Teori Komunikasi
Keorganisasian
KOC 3232
Dr. Hamisah Zaharah Hasan
zaherahhamisah@yahoo.com
Objektif
Pada akhir kursus ini pelajar akan dapat:
• Menerangkan asal-usul teori dalam
komunikasi keorganisasian
• Menghuraikan teori berkaitan komunikasi
keorganisasian
• Mengaitkan kepentingan memahami teori
dalam komunikasi keorganisasian
Sinopsis
Kursus ini merangkumi teori komunikasi organisasi
dalam pendekatan klasikal dan saintifik; teori dalam
pendekatan hubungan kemanusiaan, teori dalam
pendekatan kontemporari iaitu pendekatan kritikal.
Bentuk dan kandungan komunikasi dalam
pendekatan tersebut dan implikasi teori kepada
komunikasi keorganisasian.
Penilaian Kursus
Ujian
30 %
Quiz
10
Tugasan Individu
20 %
Peperiksaan Akhir
40%
Rujukan
Byres, P.Y. 1997. Organizational communications:theory and behavior.
Boston:Allyn & Bacon
Eisenberg,E.M. &Goodall Jr.,H.L.1997. Organizational
communication:Balancing creativity and constraint.(2nd ed.). NY:St.
Martin’s
Hatch, M.J & Cunliffee, A.L. 2006. Organizational theory. (2nd ed).NY: Oxford
University Press.
Miller,K. 2012. Organizational communication. Approaches and processes.
(6th ed).Belmont, CA:Wadsworth
Neher, W.W. 1997. Organizational communication: challenges of charge,
diversity, and continuity. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Teori
Keorganisasian
Klasikal
6
Idea utama
teori keorganisasian klasikal
• Terdapat satu cara terbaik melaksanakan tugas
(There is “one best way” to perform a task)
7
Terhasil daripada dua perspektif:
• Pengurusan saintifik – fokus terhadap pengurusan
kerja dan pekerja
• Pengurusan pentadbiran – menekankan isu
berkaitan bagaimana keseluruhan struktur
organisasi perlu dibentuk
8
Penyumbang utama terhadap
pembentukan teori tersebut
Pengurusan saintifik:
»Frederick Taylor
Pengurusan pentadbiran:
»Henri Fayol
»Luther Halsey Gulick
»Max Weber
9
Frederick Taylor
•Taylor dilahirkan di Pennsylvania pada 20 March 1856
• Tamat pengajian di Eropah, bercadang untuk
memasuki universiti Harvard, namun gagal ujian
kemasukan.
•Taylor kemudian bertugas di syarikat mengeluarkan
“pump” di Philadelphia
•Beliau kemudian mengikuti pengajian kejuruteraan
mekanikal di Stevens, dan tamat dalam masa hanya tiga
tahun.
10
Midvale Steel Company
• Taylor mula bertugas di Midvale steel Company
pada 1878.
• Berjaya melipat-gandakan produktiviti pekerjapekerjanya dan dinaik pangkat kepada foreman
• Mulai mengkaji mengenai produktiviti sebagai satu
cara mengukur pengeluaran.
• Kemudian dilantik menjadi Ketua Jurutera di
Midvale.
11
Pencapaian
• Mereka sistem untuk memaksimumkan kerja yang
efisyen dari pekerja dan mesin.
• Fokus terhadap kajian mengenai masa dan
pergerakan dan bagaimana menyelesaikan tugas
dalam jangkamasa yang singkat.
• Menjadi Jurutera Perunding kepada beberapa
syarikat.
• Menulis —The Principles of Scientific Management
12
Prinsip Utama Pengurusan Saintifik
1.
2.
3.
4.
Analisis tugas secara saintifik – pemerhatian, pengumpulan
data dan pengukuran yang betul untuk mengenalpasti cara
terbaik melaksanakan setiap tugas.
Pemilihan personnel – pemilihan secara saintifik dan dilatih,
ajar, serta bentuk sebagai pekerja.
Kerjasama Pengurusan – pengurus perlu bekerjasama
dengan pekerja untuk memastikan semua kerja dijalankan
mengikut prinsip saintifik yang dibentuk.
Penyeliaan fungsional – pengurus bertindak untuk
merancang, menguruskan, membuat keputusan sementara
pekerja pula tugas mereka ialah “bekerja”.
13
Henri Fayol
• Jurutera dan Pengusaha Peranchis
• Bertugas sebagai Pengarah Urusan sebuah organisasi
yang terbabit dalam perlombongan.
• Mementingkan prinsip pengurusan daripada
personaliti individu.
• Fayol adalah orang pertama mengenalpasti
pengurusan sebagai proses penilaian berterusan.
14
5 Fungsi Pengurusan Fayol
Peranan utama pengurus:
Perancangan
Pengurusan
Mengarah
Mengkoordinasi
Mengawal
Terdapat 14 prinsip tambahan yang diperkenalkan
Fayol
15
14 Prinsip Fayol:
1. Pembahagian Tugas — memperbaikki efisiensi dengan
mengurangkan pembaziran, meningkatkan output, dan
memudahkan latihan tugas.
2. Kuasa dan Tanggungjawab —kuasa: hak untuk memberi
arahan dan kuasa terhadap mendapatkan ketaatan –
Tanggungjawab: Tanggungjawab menjalankan tugas.
3. Disiplin — hormat peraturan organisasi
16
4. Keunggulan arahan —pekerja hanya perlu diarah oleh satu
ketua sahaja.
5. Keunggulan arah— mengelompokkan tugas yang sama
untuk dibawah arahan satu pengurus.
6. Tidak mementingkan faedah individu tetapi penekanan
faedah organisasi— tidak boleh beri keutamaan kepada
kepentingan individu daripada organisasi
7. Pembayaran kepada kakitangan— bayaran yang adil dan
memuaskan kepada semua kakitangan.
8. Pemusatan tugas— Tanggungjawab kepada pengurus –
pekerja melaksanakan tugas.
17
9. Rantaian skalar (Line of authority)— Arahan dari
pengurusan atasan kepada pekerja bawahan.
10. Susunan— Kedudukan yang teratur antara pekerja dan
peralatan.
11.Equiti— Layanan pengurus kepada pekerja mesti adil dan
saksama.
12. Kestabilan jawatan — pembentukan kestabilan jawatan
untuk mengelakkan komitment yang rendah daripada
pekerja.
13.Inisiatif— pekerja perlu digalakkan untuk memberi
pandangan yang membina.
14. Esprit de Corps — pembentukan semangat kerjasama,
kerja dalam kumpulan, dan kesatuan pekerja.
18
Luther Halsey Gulick
(1892-1992)
• Pakar kewangan dan pentadbiran munisipal
• Bertugas di Institute of Public Administration,
professor of municipal science and administration at
Columbia, dan juga komiti dalam pentadbiran
Franklin D. Roosevelt.
• Mengembangkan prinsip Fayol kepada 7 prinsip:
19
1. Perancangan – Menggariskan pencapaian dan kaedah
untuk pencapaian tersebut.
2. Penyusunan – membentuk struktur autoriti formal
menerusi pembahagian tugas yang dirancang,
difahami, dan dikoordinasikan dalam pelan.
3. Penstafan - memilih dan melatih staf dan
memastikan environment kerja yang kondusif.
4. Pengarahan – tanggungjawab dlm membuat
keputusan, mengkomunikasikan dan
mengimplementasikan keputusan serta menjalankan
penilaian pekerja bawahan yang adil.
20
5. Pengkoordinasian – segala kegiatan dan usaha
adalah untuk menyatukan organisasi ke arah
mencapai objektif yang sama.
6. Rekod – kejayaan direkodkan untuk memastikan
kelemahan dapat diperbaikki.
7. Belanjawan – setiap aktiviti yang hendak dijalankan
perlu menyediakan bajet.
21
Max Weber
(1864-1920)
• German sociologist
• Weber first describes the concept of bureaucracy –
an ideal form of organizational structure
• He defines bureaucratic administration as the
exercise of control on the basis of knowledge
• Weber states, “Power is principally exemplified
within organizations by the process of control”
22
Weber uses and defines the terms authority and
power as:
• Power: any relationship within which one
person could impose his will, regardless of any
resistance from the other.
• Authority: existed when there was a belief in
the legitimacy of that power.
23
Weber classifies organizations according to the
legitimacy of their power and uses three basic
classifications:
Charismatic Authority: based on the sacred or
outstanding characteristic of the individual.
Traditional Authority: essentially a respect for customs.
Rational Legal Authority: based on a code or set of
rules.
24
Weber recognizes that rational legal
authority is used in the most efficient
form of organization because:
• A legal code can be established which can claim
obedience from members of the organization
• The law is a system of abstract rules which are
applied to particular cases; and administration looks
after the interests of the organization within the
limits of that law.
25
• The manager or the authority additionally
follows the impersonal order
• Membership is key to law obedience
• Obedience is derived not from the person
administering the law, but rather to the
impersonal order that installed the person’s
authority
26
Weber outlined his ideal bureaucracy
as defined by the following parameters:
• A continuous system of authorized jobs maintained
by regulations
• Specialization: encompasses a defined “sphere of
competence,” based on its divisions of labor
• A stated chain of command of offices: a consistent
organization of supervision based on distinctive
levels of authority
27
• Rules: an all encompassing system of
directives which govern behavior: rules may
require training to comprehend and manage
• Impersonality: no partiality, either for or
against, clients, workers, or administrators
• Free selection of appointed officials: equal
opportunity based on education and
professional qualification
28
• Full-time paid officials: only or major employment;
paid on the basis of position
• Career officials: promotion based on seniority and
merit; designated by supervisors
• Private/Public split: separates business and private
life
• The finances and interests of the two should be kept
firmly apart: the resources of the organization are
quite distinct from those of the members as private
individuals.
29
(a) A tendency to a leveling of social classes by
allowing a wide range of recruits with technical
competence to be taken by any organization
(b) Elite status because of the time required to achieve
the necessary technical training
(c) Greater degree of social equality due to the
dominance of the spirit of impersonality or
objectivity
30
Weber’s Theory of Bureaucracy
• Tenets of Bureaucracy
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Rules
Specified sphere of competence
Hierarchy
Specialized Training
Workers do not own technology
No entitlement to “official position” by incumbent
Everything written down
Maintenance of “ideal type” - bureaucracy
31
Weber’s Theory of Bureaucracy
• Concerned with describing the ideal structure of
an organization
• Cornerstone: existence of written rules
• The rational application of written rules ensures
the promotion of legitimate authority and the
effective and efficient functioning of the
organization.
32
Weber’s Theory of Bureaucracy
• Application in the Modern Workplace
– Large organizations guided by countless rules
are bureaucracies
– Linked with inefficient, slow-moving
organizations
– Organizations have several characteristics of
bureaucracies
33
Common Criticisms of Classical
Organizational Theory
Classical principles of formal organization may lead to a
work environment in which:
• Employees have minimal power over their jobs and working
conditions
• Subordination, passivity and dependence are expected
• work to a short term perspective
• Employees are lead to mediocrity
• Working conditions produce to psychological failure as a result
of the belief that they are lower class employees performing
menial tasks
34
SUMMARY
• Classical Theories of Organizations (p. 36)
– Taylor’s Theory of Scientific Management
– Fayol’s Administrative Theory
– Weber’s Theory of Bureaucracy
• All 3 theories attempt to enhance management’s ability to
predict and control the behavior of their workers
• Considered only the task function of communication
(ignored relational and maintenance functions of
communication)
• Designed to predict and control behavior in organizations
35
Max Weber
Henri Fayol
36
Max Weber
Henri Fayol
37
Kajian-kajian Hawthorne
Kajian oleh Elton Mayo terhadap
Motivasi Pekerja dan Produktiviti Kerja
KAJIAN HAWTHORNE
Dr. Hasan
38
Definisi Kajian
Hawthorne
• Satu siri kajian mengenalpasti
output pekerja hasil daripada
layanan yang baik oleh pengurus.
• Mengambil sempena nama kilang
Western Electric Company di
Hawthorne, Illinois.
KAJIAN HAWTHORNE
Dr. Hasan
39
• “ Kajian Hawthorne dijalankan pada
1927-1933 di Western Electric
Hawthorne Works, Chicago, dan
Harvard Business School Professor
Elton Mayo dari Sekolah Perniagaan
Harvard mengenalpasti produktiviti
dan persekiataran kerja.”
KAJIAN HAWTHORNE
Dr. Hasan
40
Latar belakang kajian
• Tujuan kajian adalah untuk
mengenalpasti kesan daripada
keletihan dan perlaksaan tugas yang
sama setiap hari terhadap produktiviti
dan cara mengawal mereka menerusi
pembolehubah rehat, kerja lebih
masa, suhu dan kelembapan.
KAJIAN HAWTHORNE
Dr. Hasan
41
• “Mayo ingin mengenalpasti kesan
daripada keletihan dan melakukan
kerja yang sama terhadap
produktiviti dan bagaimana
mengawal pembolehubah seperti
waktu rehat, jumlah jam bekerja,
suhu dan kelembapan.”
KAJIAN HAWTHORNE
Dr. Hasan
42
Eksperimen Mayo
• Enam wanita yang memasang geganti telefon.
• Membuat perubahan keadaan kerja yang kerap dengan
peretujuan mereka.
• Jumlah geganti yang dibuat, suhu dan kelembapan bilik,
sejarah peribadi serta sejarah perubatan, tabiat makan
dan tidur, perbualan ketika bekerja.
• Tiada penyelia untuk pekerja tersebut.
• Mereka disuruh untuk bekerja mengikut kehendak
mereka dan keselesaan mereka.
KAJIAN HAWTHORNE
Dr. Hasan
43
Keadaan Biasa
• Pada keadaan biasa,
waktu kerja adalah 48
jam termasuk hari sabtu.
Tiada waktu berhenti
rehat.
KAJIAN HAWTHORNE
Dr. Hasan
44
Eksperimen Satu
• Pekerja diarahkan membuat satu kerja untuk
lapan minggu.
• Output produktiviti meningkat.
KAJIAN HAWTHORNE
Dr. Hasan
45
Eksperimen Dua
• Pekerja diberikan dua waktu rehat, setiap satu
selama lima minit iaitu waktu pagi dan petang
untuk jangka masa lima minggu.
• Output meningkat.
KAJIAN HAWTHORNE
Dr. Hasan
46
Eksperimen Tiga
• Waktu rehat ditambah kepada
10 minit setiap kali rehat.
• Output meningkat mendadak.
KAJIAN HAWTHORNE
Dr. Hasan
47
Eksperimen Empat
• Pekerja diberkan rehat sejumlah 6 kali dan
setiap kali selama lima minit.
• Output jatuh sedikit.
• Pekerja merungut kerana kekerapan berhenti
mengganggu konsentrasi mereka.
KAJIAN HAWTHORNE
Dr. Hasan
48
Eksperimen Lima
• Waktu rehat seperti waktu asal diberikan dan
pekerja dijamu sup panas.
• Output meningkat.
KAJIAN HAWTHORNE
Dr. Hasan
49
Eksperimen Enam
• Pekerja dibenarkan pulan jam 4:30 p.m. dan
bukan 5:00 p.m.
• Output meningkat.
KAJIAN HAWTHORNE
Dr. Hasan
50
Eksperimen Tujuh
• Pekerja dibenarkan pulang jam 4:00 p.m.
• Output di tahap yang sama.
KAJIAN HAWTHORNE
Dr. Hasan
51
Eksperimen Lapan
• Semua perubahan ditarik balik dan pekerja
kembali kepada keadaan asal.
• Output yang tertinggi dicatatkan.
KAJIAN HAWTHORNE
Dr. Hasan
52
Rumusan Kajian
Kajian ini membuktikan hubungan antara
perseorangan dan antara kumpulan
adalah penting dalam menentukan
kecekapan dan keberkesanan pekerja
berbanding persekitaran kerja.
KAJIAN HAWTHORNE
Dr. Hasan
53
Motivation and
Hygiene Factors
Frederick Herzberg
(1923 – 2000)
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene
Theory
• Focuses on outcomes that lead to higher
motivation and job satisfaction, and those
outcomes that can prevent dissatisfaction.
–Motivator needs relate to the nature of the work
itself—autonomy, responsibility, interesting work.
–Hygiene needs are related to the physical and
psychological context of the work—comfortable
work environment, pay, job security.
• Unsatisfied hygiene needs create dissatisfaction;
satisfaction of hygiene needs does not lead to motivation
or job satisfaction.
Two-factor Theory
(or Motivation-Hygiene Theory)
•
Herzberg:
–
Job context is source of dissatisfaction
• Problems with hygiene factors (e.g., pay, working
conditions) lead to dissatisfaction; lack of
problems means lack of dissatisfaction
– Job content is the source of job satisfaction
• Motivator factors (e.g., achievement,
responsibility) link with job performance; if high,
satisfaction high and performance strong
Two-factor Theory
(or Motivation-Hygiene Theory)
•
•
Validity unconfirmed – not replicated using
different methods
Still does not explain individual differences,
professional or cultural differences
Motivators and Hygiene Factors
• Frederick Herzberg theorized that two entirely
separate dimensions contribute to an employee’s
behavior at work—hygiene factors and motivators.
– Hygiene factors are elements such as working conditions,
pay, policies, interpersonal relationships
– Motivators fulfill high-level needs and include
achievement, recognition, responsibility and opportunity
for growth
Motivators and Hygiene Factors
• Motivators satisfy subordinates–-the things which
encourage them to attend work, comply to group or
team goals, and produce.
• They often are linked to performance. Positive
recognition by a superior and among peers during a
formal meeting is an example of this.
Motivators and Hygiene Factors
• Hygiene factors keep subordinates from being dissatisfied.
They apply to subordinates regardless of performance.
– Timely and thorough completion of and counseling on fitness
evaluations are an example of a hygiene factor.
– The act is expected. When it does not happen subordinates become
dissatisfied and may come to believe that superiors are not taking care
of them.
•
Satisfiers (motivators) and dissatisfiers (hygiene factors) lie on
completely different scales and must be considered
independently.
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
• KITA versus “true” motivation
– Short-term movement versus long-term motivation
• Job enrichment is an attempt to instill
an
internal generator in the employee
• Studies of Herzberg’s theory have included
employees working in a variety of industries and jobs
– Accountants, engineers, nurses, military officers, and
others
Hygiene Factors
• Work environment & target basic needs
• Range from dissatisfaction to no
dissatisfaction
• The presence of hygiene cannot lead to satisfaction or
high levels of motivation
• Perception that hygiene is an entitlement
Hygiene Factors (cont)
• Salary
– Can it ever be enough?
• Benefits
– Health care costs, premium sharing
• Company policy & administration
• Work conditions
– Office space, equipment, etc.
Motivator Factors
• Motivators
– Tap needs for psychological growth
– Job content: The work itself
– Lead to high levels of employee motivation and
satisfaction
Motivator Factors (cont)
• Examples
– Recognition
– Responsibility
– Achievement
– Growth and learning
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene Factors
Motivator Factors
(lower order needs)
(higher order needs)
• Salary
• Company policies
• Working conditions
• Benefits
• Job security
High
Job Dissatisfaction
Prentice Hall, 2001
• Career Advancement
• Personal growth
• Recognition
• Responsibility
• Achievement
0
Chapter 6
Job Satisfaction
High
69
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene Factor - work condition related to
dissatisfaction caused by discomfort or pain
– maintenance factor
– contributes to employee’s feeling not dissatisfied
– contributes to absence of complaints
Motivation Factor - work condition related to
the satisfaction of the need for psychological
growth
– job enrichment
– leads to superior performance & effort
Motivation–Hygiene
Theory of Motivation
• Company policy &
administration
• Supervision
• Interpersonal relations
• Working conditions
• Salary
• Status
• Security
Hygiene factors avoid
job dissatisfaction
Motivation factors
increase job satisfaction
•
•
•
•
•
•
Achievement
Achievement recognition
Work itself
Responsibility
Advancement
Growth
• Salary?
SOURCE: Adapted from Frederick Herzberg, The Managerial Choice: To be Efficient or to Be Human. (Salt Lake City: Olympus, 1982). Reprinted by permission.
Motivation-Hygiene
Combinations
High M
Low M
high motivation
low motivation
High H
few complaints
few complaints
high motivation
low motivation
Low H
many complaints many complaints
(Motivation = M, Hygiene = H)
Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction = how positively or negatively
individuals feel about their jobs
• Observable informally through observation
and interpretation of behaviour and words
• Measured formally in questionnaires
– E.g., Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
– E.g., Job Descriptive Index
Effects of Job Satisfaction
• Link to absenteeism
– Satisfied have lower absenteeism
• Link to turnover
– Dissatisfied more likely to quit
• Link to performance complex
– Satisfaction is NOT good predictor of individual
performance
– Successful performance does seem to lead to greater
satisfaction
– Proper allocation of rewards can increase both
performance and satisfaction
Summary
• Hygiene factors (dissatisfiers) are working
conditions, pay, policies, interpersonal
relationships
• Motivators (satisfiers) fulfill high-level
needs and include recognition,
responsibility and opportunity for growth
Theory X/Y
• Douglas MacGregor, 1960
• Interaction between supervisors and
subordinates
• Organization’s management approach is
determined by supervisors’ attitudes and
belief about subordinates
• Beginning of human relations movement
Theory X
• Role of Management
– Management responsible for
organizing elements of
productive enterprise
– People need to be controlled
and directed
– People would be passive
otherwise
• Human Nature
– man works as little as
possible
– lacks ambition, dislikes
responsibility, prefers to be
led
– inherently self-centered
– naturally resistant to change
– gullible, not very bright
Theory Y
• Role of Management
– Management responsible for
organizing elements of
productive enterprise
– Task of management is to
arrange organizational
conditions so that people can
achieve their own goals best
by directing their own efforts
toward organizational
objectives
• Human Nature
– People are not naturally
passive, they have become so
as a result of experience in
organizations
– Motivation and capacity for
assuming responsibility is
inherent in people
Having Little Ambition
Theory X
Managers See Workers As…
Disliking Work
Avoiding Responsibility
Self-Directed
Theory Y
Enjoying Work
Managers See Workers As…
Accepting Responsibility
Prentice Hall, 2001
79
Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas
McGregor)
Theory X
Assumes that employees dislike
work, lack ambition, avoid
responsibility, and must be
directed and coerced to perform.
Theory Y
Assumes that employees like
work, seek responsibility, are
capable of making decisions,
and exercise self-direction and
self-control when committed to
a goal.
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
• Theory X
– Management view that assumes workers generally dislike
work and must be forced to do their jobs
• Theory Y
– Management view that assumes workers like to work and
under proper conditions, employees will seek
responsibility to satisfy social, esteem, and selfactualization needs
Theory Z
• A management philosophy that stresses
employee participation in all aspects of
company decision making