The Congress of Vienna
(September 1, 1814 – June 9, 1815)
Coin Commemorating the
Opening of the Congress of
Vienna
Main Objectives
• It’s job was to undo everything that Napoléon
had done:
• Reduce France to its old boundaries  her
frontiers were pushed back to 1790 level.
• Restore as many of the old monarchies as
possible that had lost their thrones during the
Napoléonic era.
• Supported the resolution: There is always an
alternative to conflict.
The Congress of Vienna
Negotiators
• Lord Castlereagh of Great Britain
• Czar Alexander I of Russia
• Prince Klemens von Metternich of Austria
• Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand of France
Metternich
• Distrusted democracy and political change
• Dominated the congress, wanted to restore the balance of power
Goals for Other Decision Makers
• Make sure France could not rise again to such power
• Put down revolution wherever it might appear
• Remove traces of French Revolution and Napoleon’s rule
Key Players
at Vienna
British Foreign Minister,
Viscount Castlereagh (Br.)
Tsar Alexander I
(Rus.)
The “Host”
Prince Klemens von
Metternich (Aus.)
King Frederick
William III (Prus.)
Foreign Minister, Charles
Maurice de Tallyrand (Fr.)
Congress of Vienna
(1814-1815)
• European monarchs sought to turn back the
clock to 1789 and restore Europe’s Old
Regime
• Members included the “Big Four” and France
– Austria – Prince Metternich
– England – Duke of Wellington and Lord
Castlereagh
– France – Talleyrand
– Prussia – Frederick William III, Hardenberg, and
Humboldt
– Russia – Tsar Alexander I
Key Figures of the Congress of
Vienna
• Prince Klemens von
Metternich of Austria
• Served as host and
presided over the
Congress
• Wanted to restore
Europe to what it was
before the French
Revolution
Metternich (1773-1859)
• Opposed democracy and nationalism
• Proposed principles of compensation and
legitimacy
Key Figures Continued
• Czar Alexander I of
Russia:
• Played a prominent
role in the European
Coalition to defeat
Napoleon
• Instituted the Holy
Alliance
Key Figures Continued
• Lord Robert Castlereagh
of Great Britain:
• Secretary of State for the
War and Colonial
Department
• He helped to plan the
British campaigns against
Napoleon
• Played a large role in
organizing the Coalition
against Napoleon
• Resisted Russian
attempts to draw Britain
into an European League
Even France was
represented—by
the Marquis de
Talleyrand—a man
who had survived
the revolution of
1789, was
Napoleon’s foreign
minister, and now
he represented
Louis XVIII—quite a
Key Figures Continued
• Prince Maurice de
Talleyrand of France:
• A former Catholic Bishop
• Survived all the stages of
the Revolution
• Obtained advantageous
terms for France at the
Congress
• Served as the French
ambassador to Britain
and created good
relations
Talleyrand Political Cartoon
• Mr. ALL-YOURS OR THE VERY EMBODIMENT OF GRATITUDE AT THE
CONGRESS IN VIENNA.
Talleyrand---Malmaison National Museum
This Bonapartist caricature criticizes Talleyrand (shown here as acting
under the devil's influence), who was accused of abandoning Napoleon
upon hearing of the Emperor's return from Elba (hence the text he is
writing down).
• The former minister is in fact considered to have played a rather
positive role during the Congress of Vienna.
• Thanks to him, France was able to keep its conquests dating back to
1793 (Nice and Savoy) together with the works of art stolen by the
French during the Directoire and the Empire, and which had been
added to the Louvre collections.
• All this was lost after Waterloo.
Key Figures Continued
• Prince Karl August
von Hardenberg:
• Chancellor of Prussia
• Played a leading role
in the Coalition
against Napoleon
• Was against Russia
annexing Poland but
was overruled by King
Frederick William III
Of course, there were hundreds of
other minor princes, dukes, barons, and
religious leaders all meeting in Vienna.
They went to party after party. During
the night they danced with great
beauties—but during the day, they
negotiated for their separate countries.
Key Principles Established
at Vienna
V
Balance of
Power/Compensation
V
Legitimacy
V
Encirclement of France
e
Coalition forces would occupy France for
3-5 years.
e
France would have to pay an indemnity or
war reparations of 700,000,000 francs.
OBJECTIVES:
– restore monarchs on their
thrones. Put the government back to the
way it was. Reactionary and
conservatives rule
• Compensation – Land! in 1815, size was
everything. Winners regain what they lost
from France. Try for more
• Legitimacy
•Balance of Power – a new European
order in which no single power was able
to dominate.
•More than anything, they wanted to prevent
another Napoleon figure from ever conquering
Europe again.
•They want to replace French hegemony with an
equilibrium.
•Want liberalism and nationalism BLOCKED as
liberal and nationalist uprising are what opened
door to Napoleon.
•Not simply a territorial arrangement; it was, more
importantly, a strategic and military balance.
•They embraced the idea of ‘buffer zones’ between
their country and potentially hostile neighbors.
Goal One: Compensation
• All countries involved should be repaid for their
expenses incurred while fighting the French
• France was forced to give up its recently gained
territory and pay for war damages
• Great Britain received the West Indies,
the Dutch colony of Ceylon,
South Africa, and a few other islands
• Austria gained the Italian provinces of Lombardy and
Venetia, and the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea
• Prussia received territories along the Rhine River and
half of the Kingdom of Saxony
• Russia received most of the Polish territory formerly
held by Prussia and Austria
Territorial Changes
• Austria gained Lombardy, Modena, Parma,
Tuscany, and Venetia (all are areas in Italy)
• England gained Cape Colony, Ceylon,
Heligoland, Guiana, and Malta (areas in
Africa, the Americas, and Asia)
• Holland gained Austrian Netherlands
(Belgium)
• Prussia gained part of Poland, land along the
Rhine River, 40% of Saxony, Swedish
Pomerania, and Westphalia
• Russia gained Finland and part of Poland
• Sweden gained Norway
Goal Two: Legitimacy
• Restoring the power of the royal families who had ruled before
Napoleon
• This was to stabilize the governments
• Reestablished royal dynasties in:
France, Spain, Portugal, Naples,
Sardinia, and Sicily
• Restored the Bourbon Kings to Spain and the Kingdom of Two
Sicilies
• Restored the House of Orange to the Netherlands
• Restored the House of Savoy to Sardinia
• Made the Pope the leader of the Papal States
• The Bourbon heir, Louis XVIII was made
• legal ruler of France
• Habsburg princes returned to their thrones in Central Europe
The Congress had many goals.
One was LEGITIMACY:
• Only rulers from families before the
French Revolution should be put back
on the throne.
• Napoleon’s brothers were removed
from Holland and Spain
• In France, Louis XVIII accepted the
throne, with a constitution that limited
his powers and promised equality.
Legitimacy
• Legitimacy
– Restoration of pre-Napoleon rulers
– House of Bourbon – France, Spain, and the
two Sicilies
– House of Braganza – Portugal
– House of Orange – Netherlands
– House of Savoy – Sardinia
– Habsburg German princes – territories in the
Confederation of the Rhine
– Pope and Catholic Church – Papal States
The Bourbons
were restored
to the various
thrones of
Europe…in
France, the
now “old”
brother of the
executed Louis
XVI, Louis
XVIII was king.
Louis XVIII of France
• No more divine right of kings
• Charter (Constitution) granted in 1814
• Could not restore feudalism and serfdom
• Continuing religious toleration guaranteed
Restoring Monarchies
• Napoleon had eliminated royal control in many countries.
• Members of the old Bourbon royal family were returned to the thrones
of Spain and Sicily.
• Monarchies were restored in Portugal and Sardinia.
Metternich’s Influence
• His reactionary attitudes influenced politics and society.
• Wanting a return to absolute monarchy, he despised constitutions,
voting rights, and freedom of religion and the press.
• Liberal ideas were suppressed in Austria, the German states, and
northern Italy.
Goal Three: Encirclement of
France---Balance of Power
*To keep France from renewing its drive for power
*Austrian Netherlands united
with the Dutch Republic to form
the single kingdom of Netherlands
*Group of 39 German States joined
the German Confederation dominated by Austria
*Switzerland recognized as an independent and
neutral nation
*Kingdom of Sardinia
in Italy was given Piedmont and Genoa
*France was encircled by stronger nations now
Buffer States
• Designed to prevent France from again
becoming a threat
• Holland and Sardinia enlarged and
strengthened
• European nations guaranteed
Switzerland’s neutrality
The Confederation of the Rhine, as
set up by Napoleon, remained.
The Germanic Confederation, 1815
Prussia’s borders were set.
Results of the Congress of
Vienna
• Concert of Europe – group of leading nations
which periodically met to discuss issues regarding
stability
• Temporary suppression of democratic and
nationalistic ideals
• International peace – no general war in Europe
until World War I a hundred years later
– Crimean War (1854-1856)
– Austro-Prussian War (1866)
– Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871)
An Evaluation of the Congress of Vienna
 The Congress of Vienna was criticized
for ignoring the liberal & nationalist
aspirations of so many peoples.
 The leading statesmen at Vienna
underestimated the new
nationalism and liberalism
generated by the French
Revolution.
 Not until the unification of
Germany in 1870-71 was the
balance of power upset.
 Not until World War I did
Europe have another great war.
The “Concert” of Europe System
Established
The principle of collective security was
established.
The Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle [1816]
The Congress of Troppau [1820]
The Congress of Laibach [1821]
The Congress of Verona [1822]
Their goal was to define and monitor the
status quo.
Impact of the Congress of Vienna:
Revolutions
• For nearly 30 years, there was peace in Europe, but…
• German students did protest for more liberal reforms and
were put down by the Metternich and King Frederick
William III with the Carlsbad Decrees in 1819
• The Decrees imposed strict censorship of all publications
and suppressed freedom of speech
• Liberal reformers in Spain created a constitutional
monarchy in 1820
• Revolts broke out in Latin American colonies against
Spanish control in 1820s
• Greeks fought for independence from the Ottomans in
1821
• Liberalism and Nationalist movements continued to grow
Democratic Revolts
• Liberal movement within German universities
– Carlsbad Decrees (1819)
• Abolished student fraternities
• Established strict censorship of the press
• Placed spies in classrooms to monitor professors
and students
•
•
•
•
Spanish Revolt (1820)
Revolts in Naples and Piedmont (1820)
Second French Revolution (1830)
Revolts in Austria, France, and Prussia
(1848)
Discouraged Democratic and
Nationalistic Movements
• Quadruple Alliance and Concert of Europe
suppressed revolts
• Spy network used to uncover revolutionary
activity
• Strict censorship of education, the press,
and speech
The Congress ended amidst promises
to meet regularly to deal with any
conflicts that arose in future
congresses.
Political Cartoon on Carlsbad
Decrees: Stopping Democracy
In the next few years, congresses were
held in Aix la Chapelle in 1818,
Troppau in 1820, and Verona in 1822.
These “meetings” or congresses, as
they were called, dealt with many
issues. But they had one goal in mind:
Keep the Peace—no more
wholesale European Warfare!
Of course, there will be wars during the
1800s—but they will not encompass all
of Europe, so, the Hundred Years
Peace is an appropriate title.
There will be the Crimean
War….
There will be Italy’s Unification--
Germany will experience the:
• Danish-Prussian War
• Prussian Austrian War
• Franco Prussian War
But after their wars, Germany will
become a united country.
And Britain will experience the Boer
War in its South African regions.
That is why
the years
1814-1914 is
called the
“Hundred
Years’
Peace.”
The Congress of Vienna, for that reason,
might be termed a successful peace
conference.
In the years to come, Metternich would
suppress any sign of revolution…he
used secret spies, censored papers,
and suppressed students.
The Metternich system was adopted by other
countries. Their leaders supported spying,
informants, and suppression.
The novel and film “Les Miserables”
takes place during this time.
A Shift in Power
• Balance is Lost
– In 1815, the Congress of Vienna established five
powers in Europe
•
•
•
•
•
Austria
Prussia
Britain
France
Russia
– By 1871, Britain & Prussia (now Germany) have
gained much power
– Austria & Russia are weaker militarily & economically
Political Philosophies:
Conservatives or Reactionaries
• Protect the existing traditional forms of
government
• Moderate conservatives believed in a
constitutional monarchy like Britain
• Extreme conservatives believed in an
absolute monarchy like in Russia
• Most conservatives were: the royal
families, nobles, and wealthy landowners
Def: advocates legitimate,
traditional government in order
to preserve the status-quo.
Edmund Burke, the founder of modern conservative
thought, wrote: “The state was a partnership, but one
not only between those who are living, but between
those who are living, those who are dead and those
who are to be born…No one generation therefore has
the right to destroy this partnership.”
CONSERVATISM continued:
• Legitimacy – restoring the hereditary
rule of monarchs on their thrones of
Europe. Belief in the Divine Right of
Kings or Absolutism.
• Traditions – feudal privileges, social
hierarchies and orders, traditional
Catholicism.
The nobility was one of Europe’s most ancient
institutions, and conservatives regarded tradition as
the basic source of human institutions.
CONSERVATISM continued:
• Preserve the Status Quo: Peace,
Stability, and Order is achieved by a
Balance of Power.
Conservatives: Edmund Burke, Prince
Metternich
Generally aristocrats of noble or royal blood
The peacemakers of 1815 (Britain, Prussia, Austria, and
Russia) were men who were backward-looking and
conservative, who believed that liberalism was
responsible for a generation of war and untold bloodshed
and suffering.
19c Conservatism
 Conservatism arose in reaction to liberalism &
became a popular alternative for those who were
frightened by the violence unleashed by the French
Revolution.
 Early conservatism was allied to the restored
monarchical governments of Austria, Prussia,
France, and England.
 Support for conservatism:
 Came from the traditional ruling class.
 Also supported by the peasants.
 Supported by Romantic writers,
conservatives believed in order, society
and the state, faith, and tradition.
Characteristics of Conservatism
 Conservatives viewed history as a continuum.
 The basis of society is organic, not contractual.
 Stability & longevity, not progress and change, mark
a good society.
 The only legitimate sources of political authority were
God and history.
They rejected the “social contract” theory.
 Conservatives believed that self-interests do not lead
to social harmony, but to social conflict.
Denounced individualism and natural rights.
 To conservatives, society was hierarchical.
Conservatism
• Reactionaries (Put it
back the way it was)
• Revolution of 1848
– Successful
revolutions in all
European countries
– Monarchies returned
after 6 months in all
countries
• Tories/conservatives
Conservative Alliances
• Quadruple Alliance• Great Britain, Austria, Prussia,
Russia, and later France
• November 1815
• To discuss the security of
Europe
• To preserve territories and
suppress revolutions
•
•
•
•
Holy AllianceRussia, Austria, and Prussia
Organized by Czar Alexander I
“Justice, Christian Charity, and
Peace”
• United Christian monarchs
• Pope refused to join
• Great Britain’s parliament
would not approve joiningviolated constitution
Quadruple Alliance
Holy Alliance
Political Philosophies: Liberalism
• This was a movement to give more power
to an elected Parliament
• Limited parliaments for which only the
educated and property owners could vote
• Most did not believe in democracy
• Key supporters: upper
DEMOCRACY
bourgeoisie, business
leaders, and merchants
Def: advocates limited government in
order to protect individual liberties.
It is the ideology of Freedom:
Freedom of
Right to Property
Assembly
Equality of opportunity Freedom of Press
Free Trade
Freedom of Religion
Freedom of Speech Freedom from arbitrary arrest
Origins of 19c Liberalism
• The word was first used when the term was
adopted by the Spanish political party, the
Liberales, in 1812.
• The roots of liberalism came from two very
different traditions of English & French
political thought.
– England
• John Locke
• Adam Smith
– France
• Jean Jacques Rousseau
• Francois Guizot
The origins of Liberalism:
The Enlightenment introduced the idea of a social
• contract based on natural rights and equality of
men.
John Locke: “all men are born free and equal.”
• French Revolution instituted a new political
order based on individual freedom
• Such rights and freedoms would be guaranteed in
constitutions as Liberalism demanded
representative government as opposed to
autocratic monarchy
• Napoleon codifies this philosophy in Napoleonic
Code which spreads to most of Europe
John Locke
• Contract theory of
government.
– Regarded the state as a
human construction,
established by an original
contract.
• Limited, constitutional
government.
– Civil society of free men,
equal under the rule of
law, bound together by
no common purpose but
sharing respect for
each other’s rights.
– Doctrine of natural
rights.
– Links private property with individual liberty.
• Liberal economists believe the best
government governs the least. The
government should let the economy alone—
laissez-faire. Economic freedom should be
given through free trade.
• Valued equality of opportunity—each
individual has the opportunity to succeed;
careers are open to all citizens on the basis of
their talents, not their titles, heritage, or
privileges.
Life is “like a rat race”—everyone has the opportunity to
win. But this also means that there will be losers.
(Industrialization brought poverty)
Adam Smith
• His Wealth of Nations
adds an economic
dimension.
• He merged Locke’s
ideas of civil society with
economic theory.
– Free trade economics.
– Saw the “invisible hand”
where a benevolent God
administered a universe in
which human happiness
was maximized.
Jean Jacques Rousseau
• His Social Contract and
theory of the “general will”
demonstrates an
alternative origin of
Liberalism.
– Men must resolve problems
through our capacity to
choose how we ought to live.
• Man was born free, and he
is everywhere in chains.
• Humans are essentially free, but the ‘progress’ of
civilization has substituted subservience to others
for that freedom.
Rousseau & Totalitarianism
• The “General Will”  a strong and
direct form of democracy.
– Only possible in a relatively small
state?
– Is Rousseau promoting collective
tyranny?
• Rousseau rejected representative
democracy.
Liberalism
• Poets/novelists
• Natural life superior
(noble savage)
• Aimed at complacent
middle class
– Charles Dickens
• Social conditions
– Honorè de Balzac
• Stupid middle class
– Jane Austen
• Against classes
– The Bronte sisters
• Against male domination
“Moderate” Liberalism
1. Favored the idea of the sovereignty of the
people, but…
– Government should rest on the organized consent of
at least the most important sections of the
community.
– An extension of the franchise to include all men of
property.
•
Exclude the working class!
2. A good constitutional monarchy was the best
form of government.
3. Valued liberty more than equality.
– Confidence in man’s powers of self-government and
self-control.
– Freedom of the press.
– Free right of assembly.
4. Written constitutions.
“Moderate” Liberalism
5. Economic policies:
–
–
–
–
Laissez-faire economy.
Free trade.
Lower tariffs.
Against the right of the working class to organize into
unions.
6. The general progress of humanity would emerge
from the growth of wealth and from science and
inventions.
7. Established churches & the landed aristocracy were
obstacles to the advancement of civilization.
8. Orderly change by legislative process.
9. A dislike of wars, conquests, a standing army, and
military expenditures.
10. Hated the idea of revolution!
Challenges to Liberalism
• From above  the
conservative upper
class.
• From below 
Socialism/Marxism.
• From organized religions.
• From militarism and
imperialism.
• From economic
upheavals:
– Irish Potato Famine
[1845-1852].
– Great Depressions
[1873-1896].
• Until the Revolutions of 1848, Liberals
did NOT want democracy (or Universal
Manhood Suffrage)
• Why? You must have a stake in
society—property. Liberalism
guarantees a
right to private
property.
Liberals:
John Locke, Adam Smith, John Stuart Mill
Generally men of the business and educated
professionals.
Political Philosophies: Radicalism
• Favored drastic and violent change--includes Nationalism
• Wanted democracy where everyone could
vote
• Believed governments everywhere should
practice the ideals of the French Revolution
• Key supporters were: sans culottes,
intellectuals, and students
Def: a sense of unity based upon shared
characteristics: language, culture,
historical experience, religion, ethnicity
and geography.
To some, nationalism expressed a desire or right
for nationalities to rule themselves. Examples of
nationalities that did not rule themselves in 1815
were Germans, Italians, and Poles. They wanted it
– conservatives worried about more revolution
What is nationalism?
•Nationalism is
pride in a
country’s heritage
What is nationalism?
• Nationalism can also
include…
– National Anthem
– Cultural Heritage
– Language
– Religion
– Anything which is a shared feature of
a country, group or culture.
Nationalism
•
What is nationalism?
– The belief that the greatest loyalty should be
to a nation of people who share a common
culture & history
•
What was the effect of nationalism?
– Tore apart centuries-old empires
– Gave rise to the nation-state
– Opposed by conservatives
Types of Nationalism
1. Unification merges culturally similar lands
2. Separation splits off culturally distinct
groups
3. State-building binds separate cultures
into one
How is nationalism
demonstrated?
• Monuments
How is nationalism
demonstrated?
• Historical
Sites
How is nationalism
demonstrated?
• Flags
Nationalistic Revolts
•
•
•
•
Latin American Revolutions (1810-1825)
Greek War of Independence (1821-1829)
Italian Revolt (1830)
Belgian Independence Revolt (18301839)
• Polish Revolt (1831)
• Revolts in Bohemia, German states,
Hungary, and Italian states (1848)
Latin American Revolutions
(1810-1825)
• Independence movements arose following Napoleon’s
invasion of Spain
• Revolutions supported by Great Britain and United
States
– Great Britain
• Wanted to trade with Latin America, which Spain had never
permitted
– United States
• Also wanted to trade
• Sympathized with democratic ideals
• Monroe Doctrine (1823) – U.S. would not interfere in
Europe, and Europe would not interfere in the independent
nations of the Americas
– Support from the United States and Great Britain (a
member of the Quadruple Alliance) kept Europe away
Revolutionary Movements in the
Early 19c
Spanish Revolt (1820)
• Ferdinand VII had scrapped the liberal
constitution of 1812
– Restored absolutism, Inquisition, and Old Regime
– Suppressed individual liberties
• 1820 – revolt – Ferdinand had to restore the
1812 constitution
• Quadruple Alliance met in Verona in 1822
– Sent French army into Spain
• Ferdinand restored to power
– Ruled as an autocratic despot
– No democratic progress in Spain for approximately
100 years
Italian Revolt (1820)
• Revolts in Piedmont and Naples
• Led by Carbonari (“charcoal burners”) –
secret organization
– Wanted constitutions to limit royal absolutism
• Congress of Laibach (1821)
– Quadruple Alliance had Austrian military
suppress the revolts
• Austrian army – “fire brigade of Europe”
Wallachia & Moldavia
Independence
Movements
in the
Balkans
Nationalists Challenge
Conservative Power
• The Balkans
– Region controlled by the Ottoman Empire
• Present day Turkey, Greece, Bulgaria, Romania,
and the former Yugoslavia
• Battle of Navarino (1827)
– British, French, & Russian fleet destroyed the
Ottomans
– Greece gained independence
Greek Revolt (1821-1829)
• Greeks revolted against Ottoman (Turkish)
rulers
• Metternich sided with the Turks
• Britain, France, and Russia sided with the
Greeks
• Greece won its independence in 1829
Greek Revolution - 1821
Greek Independence
 The “Eastern Question”
 Hetairia Philike  a secret
society that inspired an uprising
against the Turks in 1821.
 Pan-Hellenism
 1827  Battle of Navarino
 Br, Fr, Rus destroyed the
Ottoman-Egyptian fleet.
 1828  Rus declared war
on the Otts.
Greece on the Ruins of
Missilonghi by Delacroix, 1827
 1829  Treaty of Adrianople
 1830  Greece declared an
independent nation [Treaty of
London].
The 1830 Revolutions
Belgian Independence, 1830
 The first to follow the lead of France.
 Its union with Holland after the Congress of Vienna had not
proved successful.
 There had been
very little popular
agitation for Belgian
nationalism before
1830  seldom had
nationalism arisen so
suddenly.
 Wide cultural
differences:
 North  Dutch  Protestant  seafarers and traders.
 South  French  Catholic  farmers and individual workers.
Belgian Revolution - 1830
A Stirring of Polish Nationalism - 1830
 The bloodiest struggle of the 1830 revolutions.
 The Poles in and around Warsaw gain a special status by the
Congress of Vienna within the Russian Empire.
 Their own constitution.
 Local autonomy granted in 1818.
 After Tsar Alexander I dies, the Poles became restless under
the tyrannical rule of Tsar Nicholas I.
 Polish intellectuals were deeply influenced by Romanticism.
 Rumors reached Poland that Nicholas I was planning to use
Polish troops to put down the revolutions in France and
Belgium.
 Several Polish secret societies rebelled.
A Stirring of Polish Nationalism - 1830
 Had the Poles been united, this
revolt might have been successful.
 But, the revolutionaries
were split into moderates
and radicals.
 The Poles had hoped that Fr &
Eng would come to their aid,
but they didn’t.
 Even so, it took the Russian army
a year to suppress this rebellion.
 The irony  by drawing the Russian army to Warsaw for
almost a year, the Poles may well have kept Nicholas I from
answering Holland’s call for help in suppressing the Belgian
Revolt.
The Results of the 1820s-1830 Revolutions?
1. The Concert of Europe provided for a recovery of Europe after
the long years of Revolution and Napoleonic Wars.
2. The conservatives did NOT reverse ALL of the reforms put in
place by the French Revolution.
3. Liberalism would challenge the conservative plan for
European peace and law and order.
4. These revolutions were successful only in W. Europe:
 Their success was in their popular support.
 Middle class lead, aided by the urban lower classes.
5. The successful revolutions had benefited the middle
class  the workers, who had done so much of the rioting
and fighting, were left with empty hands!
6. Therefore, these revolutions left much unfinished & a
seething, unsatisfied working class.
Ethnic Uprisings in 1848
Numerous ethnic uprisings occurred throughout Europe
Revolution of 1848
• Causes
– Liberals from middle class demand rights
– Economic slowdown
– Poor harvests
– Nationalism among European minorities
The Revolutions of 1848
• Big Picture: the Revolutions of 1848 were
the result of the movement of Liberalism in
the 19th century in Europe.
• Remember the contrast between political
Liberalism and Conservatism?
• Simply put, political conservatives
represented the values of the Ancien
Regime
The Revolutions of 1848
• Two key issues before we start:
• Britain and Russia do not undergo any manner
of revolt in this time period for different reasons.
• The Continent, everywhere from France to Italy
to the German States to the Hapsburg Empire,
does under go some manner of revolution.
• Why not Britain and Russia?
The Revolutions of 1848
• Britain:
• The revolutions did not affect England
because England had already gone beyond
the goals the revolutionaries sought to
achieve.
• Britain had a representative government, and a
relatively progressive liberal economy.
• Key, this does not mean the England was
“worker friendly.” No part of Europe was…
The Revolutions of 1848
• Russia:
• They did not affect Russia because Russia had
not yet developed the economic and social
pressures which stimulate the liberal revolution.
• They literally were so far away from the impact
of liberalism that revolution was not even a
issue.
• Russia at this time is a country ruled by
repressive Czars, and dominated by a feudal
agrarian economy.
Reform in Russia
• By the 1800s, Russia still had not industrialized
– Society and economy based on the feudal system
• By the 1820s, many Russians believed that
serfdom must end
• Problem was the czar did not want to free them
– It would anger the landowners
– Czar needed support from landowners to stay in
power
Reform in Russia
• Defeat Leads to Change
• 1853, Czar Nicholas I wanted to take over
part of the Ottoman Empire in the Crimean
War
– Industries & transportation system failed to
provide adequate supplies for the troops
– 1856, Russia lost the Crimean War
– Nicholas II decided that Russia needed to
modernize and industrialize
Reform in Russia
• The Reforms of Czar Alexander II
– Freed the serfs in 1861
– Peasant communities received about half the
farmland
– Nobles kept the other half
– Government paid nobles for their land
• Terrorists assassinated Alexander II, 1881
– Political & social reforms stopped
• Alexander III tightened control
– Encouraged industrial development
– Nationalism was force behind Russia’s drive toward
industrial expansion
Nationalism Shakes Aging Empires
• Russian Empire
– Controlled over a dozen different ethnicities
with different cultures
– Used the policy of “Russification”
• Forcing Russian culture on all peoples
• Actually strengthened ethnic cultures
– Ultimately empire falls in 1917
• Due to the problems during World War I
Nationalism Shakes Aging Empires
• Austrian Empire
– Empire included people from many ethnic
groups
– 1866 defeat to Prussia forces the split into
Austria & Hungary
– Still ruled by emperor Francis Joseph
Nationalism Shakes Aging Empires
• Ottoman Empire
– Internal tensions among ethnic groups
weakens empire
– Conservative Turks led the genocide and
deportation of thousands of Armenians in
1894-1896
– Empire ultimately falls soon after World War I
Views of Nationalism
• Nationalists use their common bond to
build nation-states
• Rulers use nationalism to unify their
subjects
The Revolutions of 1848
• The Rest of Europe?
• The revolutions of 1848 did, however, sweep across
Europe from Paris in the west to cities
throughout Germany and Italy, to Berlin in Prussia,
and to Vienna and Prague and Budapest in the
Austrian Empire.
• This is part of the larger trend of the formation of the
nation state in Europe.
• Another way of looking at it would be this:
Radicals Change France
• Demand for democratic government the
main goal of the revolution of 1848
• Establishment of The Third Republic
– People overturned a monarchy & est. a
republic
– New republican gov’t began to fall apart
almost immediately
• The radicals split into factions
• A moderate constitution was drawn up in 1848
Radicals Change France (cont)
• France Accepts a Strong Ruler
– Louis-Napoleon (nephew of Napoleon) won the
presidential election December 1848
• Four years later took the title of Emperor Napoleon III
• A majority of French voters accepted this without complaint
– French were weary of instability
– Louis-Napoleon’s policies
•
•
•
•
•
Built railroads
Encouraged industrialization
Promoted public works
Unemployment decreased
The country experienced real prosperity
The Revolutions of 1848
• Generally speaking, the trend in 19th century
Europe of State formation shows the conflict
between two- forces:
• Established monarchies and family dynasties
tended to represent the values of the “Ancien
Regime.”
• Replacing these monarchies and families by
representative governments meant a true shift
in the role of government in society.
The Revolutions of 1848
• Blanket Statements:
• The revolutions of 1848 occurred in cities
where a middle class was often joined by
university students, who shared liberal
goals.
• They united temporarily with urban working
people who sought to relieve the oppressive
working conditions imposed upon them in
the early industrial period.
The Revolutions of 1848
• Middle class people; entrepreneurs,
industrial managers, shopkeepers,
professionals, could not identify with the
workers and their goals. Therefore, the
united front was short-lived.
• They could cooperate in overthrowing the
government of the old regime, but they could
not share in the effort to create a new
government.
The Revolutions of 1848
• The revolution hardly touched the
countryside because the peasants did
not participate in the revolution and
had their own agenda.
• Wherever peasants enjoyed ownership
of the land, they tended to be a
conservative influence.
The Revolutions of 1848
• More specifically, there was an element of
crisis all over Europe which also contributed
to the revolution.
• That is, a depression and sporadic famine
and high unemployment were involved.
• Living conditions in cities were growing worse,
and there were no social services to deal with
the growing urban poor.
Conclusion
• Unrest throughout Europe caused
Revolution of 1848
• Liberals desired greater political
participation
• Nationalities demanded independence
• Conservatives manage to put down
rebellions
1848 – The Consequences
• The revolutions failed to pull popular support from
working classes.
• Middle classes led the revolution, but as it turned
more radical, they held back.
• Were they were successful, old guard was left in
place and they turned against them.
• Nationalism divided more that united.
• Some gains lasted (abolition of serfdom, etc.)
• In the longterm, most liberal gains would be
solidified by the end of the century, Germany and
Italy would be unified, and the Austrian Empire
would collapse at the end of World War I.