
1. Define the meaning of
the words presented at the
beginning of this unit, and do
Exercises 2-1 and 2-2.
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2. Do Word Formation
Exercises 2-3 and 2-4.
3. Do Word Formation Chart
Exercise 2-5.
4. Do Comprehension
Exercises 2-6, 2-7, 2-8 and 2-9.
5. Do Structure Review
Exercise 2-10.
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Unit 2 Summary
Word Power and a World Power
English is the world’s most
important language today.
English is the most
frequently taught second
language in the world.
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It is spoken over a vast area: North America,
Europe, Asia, Africa, and elsewhere.
It is the official language of many nations.
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English has an enormous vocabulary.
Webster’s Third New International Dictionary
contains 460,000
No other language comes close to English in a
count of general vocabulary.
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Size of vocabulary
German dictionary: under 200,000 words.
French dictionary: about 150,000 words,
Russian dictionary: maybe 130,000.
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Advantages of enormous vocabulary
A language can make the process easier or
harder by providing or not providing appropriate
words.
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English speakers have a head start over
speakers of other languages in being able to
express themselves clearly and concisely.
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speakers with a good command of vocabulary
can say things in more subtly different ways than
others can.
The expressive power of language is enormous.
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Disadvantages of enormous vocabulary
We have to use a dictionary frequently to look up
the words we don’t know.
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The ever increaing richness of English places a
burden on us when we first learn words and their
meanings.
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English is extraordinarily well endowed with
words.
It is a versatile language.
The supply of words is ever on the rise.
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Structure Review
Look at these sentences:
a. English is the tongue of people.
b. English is the mother tongue of several
hundred million people.
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c. English is a language.
d. English is the most frequently taught
second language.
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‘a’ and ‘c’ are simple sentences that lack color,
interest and detail.
‘b’ and ‘d’ are expanded with modifiers and
give more specific information.
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In ‘b’, the noun ‘people’ is modified by three
adjectives: ‘several’, ‘hundred’ and ‘million’.
In ‘d’, the noun ‘language’ is modified by ‘the
most frequently taught second’.
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In this phrase, ‘frequently’ is an adverb which
modifies the participle ‘taught’ which, in turn, is
used as a modifier to modify the noun
‘language’.
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Nouns may also be used to modify other nouns.
In ‘b’, ‘mother’ modifies ‘tongue’.
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In brief, nouns may be modified by adjectives,
other nouns and participles (the -ed, -en and -ing
forms of verbs).
Adjectives also may be modified by adverbs.
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Unit 3
Why and How Do We Read?
(1)
General Aims
This unit is designed to
help you learn a number
of words and the skills
involved in using context
clues, and to promote
your reading
comprehension.
General English
Behavioral Objectives
After carefully reading this
unit, you are expected to:
1. Define the meaning of
the words presented at the
beginning of this unit, and do
Exercises 3-1 and 3-2.
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2. Do Word Formation
Exercises 3-3 and 3-4.
3. Do Word Formation
Chart Exercise 3-5.
4. Do Comprehension
Exercises 3-6, 3-7, 3-8 and
3-9.
5. Do Structure Review
Exercise 3-10
General English
Unit 3 Summary
Why and How Do We Read?
(1)
Reading for pleasure
Some people pursue
leisure reading seriously
to ‘improve themselves’,
to widen their knowledge
or skills.
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Example
People buy daily newspapers, magazines and
journals to keep themselves informed and up-todate on topical issues.
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We also indulge in leisure reading for the sheer
pleasure of reading or for relaxation.
In this case our reading habits are sporadic;
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Reading for study
When we read for study, we read because we
have to read.
In this case we know that our understanding of
the message will be tested.
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We therefore set aside time for it.
We prepare ourselves physically, mentally and
emotionally for it
and we create an environment around ourselves
that is conducive to reading.
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Reading for gist
We read the whole text but only to gain a general
idea of it.
You can only follow a presentation in a seminar if
you already know the gist of the paper.
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Reading for specific information
When we are looking for specific information in a
book, a chapter or a passage, it saves time to
skim over those sections, chapters or
paragraphs that are not relevant.
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Reading for close understanding
Your intention is to learn as much as you can
about either a subject or a topic.
General English
Reading for a close understanding can come
about as a result of study assignments, afterlecture reading or studying for examinations.
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Therefore, we have to read and understand any
material that has been touched on by the tutor.
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Structure Review
Look at these sentences:
1.a. We read.
b. We read because we enjoy reading.
2.a. We read.
b. We read when we have the time during a
lunch break
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3.a. It does not matter.
b. It does not matter if we understand the
whole passage.
An adverb clause is used as an adverb to modify
a verb.
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An adverb clause may begin with because,
when, before, whether, unless, etc.
There are some adverb clauses that indicate
contrast.
Such clauses begin with although, while and
soon.
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Examples ‘1a’, ‘2a’ and ‘3a’ are simple
sentences.
In ‘1b’, ‘because we enjoy reading’ is an
adverb clause that answers the question ‘why’
about the verb ‘read’.
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In ‘2b’, the adverb clause is ‘when we have the
time during a lunch break’. This clause specifies
the time of the verb ‘read’.
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In ‘3b’, ‘if we understand the whole passage’ is
an adverb clause that refers to the condition of
the verb ‘matter’.
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There are other forms of adverb clauses that are
classified on the basis of the type of relationship
they express.
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Remember that you can put an adverb clause in
front of, within, or after the independent clause.
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Unit 4
Why and How Do We Read?
(2)
General Aims
This unit is designed to
help you learn a number
of words and the skills
involved in using context
clues, and to promote
your reading
comprehension.
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Behavorial Objectives
After carefully reading this
unit, you are expected to:
1. Define the meaning of the
words presented at the
beginning of this unit, and do
Exercises 4-1 and 4-2.
2. Do Word Formation Exercises
4-3 and 4-4.
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3. Do Word Formation
Chart Exercise 4-5.
4. Do Comprehension
Exercises 4-6, 4-7, 4-8
and 4-9.
5. Do Structure
Review Exercise 4-10.
General English
Unit 5 Summary
Why and How Do We Read?
(2)
Inferring
This sounds rather like guessing
what the text says but the
reason we can do it is that we
can base our guesses on good
information from elsewhere in
the text.
General English
Rather than use guessing to describe what we
are doing when we read, we say we are
inferring.
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To infer is to reach an opinion either from facts or
through reasoning.
Somebody can say something that you, by
inference or deduction, can interpret.
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When reading, you can infer meanings from
context even when you do not know the meaning
of some of the words.
This is determined by the surrounding words
and general context.
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Inferring the meaning of unknown words
We can infer the meaning of a word from the
context within which it is used.
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The meaning of a word is determined by a set of
circumstances that surround it and differentiate
its meaning from any other word.
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Example
For example, look at the following two sentences:
1. He affects an air of superiority.
2. Loud noise affects our concentration
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In the first sentence, affects means puts on
because of the context of superiority.
In the second sentence, affects means
interferes with because of the context of the
word concentration.
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Predicting messages
From what we already know of a text’s content
and meaning we can predict more about what
the writer will go on to say.
General English
To predict is to guess what is going to happen or
what the writer is going to say.
In our reading we can predict what the writer is
going to say because:
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a. We are familiar, through past experience, with
the ideas being expressed;
b. the writer has used words and phrases whose
uses we are familiar with.
General English
Example:
Prevention is better than (cure).
Predicting a message depends both on our
familiarity with the language and on our prior
knowledge of the topic.
General English
Skipping
As we read we skip many words, yet we still
understand the message.
This is particularly so when we are reading for
pleasure.
General English
Take for example, the following sentence:
‘When one area becomes inhospitable, the birds
migrate to more propitious environments.’
General English
If you only know inhospitable, birds and migrate,
then you can guess from the context that
propitious describes a situation opposite to
inhospitable or hospitable.
General English
In reading you can save yourself time by
skipping less important words and still get the
message.
General English
However, do not skip the key unfamiliar words.
If this happens, then you should use a dictionary.
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Structure Review
Look at these sentences:
Simple Present
Mary uses a dictionary. (Active Voice)
A dictionary is used (by Mary). (Passive Voice)
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Simple Past
Mary used a dictionary. (Active Voice)
A dictionary was used (by Mary). (Passive Voice)
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Present Continuous
Mary is using a dictionary. (Active Voice)
A dictionary is being used (by Mary). (Passive
Voice)
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Mary was using a dictionary. (Active Voice)
A dictionary was being used (by Mary). (Passive
Voice)
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Future
Mary will use a dictionary. (Active Voice)
A dictionary will be used (by Mary). (Passive
Voice)
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Present Perfect
Mary has used a dictionary. (Active Voice)
A dictionary has been used (by Mary). (Passive
Voice)
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Past Perfect
Mary had used a dictionary. (Active Voice)
A dictionary had been used (by Mary). (Passive
Voice)
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Present Infinitive
Mary has to use a dictionary. (Active Voice)
A dictionary has to be used (by Mary). (Passive
Voice)
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In an active voice sentence, the doer of the
action (verb) is emphasized.
But in a passive voice sentence, the action
(verb) is emphasized.
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The passive is formed in one of the following
ways:
be + past participle
auxiliary + be + past participle
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Notice that the form of be for the continuous
tenses is being;
for the future tenses and for the present infinitive,
be;
and for the perfect tenses, been.
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The subject of a passive sentence is actually the
object of its counterpart active sentence.
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The actual subject of an active sentence is
placed after the verb in ‘by phrase’, or is omitted
from the sentence.
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Passive sentences are used when the doer of
the action is
obvious,
unknown,
unimportant or
less important than the action (verb).
General English
Remember that passive sentences often sound
impersonal and objective, and are frequently
used in textbooks.
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Unit 5
Using the Dictionary
General Aims
This unit is designed to
help you learn a number
of words and the skills
involved in using context
clues, and to promote
your reading
comprehension
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Behavioral Objectives
After carefully reading this
unit, you are expected to:
1. Define the meaning of
the words presented at the
beginning of this unit, and do
Exercises 5-1 and 5-2.
2. Do Word Formation
Exercises 5-3 and 5-4.
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3. Do Word Formation
Chart Exercise 5-5.
4. Do Comprehension
Exercises 5-6, 5-7, 5-8
and 5-9.
5. Do Structure Review
Exercise 5-10.
General English
Unit 5 Summary
Using the Dictionary
There are many different
types of dictionaries.
The smallest is the
pocket or abridged
dictionary, usually a
paperback, which gives
short definitions.
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The most complete kind is the unabridged
dictionary.
Between these two sizes is the college-level
dictionary, which includes enough detail for most
college students.
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Learning to use this important tool takes
practice.
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A skillful dictionary user can find not only the
meaning of a word but also its pronunciation, its
history, and other words related to it.
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A standard dictionary entry contains the following
parts:
1. The word
The entry word is printed in boldface type and
divided into syllables.
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2. The pronunciation
A key at the bottom of each page of a dictionary
shows you how to interpret the pronunciation
symbols.
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This key gives a common word that contains the
sound represented by that symbol
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For example, the symbol ă (which represents
the first sound in amicable) should be spoken
like the sound of a in the word păt.
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An accent mark (΄) follows the syllable that
should be stressed when you pronounce a word.
In amicable, only the first syllable is stressed.
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If two syllables have accent marks, the syllable
with the darker accent mark receives more
stress.
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3. The part of speech
The parts of speech you will most often
encounter are commonly abbreviated as follows:
n. ― noun
tr. v. ― transitive verb
adj. ― adjective
intr. v. ― intransitive verb
adv. ― adverb
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4. The definition
Choosing the best definition is often a very difficult
task.
Be sure to read all of the definitions before you
select one.
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Ordering definitions.
In the American Heritage Dictionary, Third
College Edition, the most general definition of a
word is given first, and the least general is given
last.
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In Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary,
the oldest definition of a word appears first, and
the newest definition last.
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In the Random House College Dictionary,
definitions are ordered from the most commonly
used to the least commonly used.
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Dictionary definitions usually state only the
precise, or denotative, meanings of words.
But words also have implied, or connotative,
meanings.
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Example
Skinny and slender have the same denotative
meaning, “thin”.
But they differ in connotative meaning.
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Skinny has negative associations, or
connotations, and is an uncomplimentary word;
slender has positive connotations and is a
complimentary word.
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Dictionaries give some hints about connotative
meanings.
5. The etymology
In this section, the history of a word is traced to its
origin.
The word amicable comes to us in its present form
from Middle English.
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Before this, the word appeared in Late Latin as
amicabilis, which can be followed back still
further to the Latin word amicus, meaning
“friend.”
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6. Related words
Related words usually differ from the entry word
because they contain suffixes, or word endings.
General English
For instance, under the main entry amicable (an
adjective), two nouns (amicability, amicableness)
and an adverb (amicably) are also listed.
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Structure Review
Look at these sentences:
1.a. The word contains the sound that is represented
Adjective Clause
by the symbol.
b. The word contains the sound represented by the
Reduced Phrase
symbol.
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2.a. These are the parts of speech that you
Adjective Clause
will encounter.
b. These are the parts of speech you will
encounter.
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In sentence 1a., the relative pronoun ‘that’ is the
subject of the adjective clause.
In sentence 1b, the full adjective clause is
reduced to a phrase.
In ‘1b’, ‘that’ and ‘is’ are omitted.
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In sentence 2a, the relative pronoun ‘that’ is
used as the direct object of the adjective clause.
However, in sentence 2b, ‘that’ has been left
out.
General English
Remember that you can reduce such adjective
clauses without changing their meanings.
General English
Unit 6
Using Reference Books and
Libraries
General Aims
This unit is designed to help
you learn a number of
words and the skills
involved in using context
clues, and to promote your
reading comprehension.
General English
Behavioral Objectives
After carefully reading this
unit, you are expected to:
1. Define the meaning of
the words presented at the
beginning of this unit, and do
Exercises 6-1 and 6-2.
2. Do Word Formation
Exercises 6-3 and 6-4.
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3. Do Word Formation Chart
Exercise 6-5.
4. Do Comprehension
Exercises 6-6, 6-7, 6-8 and
6-9.
5. Do Structure Review
Exercise 6-10.
General English
Unit 6 Summary
Using Reference Books and
Libraries
Using your dictionary
If you do not know the
meaning of a key word or
content word and cannot
guess it from the context
within which it is used, it
would be a very grave
mistake to skip it.
General English
Most dictionaries give
the word,
its meaning or meanings,
spelling and pronunciation.
General English
Some words have more than one meaning and it
is important to know exactly what meaning you
are looking for.
General English
Example
voice described as
the sound, made in the throat, that humans use
for speaking and singing,
the quality or power of this: a good singing
voice; a quiet voice
General English
All entries in dictionaries are arranged
alphabetically or according to their spelling.
General English
You should equip yourself with a dictionary which
will give you most of the words that you require
and a variety of definitions for each word.
General English
Roget’s Thesaurus brings together words with
similar meanings through a classification under
the same heading.
Suppose we wanted one word for lessening
pain.
General English
If we turn to the section dealing with pain we
might find the word we want.
Roget’s Thesaurus gives only a variety of words
in the same semantic field.
General English
Selecting reading for pleasure
For leisure reading we select subjects or topics
that interest us.
General English
Language level and suitability
In selecting our reading materials we should
choose those whose language level is at or
slightly higher than our own level of competence.
General English
Reading materials for study
When you enroll for a course you are given a
‘Reading List’.
This is graded into essential reading,
recommended reading and optional reading.
General English
All institutions of learning, from primary schools
to post secondary institutions, should have a
library.
In educational institutions the libraries are both
‘lending’ and ‘reference’.
General English
Books in a library are catalogued both by subject
and by author.
Each title is written out on a card that includes
title, author, publisher, date of publication and
catalogue number.
General English
From the card you will obtain the author’s name,
the title of the book you want and the catalogue
number.
General English
If you know the subject and the author of the
book then you look in the author catalogue under
the relevant subject section and obtain the
catalogue number and hence the book.
General English
The most important information you need when
you go to the library is the catalogue number of
the book that you require.
General English
Structure Review
Look at these sentences:
1. a. If we know one word but think that there is a
better one still, we can look it up and will find a
whole set of associated words.
General English
b. If you want the meaning of a word, you have
to turn to a dictionary.
General English
c. If, however, after borrowing the book you find
the language level much higher than your
expectations, you will not enjoy reading it.
General English
1. If we were to look up a new word, we would
find some definitions for it.
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In sentences 1a, b, and c there is a real
possibility.
So we say: If we know …………………., we
will (can, may, must, have to, ought to, …) find
……………… .
General English
In sentence 2, we are imagining the situation.
So we say: If we were …………….., we would
…………….. .
General English
When we imagine a situation,
we use if + past (if I were / If I knew / If he didn’t,
etc.).
In this case the meaning is present, not past.
General English
Some other examples are as follows:
John would read more if he had more time. (But
he doesn’t have much time.)
We wouldn’t have any money if we didn’t work.
(But we work.)
General English
Unit 7
Learning
General Aims
This unit is designed to
help you learn a number
of words and the skills
involved in using context
clues, and to promote
your reading
comprehension.
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Behavioral Objectives
After carefully reading this
unit, you are expected to:
1. Define the meaning of
the words presented at the
beginning of this unit, and do
Exercises 7-1 and 7-2.
2. Do Word Formation
Exercises 7-3 and 7-4.
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3. Do Word Formation
Chart Exercise 7-5.
4. Do Comprehension
Exercises 7-6, 7-7, 7-8
and 7-9.
5. Do Structure Review
Exercise 7-10.
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Unit 7 summary
Learning
Thinking about learning
Learning is timeconsuming, needing
proper experience
through extensive
reading, practice, and
discussion with others.
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cultivate interest in your studies through learning
to deal fully with the new experiences as you
gain deeper insights into your various subjects.
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Learning and retaining
Whatever is learned has to be stored or retained
in your mind until it is required or its recollection
is triggered by a similar experience.
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Learning, retaining and remembering form a
continuum in the process of studying.
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Revising and thinking
Thinking is aimed at finding new information and
solving new problems.
Improving your powers of thinking can be done
through practice,
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through wider reading, and skilful ordering of the
information learned, and linking past knowledge
to new situations.
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Evidence of your having understood takes for
granted that you can retain the information long
enough to recall it should occasion, such as an
examination, demand.
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Ways to maximize learning
Identification of study material
Unless you are sure of what you are required to
learn you are likely to waste time learning
unnecessary material.
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In learning and studying you aim at acquiring
specific knowledge or skill for a specific purpose
(e.g. to pass an examination)
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In the case of learning for a specific purpose it is
important therefore, to know precisely what you
are required to know.
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Motivation
Motivation to learn is important.
You have to be prepared to make an effort to
learn what is assigned.
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Examinations usually provide strong motivation
to learn the assigned material, keeping in mind
its importance and relevance to your college or
university career.
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Study intervals
The effectiveness of your studying is governed
by your concentration span.
This refers to the period of time you can
concentrate on a problem or study before the
mind begins to wander.
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Study in short intensive spurts, taking breaks in
between to enable your mind to rest and
reinforce itself for the next spurt.
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Many short periods of intensive learning are
better than one long period.
Learn the material over and over again in quick
successive repetitions.
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Go over it constantly in order to allow your
learning process to strengthen the impression
made of the material on your mind.
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This enables your mind to retain and recall what
you have learned for long periods afterwards.
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With practice you gain confidence and experience in
handling the material to be learned.
Recite the study materials without referring to it while
you are summarizing the material to be learned.
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New material will disrupt old facts.
Trying to learn two different items at the same
time can result in confusion.
Try to learn one fully, then differentiate the first
from the second.
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Cover all the syllabus
Study thoroughly all the required examination
material.
Be sure from the very beginning why you are
studying the material to enable your memory to
program itself.
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There is little positive result in having a negative
view of material you do not like and yet the
examination syllabus demands that it be studied.
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Use accurate sources
Avoid sources of errors in learning by programming
your memory to be as observant, objective, thorough
and accurate as possible.
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In this case it helps to pick up as much
information as you can on your required
examination reading.
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…and gradually eliminate material that appears
inaccurate in view of standard or acceptable
sources.
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Structure Review
Look at the following sentences:
1. Learning is time-consuming.
2. Thinking is aimed at finding new information and
solving new problems.
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3. Trying to learn two different items at the same time
can result in confusion.
4. Improving your powers of thinking can be done
through practice.
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A gerund is a noun that is derived from a verb.
A verb can be turned into a gerund by adding (-ing) to
its simple form.
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In sentences 1 and 2, the words learning and
thinking are gerunds.
Gerunds function as nouns in sentences.
A gerund may take an object, a complement, and
other modifiers
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In sentences 3 and 4, ‘trying to learn two
different items at the same time’ and ‘improving
your powers of thinking’ are gerund phrases.
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Unit 8
Remembering What YouHave
Learned
General Aims
This unit is designed to help
you learn a number of words
and the skills involved in using
context clues, and to promote
your reading comprehension.
General English
Behavioral Objectives
After carefully reading this
unit, you are expected to:
1. Define the meaning of the
words presented at the
beginning of this unit, and do
Exercises 8-1 and 8-2.
2. Do Word Formation
Exercises 8-3 and 8-4.
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3 . Do Word Formation
Chart Exercise 8-5.
4.. Do Comprehension
Exercises 8-6, 8-7, 8-8
and 8-9.
5. Do Structure Review
Exercise 8-10.
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Unit 8 Summary
Remembering What You Have
Learned
Remembering is closely
linked to understanding
Learning by rote is not
what we are talking
about when we are
discussing remembering.
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Memorizing
Below is a simple statement of fact:
Language policy has been one of the most difficult
aspects of national development in Africa.
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In memorizing we can take the statement at face
value .
We need not go any further if all we are interested in
is the memorization of facts.
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However, examinations have purposes other than just
testing our mastery of facts in a particular subject.
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For example, exams help to select individuals for
positions in society and
measure powers of critical thinking and application
of knowledge and skills to different situations.
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Understanding
This is the most effective method of studying.
It involves reading behind the words to obtain
meanings, concepts, principles, reasons, etc.
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There are cases, however, where memorization
is a useful way of studying.
This is particularly so for
scientific formulae,
poetry and
some passages in literature
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Memory can be short- or long-term.
Short-term memory is where once you have
experienced or learned something you
remember it for a short time but later you cannot
remember it.
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Long-term memory is where once you have
learned something for an adequate length of
time, the idea or picture can be recalled with
relative ease much later.
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An example involving long-term recall is your address.
For long-term memory sufficient time is needed for
your mind to register and integrate the data without
being rushed.
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If adequate time is given for the material to ‘sink
in’ then the retention span is greatly increased.
This means that effective memorizing requires
sufficient time for practice and rehearsal.
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Types of memory
There are three known types of memories,
visual, audio and kinetic.
In studying one should utilize all of them but give
emphasis to one’s strong memory points.
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Some people have stronger visual memories, i.e.
they tend to photograph and remember what
they learn because they can see it in their minds.
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Others have auditory memories and can
remember better what they hear.
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The third category of people have kinetic
memories and will remember better by writing
out what they have read or heard.
One should use all three but exploit the
strongest.
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Finally, graphs, charts, formulae, dates and laws
are best learned and memorized word for word
with deliberate attempts to remember their visual
or mental pictures using flashcards.
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Mnemonic study techniques
Mnemonic techniques of study are memory aid
devices to help you recall significant information.
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They fall into two categories.
The first category involves breaking down
information into major points under which you
put subsidiary points.
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This is called the headline approach because the
major points are headlined with the relevant
subsidiary points coming under each headline.
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Mnemonics are of use also in dealing with lists of
unrelated items in order to create a bond or link
between them.
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This can be done by building up mental images,
using key letters to form words or phrases,
associating single words with the facts in
question,
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…associating facts with stories, sentences,
rhymes and rhythms.
Examples
The excretory system of the body – skin,
kidneys, intestines, liver and lungs.
Here the mnemonic device could be the word
SKILL.
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You can acquire the skill of studying by better
mastery of the studying techniques, i.e. learning,
retaining and remembering.
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Structure Review
Look at the following sentences:
1. Remembering is closely linked to
understanding.
2. Effective memorizing requires sufficient time
for practice and rehearsal.
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3. Understanding involves reading behind the words.
4. Remembering can be helped by managing your time
properly.
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A gerund or gerund phrase can be used as the
subject, direct object, or object of preposition in a
sentence.
‘Remembering’ and ‘effective memorizing’ in
sentences 1 and 2 are the subjects of the
sentences.
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‘Reading behind the words’ in sentence 3 is the
direct object and ‘managing your time properly’
in sentence 4 is the object of preposition ‘by’
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Unit 9
Applying Your Knowledge
General Aims
This unit is designed to help
you learn a number of words
and the skills involved in
using context clues, and to
promote your reading
comprehension.
General English
Behavioral Objectives
After carefully reading this
unit, you are expected to:
1. Define the meaning of the
words presented at the
beginning of this unit, and do
Exercises 9-1 and 9-2.
2. Do Word Formation
Exercises 9-3 and 9-4.
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3.. Do Word Formation
Chart Exercise 9-5.
4.. Do Comprehension
Exercises 9-6, 9-7, 9-8 and
9-9.
5. Do Structure Review
Exercise 9-10.
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Applying Your Knowledge
Apply any theory you
learn in your various
subjects or courses.
Applying, testing and
drawing up hypotheses
of any theories learned
involves questioning,
problem-solving,
integrating and creating.
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Questioning
Questioning calls upon you to ask questions
about the material covered to satisfy yourself of
the veracity of the messages you receive.
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Questioning enables you to get more information
than you get from the initial message.
For example few lectures or even books provide
all the information on any one subject.
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In order to raise relevant questions you must
identify important or crucial points in the content
of the messages received.
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Ordering and categorizing the levels of
importance of the received messages will help
you to raise meaningful questions in the order of
priority.
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Asking unnecessary questions wastes time and
is irritating to the rest of the group.
Do not avoid raising questions for fear of being
considered less knowledgeable.
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Asking questions should not be for show or for
challenging the authority of your tutors or
lecturers; it should be thoroughly genuine for
learning and revising.
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Problem solving
Problem solving is encountered in all aspects of
life.
Human beings are always confronted with
problems that they have to find solutions to.
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Solutions to problems are not fixed; they depend on
the subject or course being examined.
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Integrating
Integrating is concerned with finding
relationships with respect to a body of unrelated
materials: finding links between a variety of
different materials.
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The unrelated materials could be theories or opinions,
facts on their own, a body of facts, formulae, and
equations.
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You will need firstly to find out the common or
similar elements or parts of the sets of materials:
facts, formulae and equations.
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Integration is enhanced by ordering the variety of
materials according to a hierarchy, or order of
importance.
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In integrating different sets of materials, you
have to reorganize your understanding of the
materials in question.
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Creating
Both problem solving and integrating precede
and aid creating.
You have to be able to solve problems and
integrate information (messages) before you are
able to create or to develop something new.
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Creating could consist of new hypotheses,
formulae, equations, methods or applications in
scientific terms and new literature and art in the
field of humanities.
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To apply productively the theories learned
involves the mental abilities of questioning,
problem solving, integrating and creating.
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Structure Review
Look at these sentences:
1. What amounts to courtship will precede
arrangements for regularizing the official status
of husband and wife.
2. You are aware of how you will be tested.
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3. She feels that she has learned the study
materials.
4. This means that you know the author of the
book.
A noun clause is a dependent or subordinate
clause. It functions as a noun in the sentence.
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The noun clauses may be introduced by the
following words:
who, what, which, whom, whose, whoever,
whichever, whatever, where, when, how, why,
whether, that
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Since a noun clause may be used in the same
way in which a noun is used, it can occur
anywhere in the sentence where a noun can
occur.
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In sentence 1, the noun clause ‘what amounts to
courtship’ is the subject of the sentence.
In sentence 2, the noun clause ‘how you will be
tested’ is the object of preposition.
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In sentences 3 and 4, the noun clause ‘that she
has learned the study materials’ and ‘that you
know the author of the book’ are both objects of
the sentences.
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Unit 10
Preparing for Examinations
General Aims
This unit is designed to
help you learn a number of
words and the skills
involved in using context
clues, and to promote your
reading comprehension.
General English
Behavioral Objectives
After carefully reading this unit,
you are expected to:
1. Define the meaning of the
words presented at the
beginning of this unit, and do
Exercises 10-1 and 10-2.
2. Do Word Formation
Exercises 10-3 and 10-4.
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3. Do Word Formation
Chart Exercise 10-5.
4. Do Comprehension
Exercises 10-6, 10-7, 108 and 10-9.
5. Do Structure Review
Exercise 10-10.
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Unit 10 Summary
Preparing for Examinations
The purpose of exams
A large number of people
are spending time reading
for study in order to pass
examinations.
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Generally examinations are meant to:
a. measure to what extent you have gained a
certain body of knowledge and skills;
b. measure how much or how effectively you
have studied or learned a particular subject;
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c. find out the degree to which you can apply or
relate the basic knowledge and skills to new
circumstances or situations;
d. predict your future level of success in your
chosen field of study or profession
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e. measure your general level of ability, endurance
and hard work to manage examinations at your
respective level;
f. select and arrange individuals for assigning
duties and positions in society;
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g. motivate you to work hard throughout the
period of your study at school, college or
university;
h. train you to have a disciplined approach to
life.
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Important points to consider
a. Knowing the material that will be covered by the
examinations.
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b. Being aware of the type of examination
questions likely to be set, e.g. objective, truefalse, multiple choice, matching, completion or
essay.
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c. Finding out
the number of papers you are expected to sit;
the time allocation for each paper; and
the number of questions you are expected to
attempt.
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d. Revising regularly over the period of your study in
school, college or university, leaving some weeks
for final revision
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You should allocate particular times every week
for revising material already covered, linking the
new course material with what went before.
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e. Practicing answering examination questions in
simulated examination conditions.
Go over critically what you have done or ask a
fellow student to do so and discuss it with him.
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f. Discussing in groups helps to organize what
you have read.
Group discussion helps you to clarify your
thoughts.
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g. Listen to your lecturer or tutor for areas of topic
emphasis or preferences.
Identify you tutor preferences particularly
during tutorial sessions.
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Attend all classes, lectures and tutorials to make
sure that you have a complete feel of the
teachers’ and lecturers’ preferences.
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h. Avoiding fatigue and boredom by building up
the needed energy for study through
motivation, courage and determination to
succeed in examinations.
You must have adequate sleep to remain in
good health.
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In addition, you must have a proper diet, receive
medical treatment when needed, exercise
adequately and regularly, understand and be
absorbed in your coursework.
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i.
Avoiding anxiety for it is most likely to disrupt and
interfere with your examination performance.
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In many instances anxiety is a result of your fear
of failing in the examinations on realizing that
you have not put in enough work or prepared
adequately.
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J. Adopting an examination technique by getting
adequate sleep on the night of the examination.
Having the required writing material and physical
aids.
Doing everything possible to keep calm.
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Structure Review
Look at these sentences:
1. It would be useful to reflect what examinations
are.
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2. Find the degree to which you can apply or
relate the basic knowledge and skills to new
circumstances or situations.
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3. It is important to know the type of questions
because the manner of answering them varies
from type to type.
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4. Revision of material covered for
examinations must be routine.
This means you should allocate particular times
every week for revising material already
covered.
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In sentence 1, ‘it’ refers to ‘to reflect what
examinations are’. ‘It’ is a pronoun.
In sentence 2, ‘which’ refers to ‘the degree’.
‘Which’ is a pronoun.
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In sentence 3, ‘it’ refers to ‘to know the type of
questions’ and ‘them’ refers to ‘questions’.
‘It’ and ‘them’ are pronouns.
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In sentence 4, ‘This’ refers to ‘Revision of
material covered for examinations must be
routine’.
‘This’ is a pronoun.
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Most pronouns function like nouns or noun
phrases.
Pronouns share several characteristics, most of
which are not found in nouns.
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Their name implies that they ‘replace’ nouns,
but this is to a great extent far from true.
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Thank you !