Chapter 11







Sex and Gender
Sex: The Biological Dimension
Gender: The Cultural Dimension
Gender Stratification in Historical and Contemporary
Perspective
Gender and Socialization
Contemporary Gender Inequality
Perspectives on Gender Stratification
Gender Issues in the Future
Sex





Sex refers to the biological and anatomical differences between females
and males
At birth, infants are distinguished by Primary Sex Characteristics:
_______________________
Secondary Sex Characteristics:
At puberty, hormones result in development of secondary sex
characteristics:
 Women: larger breasts, wider hips, and narrower shoulders; a layer of
fatty tissue throughout the body; menstruation
 Men: enlarged genitals; a deeper voice; greater height; a more muscular
build; more body and facial hair
Hermaphrodites/Intersexed Person

Persons in whom sexual differentiation (physical characteristics) is ambiguous or
incomplete

Transsexual:
A person in whom the sex-related structures of the brain that define
gender identity are opposite from the physical sex organs of the person’s
body
 Transsexuals often feel that they are the opposite sex from that of their
sex organs



Transvestite :
A male who lives as a woman or a female who lives as a man but does not
alter the genitalia
Sexual Orientation

Refers to preference for emotional–sexual relationships with:
 The opposite sex: ___________
 The same sex: _____________
 Both sexes: _______________

Homosexual and gay are most often used with males who prefer samesex relationships
Lesbian is used in association with females who prefer same-sex
relationships

Homophobia

Defined as:_____________________________________________
Gender

The culturally and socially constructed differences between females and males
found in the__________________________________________.”
 Embedded in the images, ideas, and language of a society
 Used as a means to divide up work, allocate resources, and distribute power

____________refers to attitudes, behavior, and activities that are defined as
appropriate for each sex and learned through the socialization process

In U.S. society, males are expected to demonstrate aggressiveness, whereas females
are expected to be passive and nurturing

_____________is a person’s perception of the self as female or male

_________________________describes how a person perceives and feels about
his or her body
Sexism

Sexism is the subordination of one sex based on the assumed superiority of the
other sex

Sexism toward Women

Three components:
 Negative attitudes toward women
 Stereotypical beliefs that reinforce, complement, or justify the prejudice
 Discrimination: acts that exclude, distance, or keep women separate

Sexism is interwoven with _____________: Hierarchical system of social
organization in which cultural, political, and economic structures are controlled by
men

_________: Hierarchical system of social organization in which cultural, political, and
economic structures are controlled by women

Gender Stereotypes

Men: Strong, rational, dominant, independent, and less concerned with appearance

Women: Weak, emotional, nurturing, dependent, and anxious about appearance
Gender Socialization

We learn gender-appropriate behavior through the socialization process

Parents and Gender Socialization
Children's clothing and toys reflect their parents' gender expectations
Children are often assigned household tasks according to gender








Peers and Gender Socialization
_________help children learn gender-appropriate and inappropriate behavior
During adolescence, peers often are more effective at gender socialization than
adults
College student peers play an important role in career choices and the
establishment of long term, intimate relationships
Teachers provide messages about gender through classroom assignments and
informal interactions with students
________consists of showing favoritism toward one gender over the other
Mass Media and Gender Socialization
On television:
 Male characters typically are more aggressive, constructive, and direct
 Females are deferential toward others or use manipulation to get their way
 Men still outnumber women as leading characters
 Men are still usually portrayed in the dominant roles
 Changes are beginning to emerge
 Advertising tends to reinforce traditional gender ideas

Adult Gender Socialization

Gender socialization continues through education, training, and entrance into the
work world

A double standard of aging puts more pressure on women to remain young-looking
Gendered Division of Paid Work

________________________refers to the concentrations of men and women in
different occupations, jobs, and places of work
• Most women work in lower-paying less prestigious jobs
• Men who enter traditionally female occupations must fight gender stereotypes

The __________is the disparity between women’s and men’s earnings
 Also called the earnings ratio
 Women make 79 cents for every $1 earned by men
 Women receive less pay than men with the same education
 Pay equity or comparable worth is the belief that wages should reflect the
worth of a job, not the gender or race of the worker

Most married women share the breadwinner role

The sexual division of labor in the family remains essentially unchanged

Women perform "double duty" or the "second shift"
Functionalist and
Neoclassical Economic Perspectives

According to Talcott Parsons, women’s roles as caregivers are more
pronounced in contemporary industrialized societies
 The husband provides economic support and makes decisions
 The wife provides affection and emotional support for the family
 This division of family labor provides stability for family members
The human capital model suggests that individuals vary widely in the
amount of human capital they bring to the labor market.
• Human capital is acquired by education and job training; it is the source
of a person’s productivity and can be measured in terms of the return
on the investment (wages) and the cost (schooling or training).
Conflict Perspectives

The gendered division of labor in families and the workplace results from male
control of and dominance over women

Marxist conflict theorists argue that gender stratification results from the private
ownership of the means of production
Feminist Perspectives

Feminism is the belief that women and men are equal and should be valued equally and
have equal rights
 In liberal feminism, gender equality is equated with equality of opportunity
 According to radical feminists, male domination causes all forms of human
oppression, including racism and classism

Socialist feminists
 Believe that women’s oppression results from their dual roles as paid and unpaid
workers in a capitalist economy

Multicultural feminists analyze race, class, and gender
 Believe that equality will occur only when all women, regardless of race/ethnicity,
class, age, religion, sexual orientation, or ability (or disability), are treated more
equitably