Assessing and Improving Programs and Teacher-designed Instruction
Martin Kozloff
2013
Let’s assume this is a group activity.
You need to describe a sample of lessons in order to answer most of the assessment
questions below. The sample should cover at least 10% of the lessons in a program. It is
important to cover the first several lessons one after another to see the logical progression
and the consistency of design features. Then the sample can be spread out.
Have each person examine one or more lessons and write their description using copies
of the form below.
Then collect and arrange the lesson descriptions in numerical order so the group can
reexamine the descriptions when answering questions below.
Each question below has space for writing strengths and weaknesses of the program. You
should use these spaces to write how to improve the program; e.g., add certain features
to procedures; add procedures for teaching a skill that is not covered; add end-of-lesson
review; add more work on fluency. These improvements should be written and appended to
this assessment document.
Lesson
Skill Taught
Phase of learning or instructional
function.
Comments and suggestions on:
1. Wording: simple, consistent,
focused on objective.
What you want to see. Each task
serves a clear instructional
1
function.
1. Review and firm or reteach
examples worked on in the last few
lessons to: (1) warm kids up for
MORE work on that skill (e.g., more
examples, new work on fluency or
generalization), or (2) firm up
elements that will be integrated
into a larger whole (a, r, n -> ran).
2. Acquisition.
2. Examples: clarity, varied
range, juxtaposition to show
sameness and difference,
frequent and regular first;
e.g., m, s, a, before x and ing;
regular words (sad) before
irregular worlds (said).
3. Scaffolding: pre-corrections
(“Remember to…”); attention
checks (“What are you
going to say?”); highlighting and
other cues (arrows, pointing).
3. Generalization.
4. Fluency. All levels.
5. Retention: review and firm or
reteach.
6. Expand; e.g., increase length of
2
4. Elements of formats; e.g.,
explicit instruction during
acquisition: gain attention,
frame instruction (task,
objective), model/present
information (the first example in
the acquisition set), lead,
immediate acquisition test, error
correction and/or verification,
more models/examples from the
acquisition set, delayed
acquisition test (all examples
from the acquisition)-> go on to
next, firm, or reteach.
words or text.
7. Integration of elements into a
larger whole.
5. Elements (pre-skills) are
taught early enough, and are
reviewed/firmed continually
before they are integrated
into larger wholes that USE the
elements.
6. Elements (e.g., say sounds,
letter-sound correspondence,
segmenting and blending) are
integrated into larger wholes
(e.g., sounding out words,
saying words fast).
Write Evaluation and Improvements Here
3
Lesson No.
Task No. Skill
Phase/instructional function
Assessment
Sit Big Routine
Model, lead, test
L1T1
Letter Sound: Acquisition
Wording is proper
Proper cues, clarity, needs to gain attention, frames and models instruction, no lead, there is test, no
verification
Add: Gain attention, leading (When I touch under the sound, you say the sound with me), and verification
(Yes, mmm)
L1T2
Phonemic awareness and blending: Acquisition
Wording is proper
Examples are proper
Pre-correction (Wait), needs to gain attention, frames and models instruction, no lead, tests, corrects
errors, no verification
Add: Gain attention (Boys and girls show me ready), Lead (Now you’ll say it fast with me, Motorboat),
Verification (Yes, motorboat, you said it fast)
L1T3
Phonemic awareness and segmenting: Acquisition
Wording is proper
Examples are proper
Varied Range
Pre-correction, needs to gain attention, frames and models instruction, leads, tests, corrects errors,
verification
Making format more scaffolded: First I’ll say a word fast, then I will say that word slowly. Listen, am. Now
I’ll say am slowly, listen aaaammmm
4
L1T4
Review
L1T5
Say it Fast
L2T1
Review
Wording is proper
Add: Gain attention, lead
L2T2
Wording is proper
Examples are proper
A little bit that’s new but mostly review
Add: Gain attention, lead
L2T3
Say the sounds: Segmenting
Wording is proper
Examples are proper
Review
L2T4
Review
L2T5
Say it fast
Wording is proper
Examples are proper with items that are similar and minimally different
L2T6
Say the sounds
5
L2T8
Review all the new words; slow and fast
L3T1
Letter-sound correspondence
Add: Gain attention, lead
Say the sound (model-led-test)
To correct the error, you say the sound and test (model-test)
verify each time the students answer correctly (firming) and repeat sound
Random testing (asking for sounds in random order)
*The magic number is 4
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What You Want to See in Materials and in Teacher-designed Instruction
1. The design features of materials (and teacher-designed instruction) are consistent with
scientific research on instruction. This is called “research based.”
http://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/Rosenshine.doc
http://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/Rosenshine.pdf
In addition, a program has been field tested with replicated, (repeated) longitudinal (over a
long period of time with the same groups), experimental research (with comparison groups and
quantitative, validated measures), and has been shown to be reliably effective.
http://mheresearch.com/product.php?segID=&subID=0&proID=38
https://www.mheonline.com/assets/sra_download/ReadingMastery
SignatureEdition/MoreInfo/ResearchAndValid_DILang06_web.pdf
7
Evaluation. Suggestions
2. Materials (and teacher-designed instruction) provide a comprehensive and varied sample
of knowledge that is taught in lessons or chapters (e.g., words to decode).
The materials and instruction should teach:
a. All the skills needed to achieve the final performance objectives, as determined by a
knowledge analysis of final performance objectives. For example, 250 word story, 100%
decodable, regular and irregular words, with 95% accuracy and 60 words read correctly per
minute—wrcm. Answer six out of seven comprehension questions.
DO A KNOWLEDGE ANALYSIS OF THE FINAL PERFORMANCE, AND WRITE THE ELEMENTS OR
STRANDS HERE.
Logically, the program should start with the simplest elements.
http://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/knowledgeanalysis.doc
b. All of the skills identified as important by scientific research.
DOES SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH SUPPORT YOUR KNOWLEDGE ANALYSIS?
Even if this program taught all of these elements, that doesn’t mean it is consistent with what
research says, so we are checking scientific research to see if the program teaches everything
research says.
Florida Center for Reading Research. http://www.fcrr.org/
http://www.fcrr.org/publications/publicationspdffiles/critical_elements.pdf
The effects of synthetic phonics teaching on reading and spelling attainment html
http://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/Report%20of%20the%20National%20Reading%20Panel.docx
http://reading.uoregon.edu/big_ideas/
c. Skills specified on the state or district course of study or curriculum, as long as these are
consistent with scientific research and common sense.
8
http://www.ncpublicschools.org/acre/standards/common-core/
ELA-Literacy/RF/1
3. Initial assessment.
a. Materials (and the teacher) provide screening assessment to insure students have the basic
skills (entry skills) needed to participate in the curriculum. These are identified by knowledge
analysis of what skills it takes to participate in instruction.
http://www.mcgrawhill.co.uk/sra/downloads/Reading%20Mastery/Reading%20Mastery%20Placement%20Test%20%20Level%20K%20(Starter%20Level).pdf
[This is a placement test, but it also serves as screening.]
Say the sounds. “Say….”
Tracking under the sounds.
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Responds properly to instructions.
Imitation: motor and vocal imitation
Every teacher, should review, correct errors, firm up weak parts (ex. subtraction in long division), or
reteach during the last three weeks of school, a sample of what was taught during the whole
curriculum, especially the last fourth. Consider these review items to be exit skills. The exit skills for
the earlier grade are the entry skills for the next grade. So, the next grade teacher should review
with students exactly the same items that the earlier teacher reviewed, and should firm up or
reteach as needed. Rule: You cannot start the next program until the kids are firm on the entry skills.
b. Materials (and the teacher) provide or suggest diagnostic assessment instruments to examine in
more detail students who do not “pass” the screening. Materials should suggest remedial,
intensive, or “catch-up” instruction, such as Language for learning, to prepare students to enter a
reading curriculum.
Examples:
http://teams.lacoe.edu/reading/assessments/yopp.html --- Yopp Singer
http://www.tea.state.tx.us/index2.aspx?id=7166 Texas Primary Reading Inventory
http://www.proedinc.com/customer/productView.aspx?ID=5187 Comprehensive Test of
Phonological Processing CTOPP
http://www.mcgraw-hill.co.uk/sra/languageforlearning.htm
https://www.mheonline.com/program/moreinfo/194/46/supplemental
https://dibels.org/papers/Diagnostic_NASP_0208.pdf
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c. Materials provide placement assessments to determine the lesson or unit for which students are
prepared to begin. Why? Because the curriculum is a logical sequence:
Elements  integrated into  compound skills.
If a student does not “have” the elementary skills needed for a more
complex skill, instruction will most likely fail. Placement tests start
students at the point where they have all the needed skill elements.
http://www.mcgrawhill.co.uk/sra/downloads/Reading%20Mastery/Reading%20Mastery%20Placement%20Test%20%20Level%20K%20%28Starter%20Level%29.pdf
http://www.mcgrawhill.co.uk/sra/downloads/Corrective%20Reading/CR_Decod_Placement_Test.pdf
Materials suggest guidelines (or teachers should develop guidelines) for deciding when students
may be moved to faster or slower groups.
You can MAKE a placement test by sampling what is taught every 5 or every 10 lessons---lettersounds (letter-sound correspondence), words to segment and blend (phonemic awareness), words
to decode (sound out/say fast), connected text (accuracy = % correctly read, and speed = correct
words per minute = oral reading fluency), answering comprehension questions.
This placement test is simply the first half of progress monitoring mastery tests---examples for
measuring acquisition/retention. See number 13.
Give new students the mastery test for lessons 1-10. If they struggle and make errors, start them on
lesson 1. If they do well, try the test for lessons 11-20. Keep going until they struggle with a mastery
test. Start them five lessons earlier.
Use the placements to make homogeneous groups. For example, 10 kids start on lesson 1; 5 on
lesson 10; 5 on lesson 30. If some kids in a group don’t keep up, or if some kids learn very fast, move
them to the appropriate group, but give them a bit of extra review.
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4. Materials have scope and sequence charts (or at least subject matter outlines) showing how
knowledge is organized—what is covered, and when. This enables teachers to see the logical
progression within a skill strand (e.g., decoding) and across skills strands (decoding, vocabulary, and
comprehension).
Beginning Reading
Lessons
1……… 10…………………………………………………………………100
Segmenting ______________
Blending
______________
Letter-sound ________________________________________
Decode
Sound out
______________________
Say it fast
________________________________________
Fluency
say sounds _________
letter-sounds ______
words
________________________________________
lists
____________
Sentences
_________________________________
paragraphs
____________________________________
Multi-para.
________________
Vocabulary _____________________________________________
Comprehen.
Picture
_______________________________________
Text
_______________________________________
Tasks in lesson 10. New decoded words and vocabulary taught in early tasks would be integrated
into the story at the end of the lesson.
12
5. Tasks within lessons, lessons within units, and units within a whole curriculum, state and focus
instruction on specific objectives— what students will do.
http://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/instructionalobjectives.doc
a. Objectives should state what students will do? They should not speak of know, appreciate,
demonstrate, or understand.
b. Objectives should state performance standards---the degree of accuracy and completeness, and
the speed expected. For example, how many words read correctly per minute.
6. Materials teach knowledge items in a logical sequence.
Knowledge elements or parts (pre-skills) are taught early and continually before teaching more
complex knowledge items that consist of or that require the knowledge elements.
http://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/Knowledge%20Analysis%20of%20Terminal%20Performance%20of
100 Easy Lessons.doc
Look at the knowledge analysis you did in number 2, above. Which skills are elements of more
complex skills? These elements MUST be taught and firmed first!
Materials and teacher-designed instruction teach pre-skills/parts are identified by KNOWLEDGE
ANALYSIS before teaching larger chunks that require the pre-skills.
b. Materials and teacher-designed instruction teach what is more general and more frequent
before what is irregular or uncommon. For example letter-sounds, words, regular words before
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irregular words.
c. Materials and teacher-designed instruction separate instruction on similar and confusing
knowledge items.
d. Materials and teacher-designed instruction teach what is more useful before what is less useful.
7. Lessons are a series of smaller, knowledge-rich units (chunks)---tasks---lasting from a few
seconds to several minutes.
Each task/chunk serves a clear instructional function.
a. Teach something new---facts, concepts, rules, cognitive routines.
[acquisition] “New sound.” “New vocabulary word.” “Now I’ll show you
how to sound out this word.”
b. Summarize. “The 9 events leading to the War of Independence are…”
c. Build fluency. “You can do these problems in 1 minute. GO!”
d. Review and probe/test (retention). “Let’s review our concepts.”
e. Expand---add more to existing facts, examples, concepts. Increase the length of text,
from words to multi-paragraph stories.
f. Generalize knowledge to new examples. “Here are new words.”
g. Strategically integrate---combine elements into a larger whole:
>>say sounds + >> letter-sound + >>start on the left and go to the right as
you read the sounds + >>then say it fast = decoding
>> State facts in a list = description
14
9. Materials explicitly differentiate and use proper formats (logical structure of communication)
for teaching different forms of knowledge:
http://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/formsandhowtoteachtable.doc
a. Facts. The first ten amendments are called “The Bill of Rights.”
b. Sensory concepts. blue, on, faster, louder, circle.
c. Higher-order concepts. Color, society, mammal
d. Rules. If X increases, then Y increases. All dogs are canines. We always sound out words.
e. Routines. Sequences of steps.
Here’s what you want to see.
a. Facts. The subject of a declarative statement is a particular thing, not a class of things.
Boston [subject] is the capital of Massachusetts [predicate].
How to teach.
**Frame instruction. “New fact.”
**State the fact (model). The U.S. Constitution was written in the summer of 1787.” [Students write
it down?]
**Then have students say the fact with you (lead).
**Then have students state the fact by themselves (test/check).
** Teach more facts, as above.
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** Review all facts.
“Let’s say all our facts about writing the U.S. Constitution.”
Note: These would later be integrated into a ROUTINE---a description of the American Revolution.
b. Basic or sensory concepts. One example shows all of the defining features of a class of things that
share defining features. red, straight line, on top.
How to teach.
**Present/model a range of examples that differ in size, shape, etc., but are the same in
the defining feature (e.g., color)—to allow comparison, to identify sameness. “This is
red.”
**Juxtapose examples and nonexamples that are the same except for the
defining feature---to show contrast, to identify difference that makes the
difference.
**Test with all examples and nonexamples (delayed acquisition test). “Is this
red?...Is this red?”
**Test with new examples (generalization test).
Acquisition set.
This is ahh.
a.
This is ahh.
a
This is not ahh. O [Nonexample of a/ahh]
This is not ahh. b [Nonexamples of a/ahh]
This is ahh.
a
This is ahh.
a
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Generalization set
Is this ahh? a
Is this ahh? d
etc.
c. Higher-order concepts. Features in any example are spread out. Can’t be sensed all at once.
Representative democracy, cell mitosis, table, galaxy.
How to teach.
**Teach the definition: model, lead, test/check. “Mitosis is….”
The definition TELLS the defining features because you can’t hold up an example that shows the
features. “Boys and girls, here’s a galaxy.”
**Then present examples and nonexamples, as with sensory concepts.
**Test all (delayed acquisition test). “Is this…?” “How do you know?”
**Generalize to new examples and nonexamples.
d. Rules. Statements that connect NOT one thing and another thing (e.g., name and date), but
connect whole sets of things (concepts).
(1) Deductive method---from general (rule) to specific (examples).
**Teach the rule statement (model, lead, test) first.
**Then present examples and nonexamples---as with concepts.
**Then test all examples and nonexamples.
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“Is this an example of the demand-price rule?”
“How do you know?”
Students state rule.
**Then generalize to/test new examples and nonexamples.
Inductive method---from specific (examples) to general (rule).
**Present a range of examples first (e.g., different price-demand curves): cars, oil,
movies.
**Show students how to compare the examples and to identify the
sameness—the relationship. One variable goes up and the other variable goes up.
“Price varies directly with demand.”
**Then present nonexamples, and show (in relation to the rule) how they are
nonexamples. “Demand is increasing, but price stays the same. That does NOT fit the
rule.
**Then give new examples and nonexamples, and have students say if they are or are
not examples, and how they know.
e. Routines. A sequence of steps for getting something done.
Solving math problems, sounding out words, writing essays, brushing your teeth, brushing someone
else’s teeth.
How to teach.
**Model, lead, test each step (or a few steps).
**Add a few more steps and then do the whole sequence so far (model, lead,
test).
**Add a few more; etc.
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10. Lessons are a logical sequence of tasks---each of which serves an instructional
function (see #7).
Enhance the formats.
1. Gain attention/show me ready: give instruction; but prior to THAT, teach “show
me ready.”
a. A lesson begins with reviewing, firming, and if needed reteaching prior
knowledge, or pre-skills, needed for later tasks. For example, review and firm, or
reteach, letter-sounds, segmenting, and blending before teaching students to
integrate these into the sounding out ROUTINE.
b. Regarding new knowledge (acquisition phase), the teacher:
(1) Uses the format that is proper for the kind of knowledge being taught--fact, sensory concept, higher-order concept, rule, routine. [See # 9.]
(2) The teaching format for acquisition involves the following.
(a) Gain attention. The teacher re-establishes attention and participation
immediately. “I need to see everyone sitting ready.” “I need to hear
EVERYbody!..... That’s it. NOW we have everybody!”
”My turn!”
“Show me ready.”
(b) Frame instruction. The teacher frames the instruction by stating the kind
of new knowledge to be taught, the objectives, and big ideas.
“Now we’ll read these words. Remember, first sound out each word.”
“Now you’ll learn how to sound out words.”
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(c) Model a small amount of information---that is, an example from the
acquisition set. “My turn….” Fact, definition, rule, examples, step.
The teacher models or presents new information clearly and focuses on the
objectives. The teacher: (a) Shares his or her thought processes. (b) Uses
clear wording. (c) Repeats the information as needed. (d) Presents one step
or item at a time in a routine, depending on how many steps or items
students can handle. If needed, the teacher repeats the model. “Listen
again to the first sound in rrriiimmm.”
(1) Wording is: simple, consistent, and focused on the objective.
(2) Examples clearly show the important features of a fact, concept, rule, or
routine.
(3) Examples have a range of defining features; e.g., from light blue to
dark blue) and irrelevant features (blue square, rectangle, triangle,
circle, sphere, cube).
(4) Examples (blue square) and nonexamples (red square) are juxtaposed
to show relevant (blue vs. red) and irrelevant (shape) features.
(5) Complex routines are taught with a sequence of formats (teaching
procedures). These formats begin with more scaffolding and teacher
direction, and gradually teach students to do the task independently.
(d) Have students do the model with the teacher (lead). “Sound out this
word with me.”
(e) Have students perform the modeled behavior independently (test/check).
“Your turn.”
(1) The teacher uses pre-corrections, or reminders, to prevent errors.
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“Remember, when it’s a little sound we don’t say it. r e a d Is this a
little sound?...yes… So do we say it? No. Get ready…. Sound it out.”
(2 The teacher asks the question first or gives an instruction, before calling
on the group or an individual.
(3) After calling on the group for a choral response, the teacher calls on
individual students, and makes sure to call on students who have
made errors or who in general have a harder time learning.
(4) The teacher gives think time (quick count of 3) before calling on the
group or an individual. “Get ready.”
(5) The teacher uses a signal to tell students to start; e.g., for example,
tapping the presentation book.
(f) Verify correct responses. “Yes, you said it fast.”
Verification is a small part of a larger motivational system that builds
group and individual mastery, and therefore pride, and therefore enthusiasm
and effort.
(1) Challenge. “This is tough, but you are so smart. You can do it.” “Oh, I
don’t think you guys can read these words… Yes, we can. You think you
can read these words?” Yes. “Okay, let’s see.”
(2) Model of success. “Jose showed us. When you try hard, you get it!”
(3) Teacher-class game. Small chart that all kids can see. Two columns.
Ms Smith The Smarties
//
////
Ms. Smith gets a point when she fools the kids or when they make an
error.
Kids get a point when they get it right.
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(4) Popcorn party. “When we finish lesson 10, it’s popcorn party!!” [Of
course, finish means that everyone is firm.]
(g) Correct errors: Model---Lead (?)---Test----Back-up----Restart---Retest later.
(h) Give more examples with model—lead—test—verification.
(i) Give a delayed acquisition test of all examples in the acquisition set.
(j) Go on to the next part of the lesson, firm weak elements, enhance the
format, or reteach.
Note: Formats are written in a linear way: say this, then say this, then student says
that, then teacher says this, etc.
But a skilled teacher knows that formats can and must be used in a recursive way---to
firm up smaller parts (student performance) in them. In other words, the format
might be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, but you can go 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 2, 3, 4, 5, 4, 4, 3, 5, 5.
In addition, you can add scaffolding to formats, as needed.
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Linear as Written
Letter-sound Correspondence
1. “New sound. When I touch under
this sound, I’ll say the sound.” mmm.
Recursive as Needed (with extra
scaffolding---enhancements)
Some students need more scaffolding.
1. “Listen, say mmmm.” mmm.
“Yes, mmm. You are a good mmm
sayer.”
“Again, mmm.” mmm.
“YES! mmm.”
“One more time!! mmm.” mmm.
“Wow, you say mmm like nobody’s
bidness.”
Now do step 1 of format.
2. “Watch again. When I touch under
this sound, I’ll say the sound. mmm.
Again, mmm. Again, mmm.”
3. “When I touch under the sound, you
say the sound WITH ME. Get
ready…” mmm.
Now do step 2 of the format.
2. “Your turn. When I touch under the
sound YOU say the sound. Get
ready…” mmm
3. “Yes, mmm.”
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c. Lessons end with review and firm (or reteach) what was just taught. Students do
not go on to the next lesson until they are firm. Enhancements may be planned for
the next lesson.
Different skills (segmenting, letter-sound, decoding) may be in different phases of
mastery in the same lesson; acquisition of new knowledge, generalization of
knowledge to new examples, fluent use of knowledge, integration of knowledge
elements into wholes (such as routines), and retention of knowledge---and so they
would be taught differently during their special TASKS during lessons.
For each phase, there are stated objectives, instructional procedures, assessment of
progress, and suggested remediation (if there is too little progress) based on
assessment data. See # 11, below.
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11. Materials, and teacher-designed instruction, work on all five phases of mastery
in a systematic, explicit, comprehensive way.
Fluency
Acquisition
Strategic
Integration
Retention
Generalization
In other words, work on acquisition with a set of acquisition examples.
“I’ll show you how to sound out these words.”
Then build fluency with those acquisition examples. “Let’s read our words the fast
way.”
Then work on generalization to a set of generalization examples.
“New words. You can read them. Just sound them out.”
Then work on fluency with the generalization examples.
Then integrate elemental skills into more complex wholes. “Now let’s read a story.
We’ll sound out each word, and then we’ll say each word fast.”
Work on retention of the above with review before, during, and at the end of lessons.
For each phase, there are stated objectives, instructional procedures, assessment of
progress, and suggested remediation (if there is too little progress) based on
assessment data.
http://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/phasesofknowledgemasterytable.doc
25
a. You already saw the format for teaching new knowledge (acquisition phase of
mastery) in a systematic, explicit, direct way. General procedure
 Gain attention. “Eyes on me.”
 Frame instruction. “Now you’ll learn to…”
 Model, lead, test the first example in the acquisition set; e.g., how to sound
out words or solve math problem.
 Model, lead, test the next examples in the acquisition set.
 Test/check all examples---delayed acquisition test.
 Test/teach generalization to new examples.
“These are new examples, but you can (sound
them out, solve them with the routine). I’ll show
you how (model)… Now your turn…”
 Correct all errors---model, lead, test, start over,
retest.
b. Here’s the format for building fluency---accuracy plus speed.
 Model fluency. “I’ll show you how to read sentences fast.”
 Teach component skills to fluency, from the smallest to the largest units.
Saying sounds fast -> reading letters fast -> reading words
fast -> reading word lists fast -> reading sentences fast ->
reading paragraphs fast, etc.
 Use pacing devices. Clapping, metronome.
 Repetition. “Let’s read it again the fast way. Error limit is two.”
 Speed drills, one minute timings. Graph.
c. Generalization of knowledge to new examples.
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 Use a generalization set---examples that differ in nonessential ways (e.g.,
different numbers) but are the same in essential ways (e.g., how you treat
them---as examples of the same KIND of problem).
 Model how to show that new examples are the same (in how you treat them)
as the ones in the acquisition set.
 Work on them one at a time: model, lead, test.
 Gradually, fade out the model and lead until students are independent.
d. Strategically integrate part skills (basics) into larger wholes; e.g., use knowledge of
historical periods, biography, rhyme, figures of speech, and symbolism to perform a
routine---analyze poems.
 Analyze a whole into its skill or knowledge elements; analyze each element
into smaller elements.
 Think of a logical sequence of instruction from smaller parts to larger.
 Teach enough of the smallest elements needed to do a larger whole. For
example, say sounds +  say words +  say words fast.
 Write numerals for quantities +  Count groups/quantities (4 blocks and 2
wheels) +  Simple addition of quantities.
4 + 2 = ___ Start with four, count two more. “Four…five, six.” Say the
whole thing. “Four plus two equals six.”
 Teach each element, and later teach integration of elements into the whole,
systematically and explicitly, with:
Model. Teacher alone.
Lead. Student and teacher together.
Test. Student alone
 Use a series of formats, starting with teacher does/models most of it, to
student does all of it.
(1) Teacher sounds out words; student tracks under them.
(2) Student sounds out words; teacher tells students which sounds to say
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first, second, etc.
(3) Student sounds out words; teacher has student tell what she will say first,
second, etc.
(4) Teacher sounds out words; student says them fast.
(5) Student sounds out words and says them fast.
e. Retention.
 Cumulative review after a series of lessons. Most examples from the last
lesson plus most of the second to last lesson, plus some of previous lessons.
Also review at the start, middle, and end of lessons.
 Always include items on which students were not firm.
 Reteach as needed.
 Use retention information (e.g., which students miss which items) to improve
teaching in general (e.g., use more examples during acquisition) and to
individualize (e.g., special sessions of intensive instruction).
12. Materials and teacher-designed instruction provide scaffolding; i.e., various
kinds of assistance to help teachers communicate information, and to help students
acquire, organize, retrieve, and apply information/knowledge.
Examples are stated objectives, highlighting (graphic, gestures, materials), reminders
and hints, wait time, big ideas, advance organizers (lesson and unit outlines, guided
notes, concept/proposition maps), summaries, glossaries.
13. Materials provide periodic curriculum-based progress monitoring assessments
(“mastery tests,” “checkouts) that assess acquisition and retention, generalization,
and fluency.
Materials also provide guidelines for deciding when students’ performance on
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assessment means that they (1) are firm and can move ahead; (2) need firming on
certain knowledge; (3) need enhanced formats; (4) need reteaching; or (5) need
intensive instruction.
Materials also provide plans and procedures for such remediation.
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