Organizational Design and its Influence on Organizational Behavior
What are the characteristics of bureaucracy?
Designed and operated as if they were machines (mechanized)
Centralized authority
Workers appointed based on skill
Unity of command
Limited span of control
Balanced authority and responsibility
Values of discipline, obedience, and respect
Subordination of individual interests
Equity – fair renumeration
Detailed rules and regulations
Act in routinized, efficient, reliable, stable, predictable way
Form of organization that emphasizes precision, speed, clarity, regularity, reliability
and efficiency achieved through the creation of a fixed division of tasks, hierarchical
supervision and detailed rules and regulations (Max Weber, German sociologist)
Parts easily replaced
Predictable outcomes
What are the strengths and weaknesses of bureaucratic designs? (machine
metaphor)
Strengths
Efficient in performance of tasks, reliable, predictable, stable
Emphasizes precision, speed, reliability, efficiency
Clear expectations of worker
Easy to evaluate, train, manage
Offers managers tight controls
Weaknesses
Orgs often have difficulty in adapting to changing circumstances (not designed for
innovation)
Can result in mindless, unquestioning bureaucracy
Possible for interests of those working in the org take precedence over the goals the
org was designed to achieve
Dehumanizing effects upon employees, especially at lower levels
Does not allow for spontaneous action, initiative
Creates “deskilled” job market
Work is often boring or alienating
May cause unquestioning attitude (his job, not mine)
Discourages initiative
Removed responsibility from workers (transfers to supervisor)
Limits development of human capacities (loss of personal growth)
Under what conditions are highly bureaucratic structures most appropriate?
Straightforward task to perform
When environment is stable enough to ensure that products produced will be
appropriate ones
When one wants to produce exactly the same product over and over again
When precision is at a premium
When the human machine parts are compliant and behave as designed
(ex. Fast food industry, surgical wards, aircraft maintenance depts.., finance offices,
courier firms)
What alternative “species” of organization are there? How do they differ in
their design?
Simple structure – a leader and people who report to one person – local bakery, new
agency, small non-profit; work in unstable environmental conditions, informal and
flexible, usually led by CEO, often the founder or entrepreneur; CEO runs centrally,
but has a group of support staff and operators who do basic work; tasks not too
complex, speedy decision at a premium (typical of successful young, innovative
companies) (Unstable environment and tasks not too complex)
Machine bureaucracy – effective where tasks and environment are simple and
stable; centralized systems of control, appropriate for firms that are production- or
efficiency-driven (airline, car manufacturing plant) (Tasks and environment simple
and stable)
Professional bureaucracy – modifies centralized control and allows greater
autonomy to staff; appropriate for dealing with relatively stable conditions where
tasks are relatively complicated (universities, hospitals) (Relatively stable
environment where tasks are relatively complicated)
Divisional form – (modified form of centralized bureaucracy where various units are
allowed to operate semi-autonomously under general rather than detailed
supervision and control of those with ultimate authority) --effective where tasks
and environment are simple and stable; centralized systems of control, appropriate
for firms that are production- or efficiency-driven – NC Dept of Health and Human
Services (Tasks and environment simple and stable)
Adhocracy – also work in unstable environment; temporary by design; suited for
performance of complex and uncertain tasks in turbulent environment; usually
involves project teams that come together to perform task then disappear once
done, with members regrouping in other teams devoted to other projects (also
called virtual or network org) – innovative firms in electronic and high-tech,
changing industries, consulting firms, ad agencies, movie industry, R&D work
(project-based consulting or R&D co; NC Southern Piedmont Public Health
Partnership) (Unstable environment and complex, uncertain tasks)
Project teams – Microsoft (working on Ipod) – adhocracy usually involves project
teams that come together for a project and disappear when project is complete
Matrix – combine structure of bureaucracy with project-team structure (US Office of
Personnel Mgmt) - columns are functional or dept structure as found in
bureaucracies and rows are the teams
Under what conditions are more organic designs most effective?
Turbulent environment,
Need for flexibility/adaptability
Innovation
Higher morale/job satisfaction – retain and maximize human capital
Capacity for learning
Systems of authority, communication and work organization geared toward
contingencies of a changing environment
What are the important contingency factors in organizational design:
Relationship between environmental conditions and org. characteristics:
Environment: stable and certain vs. turbulent and unpredictable
Strategy: defensive operating goal setting vs. proactive creation of learning
systems
Technology: Routine, low discretion roles vs. complex, high discretion roles
Management: authoritarian vs. democratic
Standardized product/service vs. one tailored to specific customers or setting
Concern re: issues of equity, precision and adherence to best practices vs. concerns
re: responsiveness and appropriateness to context
Be able to profile organization in terms of alignment between task,
environment, and structure.
See Morgan p. 44-45 for examples of orgs with stable environment, clear tasks to
those with unpredictable environment with high discretion tasks – alignment
requires varying structures of mechanistic to organic.
Organizational Learning
1a. What does organizational learning mean in an organization?




The process of improving actions through better knowledge and
understanding (Fiol & Lyles, 1985)
Encoding inferences from history into routines that guide behavior (Levitt &
March, 1988)
The process of detecting and correcting error (Argyris, 1977)
The process of self-regulation (cybernetics)
- Powerpoint Slide 2, Sept. 14
Organizational learning requires an intentional process for collecting, interpreting,
and acting upon new information coming in.
1b. What are the capabilities of a learning organization?
Cybernetics suggests that learning organizations must develop capacities that allow
them to do the following:



Scan and anticipate change in the wider environment to detect significant
variations
Develop the ability to question, challenge and change operating norms and
assumptions.
Allow an appropriate strategic direction and pattern of organization to
emerge.
While doing so, they must evolve designs that allow them to become skilled in the
art of double-loop learning, to avoid getting trapped in single loop processes,
especially those created by traditional management control systems and the
defensive routines of organizational members.
- Morgan, p. 87

Cybernetics
o Development of operating norms
o Environmental scanning and monitoring
o Communication and feedback
o Adjustment and correction
- Powerpoint Slide 6, Sept. 14
2. What is the difference of single and double loop learning?
Single Loop Learning Double Loop
Systems
Learning Systems
Focusing
Question:
Are we doing things
right?
Level of Concern Operational
Are we doing the right
things?
Strategic
Unit of
Evaluation
Immediate outputs
and mid-term
outcomes
Mid-term outcomes to
long term impacts
- PowerPoint Slide 12, Sept. 14
3a. What are the principles of holographic design?





Principle 1: Build the “Whole” Into the “Parts”
Principle 2: The Importance of Redundancy
Principle 3: Requisite Variety (internal complexity must match that of
environment)
Principle 4: “Minimum Specs” (define no more than what is necessary)
Principle 5: Learn to Learn
- Morgan, p. 100
3b. How are they relevant to organizational learning?
These principles allow organizations that are highly decentralized, capable of
processing massive amounts of information, comfortable with managing many
different points of view, capable of functioning without major pieces. Capacities,
intelligence and control distributed in a way that allows a single element to become
vital part of the whole. Able to grow, develop, change personalities with changing
experiences. In short, they would be intelligent, self-organizing brains that reflect all
the qualities that we have described as a “learning organization.”
- Morgan, p. 98
Organizational Culture
What is Organizational Culture?
Definition: A system of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes one
organization from another.
Also a set of key characteristics that the organization values (on a high to low scale)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Innovation and risk taking
Attention to detail
Outcome orientation
People orientation
Team orientation
Aggressiveness
Stability
Org. culture is essentially customs, traditions and general ways of doing things.
How does culture influence organizational behavior?
Org. culture tells people how things get done and how they should behave.
It creates distinction, conveys sense of identity, generates commitment to something
larger than self-interest, stabilizes social system by providing behavior standards,
and serves as a sense-making and control mechanism for employee behavior and
attitudes.
Conformity to the org. cultural rules results in rewards and upward mobility.
Creates core values that are shared amongst employees and guides them in same
direction.
Even subcultures at different levels will share the same core values.
Org. Culture can be weak or strong, with the more intense and widely held strong
cultures having a greater effect.
It can have negative effects such as barriers to change and barriers to diversity.
How is organizational culture created and transmitted?
Founders often play a large role in the creation of org. culture
Since many start small, the founder’s way of thinking is easier to spread and
enforce
Founders only hire/keep those who agree with the vision (think like them or
accept it)
People are indoctrinated and socialized to the founders way of thinking
Founder is a lead by example model for how to act/think/feel etc. (culture)
Three key ways to keep culture alive: Selection, Top Management, Socialization
Selection: After skill sets verified, HR looks for shared values. Rating systems
identify those who best fit within the culture and are promoted. People who don’t
think they will like the culture will not apply as well or quit if they get to that point.
So those who match are selected and kept.
Top Management: Establish and enforce norms, establish where org. will be
on the key set of characteristics (see above) that create the culture. Serve as role
models.
Socialization: Three stages as a process of indoctrination to the org. culture…
Pre-Arrival – All the learning prior to arrival (education and training)
Encounter – Newbie encounters the difference between expectations
and reality. Either they affirm cultural expectations, or more likely must learn to
deal with reality and conform.
Metamorphosis – Long lasting change to fit into culture
How can a manager shape the culture within their organization?
Rule number 1 – change won’t be easy and it won’t be fast
Shaping culture is easier when…
In the midst of crisis (or immediately after)
Change in top leadership
Have a young or small organization
Working with a weak culture
Some key strategies to shape culture…
Tweak selection process to hire/keep those who fit the cultural vision you (the
manager) have
Adjust training to better fit and reinforce the cultural vision you (the manager) have
Alter structural design if needed
Ensure top leadership sets correct model to be followed
Utilize rating system to reinforce what cultural views you (the manager) desire
Utilize reward system to reinforce what cultural views you (the manager) desire
Power and Political Systems
What is the relationship between power and politics?
Power is the capacity for acting politically – the latent ability to influence others’
actions, thoughts or emotions; the ability to get one’s needs met and to further one’s
goals; the ability to get another person to do something one would not have
otherwise done.
Political behaviors are purposeful, intentional actions; informal rather than formal
behavior; actions designed to influence or manipulate; it’s GOAL ORIENTED – the
end result is to exert influence, reconcile differences, allocate resources toward ends
one favors, protect of enhance self interests.
Power is the latent potential to influence or control while politics is the exercising of
power.
What are the different modes of political rule in organizations?
Autocracy – rule held by individual or small group with control of resources (stable
power)
Bureaucracy – rule through exercise of written word/policies by administrators
who make and administer the rules (stable power)
Technocracy – rule exercised through use of knowledge, expert power (power in
flux, the whiz kid)
Codetermination – opposing parties combine in the joint mgmt of mutual interests
as in coalition gov’t or corporatism, each party drawing on a specific power base
Representative democracy – rule exercised through the election of officers
mandated to act on behalf o f the electorate and who hold office for a specified time
or so long as they command the support of the electorate as in parliamentary gov’t
and forms of worker control and shareholder control in industry
Direct democracy – system where everyone has an equal right to rule and is
involved in all decision making, as in many communal orgs such as cooperative and
kibbutzim (encourages self-organization)
What are sources of individual power in organizations?
Morgan:
Formal authority (Charisma, tradition, rule of law)
Control of scarce resources
Use of organizational structure, rules and regulations
Control of decision processes
Control of knowledge and information
Control of boundaries
Ability to cope with uncertainty
Control of technology
Interpersonal alliances/networks and control of informal organization
Control of counterorganizations
Denhardt:
Legitimate
Reward
Coercive
Referent – wants to be like you
Expert
Charismatic
How do modes of political rule relate to sources of individual power?
The system of political rule sets the stage for the play of the power base. Underlying
structures underpin power relations. For example (Morgan), a manager may
control a budget, have access to key information and thus be powerful. But his
ability to draw on this power depends on structural factors – such as an impending
merger where he might lose job or other internal power plays.
What is the dependency postulate? What is its relevance for organizational
behavior?
The greater B’s dependence on A, the greater power A has over B. This translates to
the definition of power -- the capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B so
that B does something he or she would not otherwise do.
The relevance for org. behavior: dependencies create the opportunity for power –
the types of dependencies that have the greatest power are:
Dependency on resources that are: important, scarce, nonsubstitutable.
What are the conditions that promote to politicking?
High levels of decentralization and interdependence among units
Scarcity of resources
Disagreement on goals
Uncertainty about technology
High stakes
Goals and processes unclear
Drivers of Individual Behavior
1. What are important aspects of self knowledge for public service leaders?
Public leaders need to understand the importance of creating a personal vision.
They should be aware of the variety of assessment tools they can use, such as
Myers-Briggs and FIRO test and six areas that can be assessed: personal values,
personality style, locus of control (to assess attitudes toward control of one’s own
destiny), interpersonal orientation, career orientation and self disclosure (what we
reveal about ourselves to others). Also, they should consider strategies to learn
more about themselves such as keeping a journal, talking regularly with people they
trust, learning from experiences and watching and learning from others’
experiences.
- Denhardt, pgs. 24-25, 31
2. According to Meyers-Briggs, what are the different dimensions of
personality? What are the strengths and weaknesses of a personality
perspective?

Myers-Briggs Personality Type Inventory - Based on Jungian psychology
o Core dimensions
 Introversion vs. Extroversion - Focus on relationship
between reflection and action
 Extroversion
o Draws energy from action – particularly
interaction
o If inactive, their level of energy and motivation
tends to decline
o Relates to the outside world of people
 Introversion
o Becomes less energized as they act: they prefer
to reflect, then act, then reflect again
o Need time out to reflect in order to rebuild
energy
o Tend to relate to their own inner thoughts

Sensing vs. Intuitive - Focus on how new information is
understood and interpreted




Sensing
o SHOW ME THE DATA folks
o Prefers to trust information that is in the
present, tangible and concrete – likes details and
facts
o Distrust hunches that seem to come out of
nowhere
o Like focusing on the here and now
Intuitive
o Trusts information that is more abstract or
theoretical, likes making connections and
drawing analogy from wider contexts
o Attentive to flashes of insight
o The meaning is in how the data relates to the
pattern or theory
o Like thinking about the future, enjoys
speculation
Thinking vs. Feeling - Focus is on how you prefer to make
decisions and what a “good” decision looks like…
 Thinking
o Tend toward black and white
o Prefers to use cognitive processes to engage in
decision-making
o Measures a decision by what seems reasonable,
logical, causal, consistent and matching a given
set of rules or standards
 Feeling
o IT DEPENDS….
o Relies on relationships with others to guide
decision making
o Prefers to come to decisions by associating or
empathizing with the situation, looking at it
'from the inside'
o Values decisions that create harmony and the
best balance considering the needs of the people
involved
Judging vs. Perceiving - Focus on how a person orients to the
world…
 Judging
o Tends to be settled, decided, fixed, likes to plan
ahead, believes in deadlines, and enjoys closure
o Outcome oriented
 Perceiving
o Tend to adapt as they go, like to keep their
options open, are open-minded, are tentative,
dislike deadlines, have a ‘wait and see’ attitude
o Process oriented
Myers-Briggs puts things in categories when they are actually in a continuum. It
can’t predict behavior. It’s self-reported. It’s not a reliable predictor of job
performance.
- PowerPoint presentation, class notes, Oct. 19
3. Be able to describe the nature of the following personality attributes:

Self-esteem – Individuals’ degree of liking or disliking themselves and the
degree to which they think they are worthy or unworthy as people

Locus of control - Extent to which we perceive we have control over our own
fate.
o Internals believe they control what happens to them.
o Externals believe outside forces such as luck or chance control what
happens to them.

Self Monitoring – Individuals high in self-monitoring show considerable
adaptability in adjusting their behavior to external, situational factors. Highly
sensitive to external cues and can behave differently in different situations.

Type A Personality – Excessively competitive. Aggressively involved in a
chronic, incessant struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time
and, if required to do so, against the opposing efforts of other things and
persons.
- Robbins, pgs. 37-39
4. What are the tenets of personality-job (and personality-organization) fit
theory?
Holland’s Personality-Job Fit Theory proposes that a person’s job satisfaction and
likelihood that they will leave a position is dependent on the degree to which they match
their personality type to their occupation. Key points:


There do appear to be intrinsic differences in personality among individuals
There are different types of jobs

People in jobs congruent with their personalities should be more satisfied
and less likely to resign than should people in incongruent jobs.
The personality-organization fit theory proposes that people are more likely to
leave organizations that aren’t compatible with their personalities. Argues that
managers should try to determine whether employees are a good fit with their
culture, values when they hire.
- Robbins, pgs. 48-50.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Motivating Others
What are the key factors that lead to motivation?
According to Robbins motivation is “the processes that account for an
individual’s intensity, direction & persistence of effort toward attaining a goal;”
these are the 3 key elements.
Intensity-how hard you try
direction – does your energy benefit the organization?
Persistence-how long you can sustain effort
What are the root causes for lack of motivation?
Lack of motivation can be caused by many things: the belief that hard work is
unlikely to lead to a good performance appraisal; extrinsic motivation for
intrinsically motivated individuals or lack of organizational rewards for the
extrinsically motivated; lack of goals or clearly defined roles; lack of selfefficacy (ie- we don’t think we are capable of performing a task); the belief
that we are being unfairly compensated for our efforts compared to someone
we consider to be a professional peer.
According to public service motivation theory, what are key elements of motivation for
individuals in public service?
Key elements of motivation for individuals in public service are a belief in
civic duty & responsibilities and internal locus of control that makes public
service intrinsically rewarding, as well as personal belief in the work a certain
program does.
Be familiar with central premise for the following:
Human needs perspectivesMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Once one level is fulfilled, the next level becomes the
motivating factor… (no empirical data to support)
(needs listed from ‘bottom of pyramid’ to top…)
1. Physiological (hunger/thirst/shelter/sex)
2. Safety (physical/emotional)
3. Social (affection/ belonging/ acceptance/ friendship)
4. Esteem (internal: self-respect, autonomy, etc/external: status, recognition,
etc)
5. Self-Actualization (drive to achieve)
McGregor’s Theory X & Y: assumptions held by managers (no empirical data to
support)
Theory X:
Employees:
-Dislike & avoid work
-Must be coerced, controlled, threatened
-Will avoid responsibility and seek formal direction when possible
-Place security above all else & display little ambition
Theory Y:
Employees:
-Can view work as natural like play or rest
-Will exercise self-direction/ self-control if committed to objective
-Can accept or seek responsibility
-Ability to make decisions & innovate is dispersed thru organization
Herzberg Two Factor Theory- (supported in literature but often criticized in
practice)
Satisfaction/No Satisfaction- Dissatisfaction/No Dissatisfaction
Once dissatisfaction is avoided through meeting basic needs (hygiene factors) like
pay, supervision & working conditions, employees seek motivation through factors
associated with the work, like promotional opportunities, recognition, growth,
responsibility
Job Design Theory- (5 core job dimensions)
Job Characteristics Model- :
To motivate employees:
1 of these: Variety, Identity, & Significance of task
And both of these: Autonomy & Feedback
McClelland’s Needs Theory
nAch- Need for Achievement “I do it better than anyone else”
nPow- Need for Power
nAff- Need for Affiliation
(Individuals with high nAff prefer jobs with responsibility, feedback & intermediate
risk;
High nAch does not mean good manager; High nPow, low nAff good for mgm’t
success)
I. Introduction to use of wireless communications
Cognitive Behavioral PerspectivesCognitive Evaluation TheoryIntrinsic motivation can be decreased by extrinsic input (like monetary rewards)
(Use caution when incentivising intrinsically rewarding tasks.)
Goal Setting TheorySpecific & Challenging goals (difficult goals yield higher performance)
Feedback (self-generated feedback works better than external feedback)
Buy-in (because employees help set own goals)
Expectancy Theory(currently widely accepted)
3 conditions for motivation:
1. effort will lead to a good performance appraisal
2. a good appraisal will lead to org. rewards (bonus, raise, promotion etc.)
3. rewards will satisfy personal goals
“people will be motivated when they expect that their efforts will result in desirable
outcomes.”
_verbal extrinsic rewards are effective
Social Learning and Identity PerspectivesEquity Theory:
A person must feel that their job inputs in relation to their job outcomes are equal to
people they consider themselves comparable to.
Referents: Self-inside- own exp in same org
Self-outside- own exp outside org
Other-inside- another person in org
Other-outside- other people outside org
Historically- distributive justice; increasingly- organizational justice (what is fair in
workplace); procedural justice- how reward distribution is determined
Self-Efficacy Theory (aka social cognitive or social learning theory)
A person’s belief that they are capable of doing a task is vital to motivation.
According to theory author Bandura, self-efficacy can be increased through
experience, seeing someone you can relate to doing the task, verbal persuasion, or
‘arousal,’ (energy). (Recent evidence suggests that self-efficacy may be a byproduct
of intelligence & personality traits…)
Decision Making
What are the differences between programmed, rational, incremental,
political/collective, garbage can approaches to decision making?
Programmed – Are decisions that are repetitive and routine and for which a
procedure or decision rule has been established or may be easily specified.
Rational – The phases of decision making are performed deliberately and
consciously, replying on the rationality of the decision maker’s thoughts and
behaviors. And to behave rationally generally it is understood that people will try to
maximize the value they receive in any situation. The results of the decision are
characterized by a rational cost-benefits analysis. The assumptions of the rational
model are that it is: orderly, in intentional, purposeful, deliberate, consistent,
responsible, accountable, explainable, and rational.
Incremental – An alternative to the rational model, as offered by Lindblom. He
found that decisions are dependent on small incremental choice make in response
to short-term conditions. Decision making is “controlled infinitely more by events
and circumstances than by the will of those in policy-making positions.”
Political/collective – Under the governmental politics model, decisions are group
efforts that involve bargaining among players with different and competing
interests.
Garbage Can – Under this model, decision processes are affected by the timing of
problems, solutions, participants, and choice opportunities, all of which are assumed
to be independent. The choice opportunity is viewed as the garbage can in which
problems, solutions, and energy are dumped by the participants. Once full, or once
all of the alternatives are exhausted, it is removed from the decision making process.
What are the key stages of a rational decision-making process?
The 5 phases of a decision making process are:
Pre-Analysis phase: Situations are defined.
Analytic phase: Situations that affect goals are perceived, and information about
them is gathered.
Design phase: Options are crystallized to deal with the situation.
Choice phase: Alternatives are evaluated, and the optimal choice is selected.
Implementation phase: The alternative that is chosen to meet the specific situation
is implemented.
Allison said the rational process has the following four steps:
1. Translate goals and objectives into payoffs and utility.
2. Choose among alternatives.
3. Consider the consequences.
4. Select the alternatives whose consequences have the greatest utility.
What is the influence of bounded rationality on decision making?
- Recognition that humans are limited processing machines and that we need to
know our own limits.
What are key elements of a decision frame and how decision frames can effect
decision making and enhance creativity?
1. Clarify your objectives
2. Consider the factors that will influence your choice of actions
3. Collect information with regard to the benefit and risk factors for the remaining
options and assess the degree of satisfaction that each option provides.
What are the central tenets of attribution theory?
The theory suggests that when we observe an individuals behavior, we attempt to
determine whether it was internally or externally caused. Our determination
depends largely on three factors:
Distinctiveness: Refers to whether an individual displays different behaviors in
different situations.
Consensus: If everyone who faces a similar situation responds in the same way, we
can say the behavior shows consensus.
Consistency: Does the person respond the same way over time?
Be familiar with the following cognitive shortcuts/biases and their impact on
decision making
– Fundamental attribution error – tendency when we make judgments about the
behavior of other people, we have a tendency to underestimate the influence of
external factors and overestimate the influence of internal or personal factors.
– Self-serving bias – Tendency to attribute their own successes to internal factors
such as ability or effort while putting the blame for failure on external factors
such as bad luck or unproductive coworkers.
– Selective perception – Because we cannot assimilate all that we observe, we take
in bits and pieces. Any characteristic that makes a person, object, or event stand
out will increase the probability that it will be perceived.
– Halo effect – When we draw a general impression about an individual on the
basis of a single characteristic, such as intelligence, sociability, or appearance.
– Contrast effects – Our reactions to one person is influenced by other person we
have recently encountered. “Never follow an act that has kids or animals in it.”
– Over confidence – When we are too optimistic on the correctness of our own
answers.
– Confirmation bias – We seek out information that reaffirms out past choices, and
we discount information that contradicts past judgments.
– Availability bias – Tendency to base judgments on information that is readily
available to them.
– Escalation of commitment – Staying with a decision even when there is clear
evidence that it is wrong.
– Randomness bias – Our tendency to believe we can predict the outcome of
random events.
– Anchoring – Tendency to fixate on initial information, then fail to adequately
adjust for subsequent information.
– Hindsight bias – Tendency for us to believe falsely, after an outcome is actually
known, that we would have accurately predicted the outcome.
LEADERSHIP
What are the three primary concerns of a leader?
1. Task structuring/production (i.e. what needs to happen and who needs to do it)
2. Consideration of others/Team building (forming a cohesive team)
3. Vision/strategy (providing a vision and a strategy to achieve that vision; goals are
huge for motivating people)
What is a contingency perspective on leadership?
It depends!! Not all approaches to leadership work in all situations. The best
leaders adapt their “fit” to the organization.
According to Blanchard and Hersey’s Situational Leadership Model, what are
the different approaches to leadership and under what conditions is each
most appropriate?
Leadership Behaviors of the Leader
S1 - Telling / Directing - High task focus, low relationship focus - leaders define
the roles and tasks of the ‘follower’, and supervise them closely. Decisions are made
by the leader and announced, so communication is largely one-way. For people who
lack competence, but are enthusiastic and committed. They need direction and
supervision to get them started.
S2 - Selling / Coaching - High task focus, high relationship focus - leaders still
define roles and tasks, but seeks ideas and suggestions from the follower. Decisions
remain the leader’s prerogative, but communication is much more two-way. For
people who have some competence but lack commitment. They need direction and
supervision because they are still relatively inexperienced. They also need support
and praise to build their self-esteem, and involvement in decision-making to restore
their commitment.
S3 - Participating / Supporting - Low task focus, high relationship focus - leaders
pass day-to-day decisions, such as task allocation and processes, to the follower. The
leader facilitates and takes part in decisions, but control is with the follower. For
people who have competence, but lack confidence or motivation. They do not need
much direction because of their skills, but support is necessary to bolster their
confidence and motivation.
S4 - Delegating - Low task focus, low relationship focus - leaders are still
involved in decisions and problem solving, but control is with the follower. The
follower decides when and how the leader will be involved. This style is for people
who have both competence and commitment from subordinates. They are able and
willing to work on a project by themselves with little supervision or support.
Development Level of the Follower
D4 - High Competence, High Commitment - Experienced at the job, and
comfortable with their own ability to do it well. May even be more skilled than the
leader.
D3 - High Competence, Variable Commitment - Experienced and capable, but
may lack the confidence to go it alone, or the motivation to do it well / quickly.
D2 - Some Competence, Low Commitment - May have some relevant skills, but
won’t be able to do the job without help. The task or the situation may be new to
them.
D1 - Low Competence, High Commitment - Generally lacking the specific
skills required for the job in hand, but has the confidence and / or motivation to
tackle it.
Effective leaders are versatile in being able to move around the matrix according to
the situation, so there is no style that is always right. However, we tend to have a
preferred style, and in applying Situational Leadership you need to know which one
that is best for the situation. Similar to the leadership styles, the development levels
are also situational. A person could be skilled, confident and motivated for one part
of their job, but could be less competent for another part of the job. Blanchard and
Hersey say that the Leadership Style (S1 - S4) of the leader must correspond to the
Development level (D1 - D4) of the follower - and it’s the leader who adapts. By
adopting the right style to suit the follower’s development level, work gets done,
relationships are built up, and most importantly, the follower’s development level
will rise to D4, to everyone’s benefit.
What are the characteristics of charismatic and transformational leadership?
The Denhardt book identifies two main definitions of a transformational leader.
James MacGregor Burns feels that a transformational leader is someone who
engages his followers in such a way that together they reach a higher plane of
morality and motivation. A person had to have the utmost morality, no spurs of
ambition and no will to power, which is a Neitzsche term that says the driving force
in man is achievement, ambition, the striving to reach the highest possible position
in life. Also, the Maslow principle of self actualizing (The motivation to realize one's
own maximum potential and possibilities is considered to be the master motive or
the only real motive) is not permitted. So according to Burns, Fidel Castro would be
considered a transformational leader, but Ghandi would not.
On the other hand, Bernard Bass doesn’t feel like morality is a necessary
requirement to qualify a leader as transformational. In the Denhardt reading they
use the example of Hitler. He may not have done anything that was great for German
society, but he did transform it.
The main difference in the two theories is that Bass REMOVES the strict definition of
morality. These are the tenants of a transformational leader.
1. IDEALIZED INFLUENCE: Acting as a role model or positive influence
2. INTELLECTUAL STIMULATION: Encourage followers to be creative and
innovative
3. INSPIRATIONAL MOTIVATION: Inspire/ encourage subordinates to high
performance
4. INDIVIDUALIZED CONSIDERATION: Providing a supportive climate in which
individuals are encouraged to grow and develop
Robbins & Judge cover the key concepts of a charismatic leader:
1. VISION & ARTICULATION-the charismatic leader has a vision-expressed as
an idealized goal-that proposes a future better than the status quo and is able
to clarify the importance of the vision in terms that are understandable to
others.
2. PERSONAL RISK the charismatic leader is willing to take on high personal
risk, incur high costs and engage in self sacrifice to achieve the vision
3. SENSITIVITY TO FOLLOWER NEEDS-they are perceptive to others abilities
and responsive to their needs and feelings.
4. UNCONVENTIONAL BEHAVIOR-Engages in behavior that is perceived as
novel and counter to norms.
What is the difference between transactional and transformational
leadership?
According to Robbins & Judge, a transactional leader guides or motivates their
followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task
requirements. A transformational leader inspires followers to transcend their own
self interests for the good of their organization and are capable of having a profound
and extraordinary effect on their followers.
According to Bass, the characteristics of a transactional leader are:
1. Contingent rewards-contracts exchange of rewards for effort, promises
rewards for good performance, recognizes accomplishments
2. Management by Exception (active)- watches for deviations from rules and
takes corrective action.
3. Management by Exception (passive)- intervenes only if standards are not
met
4. Laissez-faire: abdicates responsibility, avoids making decisions.
The best leaders are transactional AND transformational.
Organizational Communication:
What are the stages of the communication process model?(Robbins p 159-160
and notes)
1.Sender (an individual has something to communicate)
2.Encoding of message or information
3.Message is sent by a channel (email, phone, verbal, etc.)
4.Message is received
5.Decoded
6.Receiver then gives feedback to sender.
Process looks like this:
Sender-> encoded message-> sent by channel to -> Receiver-> Decoded by receiver> Feedback given by receiver to sender.
Problems in each stage:
1. May not know what we want to say. We have conflicting and competing goals
2. Problems of perception, sender may come from different background, culture
etc. may have different values and feelings than receiver. Intention of
message may be different than what is conveyed.
3. Sending of message may have some issues, ie bad phone connection, email
being lost. Bad hearing etc.
4. few problems here beyond outside noise and interference
5. Same issues present as in encoding of message by receiver. Plus context of
msg could be one that creates anxiety. more homogeneous sender and
receiver are less likely there are issues at this point.
6. Process begins again same problems can reoccur.
Context of message has a lot to do with the breakdown in communication. The more
complex, important message is the more anxiety it is likely to create therefore
leading to a breakdown.
Grapevine Network: (Robbins p164-165)
Communication that is A) not controlled by management B) is perceived by most
employees as being more believable and reliable that communication from
management. C) it is largely used to serve the self-interest of the people within it.
Implications for organization:
For employees helps translate formal communication into layman’s terms.
For management acts as a measuring tool for moral, issues that are important to
employees and what employees consider relevant.
Strengths and weaknesses of different communication network
structures(Robbins p164)
Chain structure
Best if accuracy is most important
Follows a formal chain of command
Found in rigid three level organization
Wheel
One central figure is conduit for all of groups communication
Lowest in member satisfaction
Found in organizations with a strong leader
All Channel
Permits all members to actively communicate with each other
Best for promoting high member satisfaction
No chance for emergence of a leader
Found in self managed teams
Characteristics of Supportive Communication:(Denhardt p247-248)
Problem oriented not personal
Specific, not general
Validating not demeaning.
Owned, not disowned
Two way not one way communication.
Usually serves to goals Convey needed information, and Protect or enhance
interpersonal relationships
Conflict & Conflict Management
What is the difference between distributive, integrative, and mixed motive
problem situations?
Distributive- People opt to divvy up the resources. Occurs when there are mutually
exclusive positions between parties. Divided approach where all parties opt to take
their piece of the pie as the operating solution. Positions precede interest. Time
constraints promote distributive situations.
Integrative- Parties focus on getting every one’s needs met; I get what I want and
you can too. It is a more collaborative approach where all parties give and take to
reach a formative solution. Interests precede positions.
Mixed motive- Conflict exists between differing sets of incentives e.g. personal goals
versus agency needs. Incentives inform how the individual behave during conflict.
What are the different strategies for managing conflict situations. How do
strategies differ depending on the importance of the issue and of the
relationship?
Air View Points
Each party is given the opportunity to discuss their opinion on the problem.
Involves active listening skills by other parties. Other parties must keep emotions in
check while listening and focus on what the other person is communicating. It is
important not to jump to firm positions prematurely. This a critical component as it
sends the tone for the other strategies.
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Important to recognize length of time spent in “airing viewpoints” should take time
to ensure that everyone is heard. This strategy has the potential to get nasty
depending on the importance of the issue and nature of relationships involved.
Clarify Problem and Interests
After all views have been aired, parties may start an “exchange.” Emphasize
separating the people from the problem and agree/define what they problem
actually is. Clarify interests that various parties hold.
Brainstorm
Devise solutions. Four rules: set a time limit, no idea is silly, everyone participates in
problem solving and no one disputes suggestions given. Following generation of
ideas come up with criteria for weighing viability of solutions. Determine which
suggested solutions are feasible.
Reach Agreement
Solutions should be recorded in great detail. Who, what, when and where should be
addressed. All parties should be aware of what they are agreeing to.
Be Aware of Biases
Know personal biases for or against other people. Awareness allows for the
individual to monitor assumptions are made about other people that may be
erroneous.
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People who espouse entrenched in their positions on the issue and will likely not be
as open to collaborating.
People who maintain a short term relationship, and do not anticipate working
together in the future, have a significantly diminished incentive to participate in
collaborative conflict management strategies. People who know each other and will
be maintaining ongoing contact more likely to compromise to maintain some level
of cohesiveness.
What are the differences between task-related and relationship related
elements of conflict? How do these two elements related to organizational
effectiveness?
Task Conflict- conflict pertains to content and goals of work/task. Parties disagree
about the project.
Relationship Conflict- conflict pertains to problems within interpersonal
relationships (personality conflict). Parties disagree about status, respect etc.
Task conflict is connected to relationship conflict because we are to some degree
personally invested in ideas/interests!
Organizations with high task conflict are more industrious. Task conflict allows for
people to generate new ideas and bolster each other. As long as personal conflict
that may emerge is dealt with, these organizations maintain higher levels of
effectiveness and efficiency.
Organizations that have high levels of personal conflict are less effective because the
organization becomes very fragmented.
What are the two core levers for managing conflict? What strategies do these
levers suggest?
Emphasize ongoing relationships- promote the importance of relationship and
founding healthy communication between all parties. This is key to ensuring conflict
is kept task focused and does not escalate into a name calling session. Best bet to get
productive solution is to reinforce ongoing relationships.
Focus on overarching interests- identify if parties involved share similar interests
and work towards finding viable solutions that allow for interests to be achieved.
Focus on underlying positions- identify if parties involved share similar positions and
aim to find viable solutions allow for each parties agenda to be met.
Groups & Teams
GROUPS & TEAMS
Why are groups important to individuals? What is the relevance of
distinctiveness and affiliation to group membership?
It’s important to consider the “psychology of groups”, i.e. the old adage that
“membership has its privileges”.
•Social Identity Theory (Denhart, p 321)
-This theory postulates that group members establish a positive social
identity and confirm affiliation by feeling more comfortable around and identifiying
with members of their social category. This is often reinforced in a fundamental
principle in North America: the golden rule (treat others how you want to be
treated).
•Social categorization
–Competing needs of distinctiveness and assimilation
–Intergroup status and positive social comparisons
•Reinforcement of attitudes, values, beliefs held by the individual and group
•Collective power & access to resources (strength in numbers)
What are the stages of group development?
From the lecture, the stages are as follows. The definitions are from Wikipedia:
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FORMING/CONFORMING-IThe team meets and learns about the opportunity and
challenges, and then agrees on goals and begins to tackle the tasks. Team members
tend to behave quite independently
STORMING -The storming stage is where different ideas compete for consideration.
The team addresses issues such as what problems they are really supposed to solve,
how they will function independently and together and what leadership model they
will accept.
NORMING-Team members adjust their behavior to each other as they develop work
habits that make teamwork seem more natural and fluid. Team members often work
through this stage by agreeing on rules, values, professional behavior, shared
methods, working tools and even taboos. During this phase, team members begin to
trust each other. Motivation increases as the team gets more acquainted with the
project.
PERFORMING-Some teams will reach the performing stage. These high-performing
teams are able to function as a unit as they find ways to get the job done smoothly
and effectively without inappropriate conflict or the need for external supervision.
Team members have become interdependent. By this time they are motivated and
knowledgeable
ADJOURNING-self explanatory, the team completes its task and either dissipates, or
begins a new task, of which they may begin with forming or storming, depending on
the personnel involved.
How do groups promote and protect the privileges of membership?
•Development of (cohesion)
–Social norms
–Role expectations
–Shared understanding
–Group boundaries
–Symbols of membership
What are the following pitfalls in group decision making?
GROUPTHINK-Norm of consensus to override realistic appraisal of alternatives;
also, reduction or elimination of deviant, minority or unpopular views.
GROUP SHIFT- Where group decisions are more extreme than individual decisions.
Why? This allows for distributed blame and/or an inflated sense of “rightness”
SOCIAL LOAFING- Tendency of individuals to put in less effort than if they worked
alone.
What are important dimensions for assessing team effectiveness?
• Hackman:
– Output meets standards
–Process enhances capacity of team for future joint efforts
–Experience enhances capacity of members
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Structure also needs to be considered (Denhardt, p 293)
o Size of the team
o Duration of the team
o Team diversity
(***NOTE-there is NO consensus in the books on the answer to this question…see
Denhardt pages 293-298 for a large variety of examples)
What are some of the most common errors managers make in using teams in
organizations?
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Using teams for work better suited for individuals
Call a unit a team, but manage them as individuals
Fall of the authority balance beam
Dismantle the organizational structure so that teams will be “empowered”
Skimp on organizational support
Assume all members have the skills to work as a team.