PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: Cartoon
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: Moral philosophy
Moral philosophy (ethics) is the branch of
philosophy that investigates and critiques
(a) human actions that affect morally relevant
beings and
(b) the principle that people appeal to when they
act
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: Moral philosophy
Ethics/Moral Philosophy is the study of right
and wrong in human action.
•What is right? And what is wrong?
•Are there any objective standards of right and
wrong?
•Are
moral
values
culture/communities/groups?
relative
to
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: Moral philosophy
Subdisciplines:
•Metaethics (nature of ethical statements)
•Normative Ethics (analyzing and developing
moral standards)
•Applied Ethics (giving practical advice)
(see Figure 10-2, p. 207,
Figure 10-3, p. 208)
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: Moral philosophy
Examples of contemporary specializations:
•Bioethics
•Business ethics
•Animal rights
•Information ethics
•Intercultural ethics
•Gender relations
•Social ecology
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: Moral philosophy
All decisions have a moral dimension.
Decisions are a type of action.
Actions have moral implications.
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: Moral philosophy
Every action is either
•Permissible
•Impermissible
•Obligatory or
•Supererogatory
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: Moral philosophy
Permissible actions have no positive or
negative moral implications.
Impermissible actions are violating an
obligation.
Obligatory actions are those that it would be
wrong not to perform.
Supererogatory actions are morally good, but
not obligatory.
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: Morality – ethics
Moral concerns are unavoidable in life.
Analogy: morality is somehow like nutrition.
•Principal concern: personal and social “wellbeing”
•The role of experts
•Disagreement
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: Morality – ethics
The truth of a moral claim is determined in much
the same way as descriptive claims, i.e. by
rational (rather than emotional) considerations.
Nevertheless, philosophers specialized in ethics
come back to ideas again and again, finding
new meaning in them.
The philosophical study of ethics is an open,
ongoing and controversial debate. There is
hardly a topic not yet contested.
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: Morality – ethics
Morality
first-order set of beliefs and practices about
how to live a good life
Examples:
•Do not kill!
•Love your neighbor!
•Serve your country well!
•Be honest!
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: Morality – ethics
Ethics
a second-order, conscious reflection on the
adequacy of our moral beliefs.
Examples:
•Why is killing unethical?
•What does it mean to ‘love’ my neighbor?
•Why should I rather serve my country than my
individual interests?
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: The language of ethics
Normative (or prescriptive) claims vs.
descriptive claims
see figure 10-4, p. 209
Moral prescriptive claims vs.
non-moral prescriptive claims
see Box 10-1, p. 209
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: Theory of ethics
The philosophical study of ethics shall allow to
explore moral issues analytically.
Ethics does not simply produce Do’s and Don’ts
or moral codes, instead it
•informs about “ethical” perceptions,
•defines moral attitudes (relevant to a specific
group of people or culture),
•evaluates the social and moral implications of
a specific moral.
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: Theory of ethics
Functions of ethical theories
•describe complex social interaction
•explain certain attitudes, behaviors, position
•give strength to a specific cause, ethical
theory
•prescribe actions
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: Theory of ethics
How to evaluate moral claims:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Clarify your terms
Get the facts
Identify relevant moral principles
Apply moral theories
Apply a reasoning strategy
Make a decision
Read Ch. 11
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: The language of ethics
Moral statements comprise
constitutive elements:
at
least
two
•Perspective: what is my personal approach to
the moral issue?
•Content: what is the moral issue about?
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: The language of ethics
Perspective of impartiality
Many philosophers have argued that the moral
point of view is characterized by impartiality.
No special weight should be given to one’s
own interest.
Examples of philosophers claiming for
impartiality: Immanuel Kant, John Stuart Mill
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: The language of ethics
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: The language of ethics
Perspective of compassion
Other philosophers have seen the origin of the
moral life to be in compassion.
We should act on our feelings for the
suffering of other sentient beings.
Example of a philosophy
compassion: Buddhism
arguing
for
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: The language of ethics
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: The language of ethics
Perspective of universality
Moral obligations, some philosophers maintain,
are universally binding and that is what gives
them their distinctive character.
Example: The Human Rights Charta
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: The language of ethics
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: The language of ethics
Perspective of relativity
Moral obligations, some philosophers maintain,
are relative to a specific culture and thus they
cannot simply be generalized or applied to other
cultures/environments.
Example: Thai values,
Muslim values,…
American values,
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: The language of ethics
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: The language of ethics
Criticism:
Moral relativism
is based on a self-defeating argument:
If moral relativism is true, it entails its own falsity.
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: Ethical theories
•Duty-based theories
•Consequence based theories
•Character-based theories
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: Ethical theories
Duty-based theories
Whether an act is moral or immoral depends on
one’s duty to act according to a principle
concerning that action
Kant’s moral principle: p. 211-12
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: Ethical theories
Ethics of Duty
Begins
with
the
conviction that ethics is
about doing what is right,
about doing your duty
determined by:
•Reason
•Professional role
•Social role
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: Ethical theories
Ethics of rights
Human Rights: The most
influential moral notion of
the past two centuries.
Established
minimal
conditions of human
decency.
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: Ethical theories
Consequence based theories
Whether an act is moral or immoral depends on
the consequences of the action – in order to
understand your moral obligations you have to
consider the consequences of your actions.
If the consequences are good, the action
leading to that consequence is moral.
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: Ethical theories
Utilitarianism
Seeks
to
reduce
suffering and increase
pleasure or happiness.
Demands a high degree
of self-sacrifice we must
consider
the
consequences
for
everyone.
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: Ethical theories
Character-based theories
•evaluate the value of a person’s character and
•then assess which actions best contribute to a
certain kind of character
Philosophers from Aristotle onward have seen
the primary focus of morality to be our character.
Key question: What kind of person ought I to
be?
Aristotele’s virtue theory: p. 218-19
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: Ethical theories
Ethics of virtues
Seeks to develop the
individual
character.
Assumes
that
good
persons will make good
decisions.
Part
of
Aristotles’
philosophy,
integral to Confucius and
the Buddhist tradition:
the Spiritual Exercises.
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: Ethical theories
Respect ethics
Human
interactions
should be governed by
rules of respect. What
counts as respect can
vary from one culture to
another.
Examples:
spitting in the sand,
showing the soles of
one’s shoes.
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: The language of ethics
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: The language of ethics
Content:
Moral issues are characterized by a particular
kind of language like the following ones:
•good/bad,
•right/wrong,
•duties/obligations/professional codes,
•law,
•responsibility.
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: Ethical theories
Further traditions of ethical thinking
•Sacred text theories
•Ethical egoism
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: Ethical theories
Sacred text theories
Being good is equivalent
to doing whatever a
sacred text, the Eightfold
Way of the Buddha, the
Bible or the Qur’an or
some other sacred text
or source of revelation
tells you to do.
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.1: Ethical theories
Ethical egoism
According
to
this
philosophical position the
only person to look out
for is yourself
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.2: Cartoon
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.2: Ethics – business ethics
Ethics: a second-order, conscious reflection on
the adequacy of our moral beliefs.
Business ethics: study of what is right and
wrong, good and evil, just and unjust in
business.
In business ethics, ethical concepts and
principles developed within general ethics are
applied to practical problems.
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.2: Ethics – business ethics
Doing business and ethics
Some say that business institutions usually have
two main “socially meaningful” objectives:
•They should produce goods according to the
market’s demand.
•They should be responsible for a fair
distribution of these goods to the general
public.
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.2: Ethics – business ethics
Doing business and ethics
Some others say that business does not have
any social objective in particular:
•Self-interest is the only purpose of a capitalist
corporation.
•This purpose is best met when the return is
maximized (either for the owners or for possible
shareholders).
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.2: Amorality – moral unity
Theory of amorality in business ethics
Business is an autonomous sphere of human
culture.
Business
may
be
conducted
without
considering a society’s ethical ideals.
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.2: Amorality – moral unity
society
business
government
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.2: Amorality – moral unity
Theory of moral unity in business ethics
Business needs to take into consideration
ethical aspects.
Business should be judged by the general
ethical standards of a given society.
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.2: Amorality – moral unity
society
business
government
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.2: Business ethics issues
Examples of issues in business ethics:
•Noxious products (Alcohol, Cigarettes,...)
•Industrial espionage, breach of intellectual
property rights (Movies, music,…)
•Outdated security procedures for workers
•Shipping waste to poor countries
•Child labour
•Evading from taxes
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.2: Business ethics issues
Child labor
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.2: Business ethics issues
Child labor
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.2: Business ethics issues
Pollution
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.2: Business ethics issues
Pollution
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.2: Decision-making
Who is morally responsible in the first place if
something goes wrong?
Different levels of accountability need to be
differentiated:
•Corporations (status of legal person)
•Individuals (natural persons)
•Consumer (?)
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.2: Decision-making
Assessing accountability – some questions:
•Where and what
accountability?
are
the
limits
of
•Are there any mitigating circumstances?
Examples:
•What happens when an employee is forced to
carry out an illegal act ordered by a superior?
•Is an employee obliged not to carry out
anything illegal, even if this costs him his job?
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.2: Decision-making
Policy making
External policies: The goal is to improve
(corporate, individual) responsibility, social
justice, ecological well-being by strengthening
the rule of law.
Internal policies: To prevent criticism and to set
positive goals, many corporations formulated an
ethical statement (e.g. mission statement)
relevant to their business aspirations.
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.2: Decision-making
General rules:
•Before acting, estimate possible (direct and
indirect) effects of a decision for everyone now and in the foreseeable future.
•Determine, whether there are some better
actions / policies available.
•Look out for decisions that are the most
socially compatible.
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Cartoon
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Social / political philos.
Practical Philosophy
Ethics
Social Philosophy
Political
Philosophy
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Social / political philos.
Social philosophy is the philosophical study of
society and human relationship.
•What is a society?
•Why and how do we relate to one another?
•How shall we think of the relationship between
the singular being (individual, person) and
society (a group, a collective, a people) as
such?
•How do societies develop/transform?
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Social / political philos.
Contemporary issues in social philosophy:
•Multiculturalism
•Traditional community vs. modern society?
•Technological development and its impact on
social relationships
•Values (autonomy, equality, self-interest,…)
•The quest for peace in war-thorn times
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Social / political philos.
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Social / political philos.
Political philosophy is the philosophical study
of politics and political forms, i.e. sovereignty,
state, government, civil disobedience, the
private and the public.
•What is politics?
•What are the characteristics of a ‘good’
government?
•Under which conditions is civil disobedience
necessary/allowed?
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Social / political philos.
Contemporary issues in political philosophy:
•Globalization
•Migration and citizenship
•World
government
international relations
•Religion and democracy
and
philosophy
of
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Social / political philos.
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Purposes
Purposes of social philosophy:
•to analyze key concepts such as solidarity,
community, alienation, tradition, modernity,…,
•to criticize social ideologies,
•to understand our present-day situation and
present-day changes.
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Purposes
Purposes of political philosophy:
•to clarify key-concepts of politics as well as the
extent of government,
•to provide an ideal model of political order and
rule,
•to justify or to criticize sovereignty.
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Purposes
Different (opposing) approaches:
•Consent vs. conflict approach
•The individual vs. the collective (state,
society, community,…)
•Normative vs. descriptive approach
•Norms vs. power
•(Social) change vs. stability
•Practice vs. theory (pure science)
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Political philosophies
Main philosophical theories in the field of
political philosophy:
•Contractualism
•Utilitarianism
•Communitarianism
•Critical Theory
•Feminism
•Postmodernity
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Political philosophies
Contractualism
Main claim: Society as well as human
relationships can best be explained in terms of a
(social) contract (agreement) between free
individuals defining rights and obligations,
personal freedom as well as political
government.
Philosophers:
Rawls
Hobbes,
Locke,
Rousseau,
Links to political ideologies: Liberalism
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Political philosophies
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Political philosophies
Utilitarianism
Main claim: Social acts can best be described
(and analyzed) by using principles such as
pleasure, happiness and utility (as opposed to
pain, suffering, uselessness).
Philosophers: Bentham, Mill, Singer
Links to political ideologies: Liberalism (also
anarchism and socialism)
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Political philosophies
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Political philosophies
Communitarianism
Main claim: Being in community with others is
our primary social experience; a community’s
bonds and values define and shape individual
identity as well as political government.
Philosophers: Taylor, MacIntyre, Walzer
Links to political
(possibly fascism)
ideologies:
Socialism
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Political philosophies
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Political philosophies
Critical Theory
Main claim: In order to promote (and to
progress in) their moral autonomy, societies
should continually reflect on and criticize
dogmatic beliefs; promoting radical social
change.
Philosophers: Adorno, Habermas, Marcuse
Links to political ideologies:
anarchism (also liberalism)
Socialism,
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Political philosophies
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Political philosophies
Feminism
Main claim: The history of political government
illustrates the history of male domination;
women should fight (legally, intellectually,
revolutionary) for gender equality; matriarchies
(the rule of women) is better than patriarchies.
Philosophers: Goldman, Beauvoir, Dworkin
Links to political ideologies: Anarchism,
socialism (also liberalism)
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Political philosophies
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Political philosophies
Postmodernity
Main claim: Critique of the ‘rational subject’
(presupposed by contractualism), critique of the
grand narratives of modernity (progressiveness,
right, knowledge); critique of normative political
theories (excluding minorities).
Philosophers:
Butler
Lyotard,
Links to political
socialism
Foucault,
Derrida,
ideologies: Anarchism,
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Political philosophies
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Political ideologies
Main political ideologies
•Monarchism
•Liberalism (and Capitalism)
•Anarchism
•Fascism
•Socialism (and Communism)
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Political ideologies
Monarchism
•Advocates a form of government (monarchy), in
which a single individual (the monarch) is the
head of government and state.
•Monarchies are among the oldest forms of
sovereignty; traditionally the monarch is part of
a royal dynasty, represents law and remains in
office for life.
•Different forms: hereditary
absolute vs. constitutional
vs.
elected,
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Political ideologies
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Political ideologies
Liberalism (and Capitalism)
•Developed during the Enlightenment as a
philosophical movement critical of absolute
forms of government (especially monarchy).
•Favors liberal principles such as individual
freedom (liberty), human rights, private business
(laissez faire policy, free flow of capital)…
•Different forms: (classical) political liberalism,
economic liberalism, social liberalism, neoliberalism…
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Political ideologies
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Political ideologies
Anarchism
•Questions the very practice of government
and rejects any kind of involuntary authority
against the background of the single individual.
•developed especially in the 19th century; was
involved in many revolutionary movements
and fights against dictatorship.
•Different forms: individualist anarchism,
socialist anarchism, anarcho-capitalism, green
anarchism,…
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Political ideologies
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Political ideologies
Fascism
•It is a political ideology subordinating the
individual (and their rights) as well as
societal groups to the general interest of the
state.
•It is opposing liberalism while favoring a
strong (authoritarian) hierarchy of command
and political rule linked to military forces.
•It usually comprises exclusive
(ethnic) or racial attributes.
cultural
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Political ideologies
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Political ideologies
Socialism (and Communism)
•These are political ideologies closely linked to
economic theories supporting models of
government where property and economic
exercise are subjected to state control.
•Have their origin in the 19th century mass
movements of poor workers and traditionally
oppose capitalism, fascism, as well as
monarchy and either support reformatory or
revolutionary movements.
PY 103 Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 3.3: Political ideologies