Chapter 4
Our Gendered Identities
Chapter Outline
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Gendered Identities
Is Anatomy Destiny?
Gender and Socialization
Gender in Adult Lives
Sexism
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Traditional sexism is the belief that women’s
roles should be confined to the family and that
women are not as fit as men for certain tasks or
for leadership positions.
Modern sexism denies that gender
discrimination persists and includes the belief
that women are asking for too much—a
situation that results in resistance to women’s
demands.
Gender and Sex
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Sex includes the chromosomal, hormonal, and
anatomical components of males and females.
Gender describes societal attitudes and
behaviors expected of and associated with the
two sexes.
Gender identity refers to the degree to which
an individual sees herself or himself as feminine
or masculine based on society’s definitions of
appropriate gender roles.
Masculine “Scripts”
1.
2.
3.
4.
No sissy-stuff - men are expected to distance
themselves from anything feminine.
Big wheel - men should be occupationally or
financially successful.
Sturdy oak - men should be confident and selfreliant.
Give ‘em hell -men should do what is
necessary to “make it”.
Femininities
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Women should offer emotional support.
Ideal woman is attractive, not too
competitive, a good listener and
adaptable.
Women are expected to be good mothers
and put the needs of others first.
Superwoman - successful at a career and
a good wife/mother.
Traits in Men and Women
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How females and males differ on height.
Averages by sex, but trait distributions occupy
much common ground.
Male Dominance
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A situation in which males assume
authority over the female.
On the societal level, male dominance is
the assignment to men of greater control
and influence over society’s institutions.
There are no known societies where
women dominate men.
Male Dominance
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Research shows that:
 On an interpersonal level, males in groups
tend to dominate verbally.
 Men talk louder and longer, interrupt other
speakers, and control conversational topics
more than women.
 Females restrict themselves more in claiming
personal space, smile more when smiling is
not related to happiness, and touch others
less in groups, but are touched more.
Male Dominance In Politics
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Before 1992, there had never been more than
two women among our 100 U.S. senators.
As of 2001, there were 13 women in the Senate
and 62 in the House of Representatives;
women compose 14% of Congress.
Surveys report that 92% of the public say they
would be willing to vote for a woman for
president, compared to 53% thirty years earlier.
Male Dominance In Religion
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Most U.S. congregations have more female
than male participants, yet men hold more
positions of authority.
Women are prohibited from holding Catholic
clerical or lay deacon positions.
A majority of U.S. Catholic laypeople and
theologians believe the Catholic church should
ordain women priests, the Vatican disagrees.
Male Dominance In The
Economy
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In 2002, women who were employed full time
earned 77% of what men earned.
In 2000 in the highest paying occupation, that of
physician, women made $80,000 while men
earned $140,000 on average.
Female professionals generally made 67% of
what their male counterparts did in their longest
held job.
Women’s earnings in managerial occupations
were 65% of men’s.
Male Dominance In The
Economy
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Men dominate corporate America.
In 2000, 5.2% of the highest-earning executives
in Fortune 500 companies were women.
Racism blocks the path to management for
nonwhite or Hispanic men, both racism and
sexism block the path for nonwhite and
Hispanic women, who hold only 1.3% of
executive positions.
Asian American women are most likely to have
management or professional roles.
Biological Theories of
Gender
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In order to continue their genes, individuals
maximize their own and their close kin’s
reproduction.
Men and women have different adaptive
strategies and skills encoded in the genes.
Male and female brains differ due to greater
amounts of testosterone secreted by a male
fetus.
Biosocial Theories of
Gender Stratification
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Biosocial theorists point to evolution, hormones,
and behavioral genetics as influences on
family-related behavior.
Studies suggest that men with higher
testosterone levels may be less likely to marry.
 If they marry, they may experience a lower
quality of spousal interaction, be more likely
to report hitting their wives, be more likely to
have extramarital sex, and be more likely to
divorce.
Society Based Gender
Stratification
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Structural constraints produce gendered
behavior.
Huber’s theory of gender stratification
examines three stages that vary considerably in
the roles and status assigned to men and
women:
 Foraging and hoe societies
 Agricultural societies
 Industrial societies
Foraging and Hoe Societies
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Food production is compatible with
pregnancy, and nursing.
Women fully participate economically so
males are less dominant.
Agricultural Societies
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Food production is less compatible with
pregnancy and nursing.
Men did the heavy work and women's
productive labor was less visible.
Patriarchy became established and
increased the social control exerted over
women.
Industrial Societies
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Status of women declined as work
became separate from home and family
life.
Women’s contribution to the economy
through domestic support and
reproduction of the labor force became
virtually invisible.
Interaction of Culture and
Biology
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Biology and society probably interact to
create gender-linked characteristics and
roles.
What’s happening in one’s environment
may influence hormone secretion levels.
Theories of Socialization
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Social Learning Theory
 Children learn gender roles as they are
taught by parents, schools and the media.
Self-identification theory
 Children categorize themselves by age 3 and
identify behaviors in their families, the media
and elsewhere that are appropriate to their
sex and adopt these behaviors.
Theories of Socialization
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Gender Schema Theory
 Children develop a frame of knowledge about
what girls and boys typically do.
Children's Theory of Gender
 Infants develop a primary identification with
their primary caregiver and must differentiate
psychologically and emotionally between
themselves and their primary caregiver.
Girls and Boys in the Family
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Parents handle infant sons more roughly
and respond more quickly to baby girls.
Most parents discourage their children
from playing with other sex toys.
Parents allocate household chores
according to the child’s sex.
Socialization in School's
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More men are in positions of authority
(principals) and women are in positions of
service (teachers and secretaries).
Teachers pay more attention to males
than to females.
Males tend to dominate learning
environments from nursery school to
college.
Gender and Stress: Women
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Women are oriented to others at the
expense of self, leading to depression,
boredom, and dissatisfaction.
Suicide attempts are more common
among women than men.
Women have higher rates of mental
illness and eating disorders.
Gender and Stress: Men
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Overemphasis on production, competition and
achievement create anxiety and stress which
may contribute to shorter life expectancy.
Physically dangerous behaviors (smoking,
unsafe driving, drug use, violence) shorten
men’s lives.
Hiding their feelings can lead to hidden
depression and isolation.
Gender Differences in Life
Expectancy at Birth 1900–2002
Quick Quiz
1. Jack believes that a woman’s “place” is
in the home. Jack’s point of view is an
illustration of __________ sexism.
a) modern
b) neo
c) traditional
d) post-modern
Answer: c
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Jack believes that a woman’s “place” is
in the home. Jack’s point of view is an
illustration of traditional sexism.
2. Consider the statement: “Discrimination
against women in the labor force is no
longer a problem.” This reflects
__________ sexism.
a) neo
b) modern
c) traditional
d) post-modern
Answer: b
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The statement: “Discrimination against
women in the labor force is no longer a
problem.” This reflects modern sexism.
3. In which of the following religious
categories are women prohibited from
holding positions?
a) the pastorate within Protestant
Christian churches
b) rabbis in Reform Jewish
congregations
c) feminist evangelicals
d) Catholic clerical or lay deacon
Answer: d
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Women are prohibited from holding
positions in the Catholic clerical or lay
deacon.
4. Biological theories of gender difference
were initially offered by
a) biologists.
b) primatologists.
c) zoologists.
d) Geneticists
Answer: b
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Biological theories of gender difference
were initially offered by primatologists.