CHAPTER 7
EXPANDING SOCIAL HORIZONS:
SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
Material from Kail & Cavanaugh’s Human Development: A
Life-Span View
Slides adapted from Ashley Goethe, Theresa Kemp, Danielle
Turek, Casey Lin, Julian Thayer, & Dr. Jordan
Guiding Questions

What are some key ways in which the developing
child can be influenced by:
 Family
 Friends
 The
larger culture
The Functions of Families




Protection for human children who develop slowly
compared to other species
Economic support
Emotional support
Childrearing (or socialization)
Common Parenting Behaviors


Providing direct instruction--telling a child what to
do, when, and why
Modeling behavior
 Counterimitation--learning
what should not be done by
observing the behavior

Providing feedback
 Reinforcement--consequence
that increases the
likelihood that a behavior will be repeated in the future
Common Parenting Behaviors
 Punishment--applying
an adverse stimulus (spanking,
grounding, scolding, yelling, etc.)
 Negative
reinforcement trap--unwittingly reinforcing a
behavior you want to discourage
 Time-out--punishment
that involves removing children
who are misbehaving from a situation to a quiet,
unstimulating environment
The Four Parenting Styles
1)
2)
Authoritarian – high control, low warmth
Authoritative – combines fair amount of control
and warmth
3)
Permissive – high warmth, low control
4)
Uninvolved – neither warmth nor control
Effects of Parenting Styles




Authoritarian:
- Children who are unhappy, have low self-esteem, and are frequently over aggressive
Authoritative:
-Is best for “most children most of the time”
-Tend to have higher grades and are responsible, self reliant and friendly
Permissive:
-Children tend to be impulsive with little self-control
Uninvolved:
-Children often do poorly in school and are aggressive
Balance is key! Children typically thrive on a parental style that combines control,
warmth, and affection.
Children’s Contributions



Age--parents have to adjust their parenting as children
age because the effectiveness of certain types of
parenting change
Temperament--as parents realize what type of
temperament each child has, the style will have to be
adjusted
Behavior--children’s behavior helps determine how
parents treat them, and the resulting parental behavior
influences
Parenting Gone Wrong:
Child Maltreatment




Physical abuse--involving assault that leads to injuries
including cuts, welts, bruises, and broken bones
Sexual abuse--involving fondling, intercourse, and other
sexual behaviors
Psychological--involving ridicule, rejection, and
humiliation
Neglect--children do not receive adequate food,
clothing or medical care
The Prevalence of Maltreatment

1 million children annually suffer from neglect or
abuse
 60%
are neglected
 15% are physically abused
 10% are sexually abused
 10% are psychologically abused
Who does this?

Cultural values and social condition in which parents
rear their children

Social isolation is another factor

Cultural factors
Why does it occur?


Parents that maltreat children were usually maltreated
themselves
Often use ineffective parenting techniques and have such
high expectations their children could never reach

Parental relationship is dysfunctional

Children who are often ill are at greater risk for abuse

Stepchildren are also at higher risk
Effects of Abuse





Abused children are usually more aggressive
Lower performance in school
Lower quality peer relationships
More likely to become depressed as they reach
adolescence
Despite the risks of these effects, some children
show ego-resilience in the face of this adversity
Preventing Abuse




Acceptable levels of punishment must change
Families can be taught more effective ways to cope
with stressful situations
Early childhood intervention programs
Parents who were maltreated need help to have the
knowledge to avoid it with their children
Parental Influence on Friends

Parents exert major influence on their children’s
friendships
 Children
cannot drive or legally be on their own
 Parents organize activities for their children
 Parents have all the power for a long time in a
parent/child relationship
What is Friendship?


A voluntary relationship between 2 people
involving mutual liking
Friendship grows more complex with age
Ages 4 –5–-Children like each other and enjoy
playing together
 Ages 8 –11–-Trust and assistance
 Adolescence–-Intimacy and loyalty


Girls usually have more intimate friendships at this
stage, but co-rumination can be a problematic factor
Who Are Friends?

Often similar in age, gender, and race



Opposite-sex friendships are rare, but they do exist. However,
children who have only opposite-sex friendships tend to be
unpopular, to be less competent academically and socially, and to
have lower self-esteem.
Are typically expected to treat each other as equals
Children and adolescents drawn together due to similar
attitudes toward school, recreation, and the future
Quality and Consequences of
Friendships

Co-Rumination – Conversations about one’s personal problems,
common among adolescent girls
 Strengthens girls’ friendships, but also puts them at risk for greater
depression and anxiety
 Friendships can also be hazardous when: aggressive children are
friends or when teens engage in risky behavior
Children with good friends…

Have higher self-esteem

Are less likely to be lonely and depressed

More often act prosocially by sharing and cooperating
with others

Cope better with life stresses

Less likely to be victimized by peers
Popularity and Rejection


Popular Children – Children who are liked by many classmates
 Are skilled academically and socially
 Are usually friendly, cooperative, and helpful
 More skillful at communicating and better at integrating
themselves
 Includes physically aggressive boys and relationally aggressive
girls
 Different characteristics unique to cultural setting
Rejected Children – Children who are disliked by many classmates
 Are overly aggressive, hyperactive, socially unskilled, and
unable to regulate their emotions
 More hostile than popular children; they seem to be aggressive
for the sheer fun of it
 Others are shy, withdrawn, timid, and lonely
Popularity and Rejection



Controversial Children – Children who are
intensely liked or disliked by classmates
Average Children – Children who are liked and
disliked by different classmates, but with relatively
little intensity
Neglected Children – Children who are ignored—
neither liked nor disliked—by their classmates
Causes and Consequences of Rejection


Repeated rejection in childhood can have serious
long-term consequences, such as dropping out of
school, committing juvenile offenses, and suffering
from psychopathology
Can be traced (in part) to the influences of parents

Parents who are friendly and cooperative with others
demonstrate effective social skills for their children

Parents who are belligerent and combative demonstrate
ineffective social skills

Children watch how their parents respond in different social
situations and may imitate those responses later in life

Disciplinary practices also play a role:


Inconsistent forms of child guidance are associated with
antisocial, aggressive behavior
Consistent child guidance tied to parental love and affection is
more likely to promote social skills (and popularity).
Aggressive Children




Instrumental Aggression – Aggression used to achieve an explicit
goal
Hostile Aggression – Unprovoked aggression that seems to have
the sole goal of intimidating, harassing, or humiliating another child
Relational Aggression – Aggression used to hurt others by
undermining their social relationships
http://www.cnn.com/2011/10/10/us/ac-360-bullyingstudy/index.html?eref=rss_latest&utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=fe
ed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+rss%2Fcnn_latest+%28RSS%3A+Most+Rec
ent%29


Tendencies to behave aggressively are stable over time
Most schoolchildren are the targets of an occasional
aggressive act, but a small percentage of children are
chronic targets of bullying.
 Can occur through physical aggression and relation
aggression
 Electronic bullying has become common in recent years
Victimization


Victims:
 Are often lonely, anxious, and depressed
 Dislike school and have low self-esteem
 Feel better if they see others being bullied, because that lets them
know that they are not being singled out
Why are some children victims:
 Some are aggressive themselves – they often overreact, are restless,
and are easily irritated, making them easy bait for bullies. When
attacked, they will probably start a fight even though they are
outnumbered.
 Some are withdrawn and submissive – they are unwilling or unable
to defend themselves (referred to as “passive victims.”). When
attacked, they show obvious signs of distress and usually give in to
their attackers.

Ways to help victims:
• Encourage them not to respond in kind when insulted
and to not show fear when threatened
• Increase children’s self-esteem
• Foster their friendships with peers
Influences from Society
What’s on TV?


Depictions of “real life”
Violence, aggression, and
cartoon violence
11,000 murders seen by age
12
 Bobo doll experiment


Bandura’s Social Cognitive
Theory


Children learn by observing
others; watching and imitating
what they see
Commercials
Criticisms of TV

There are several arguments against television itself:


A possible contributor to short attention spans and difficulty in school
Children may become passive thinkers and lose creativity


Neither of these claims has been substantiated by studies or evidence
There are some arguments supported by facts:


The importance of screening the kinds of programs watched; such as
those with cartoon violence, harsh language, inappropriate situations etc.
The link between long periods of inactivity associated with television
watching and obesity.
TV as an Influence on
Attitudes and Social Behavior

Television violence--desensitizes children and instills violent behaviors. A
child will witness several thousand murders on television by adolescence. TV
violence has been linked to increases in violent crime.

Stereotypes--give a slanted view of the world, roles, and peer
relationships. Children exposed to television adopt these views and the
fiction becomes a reality.

Consumer behavior--commercial advertisements often target children.
Sugary cereals, toys, and TV programs all indoctrinate children into the
world of consumerism and impulse buying.

Prosocial behavior--television can be used to teach prosocial skills.
Many programs, on stations like PBS, directed at children teach important
social skills and simulate human interactions.
TV as an Influence on Cognition




Educational programs- some television companies, like
Children's Television Workshop, produce programs with the
purpose of teaching children of all ages.
Sesame Street teaches preschool and kindergarten skills, such
as letter and number recognition.
Bill Nye the science guy taught science and mathematics
The Learning Channel, PBS, and Discovery show programs on
various informative subjects such as science, culture, and history.
Parental Involvement with TV



Children need rules concerning the amount and type of
television they are permitted to watch and the rules need to
be enforced!
Do not let children watch excessive television out of
boredom.
Adults should watch television, especially a new program,
with their children and be active critics of the programming.

Ex. If there are only female nurses on the show, comment about
how your cousin Josh just got a job as a nurse (though they don’t
make him wear pink).
Media and Stereotypes


Television as a “window on the world” is
actually distorted.
Jobs being assigned gender roles according to
models seen on television
 “Typical”
families
 Reflection
of cultural norms
 Can teach children prosocial behavior

Kimball Canadian study (1986)
 Studied
sex-role stereotypes before and after
television was introduced to the community.
Developing Prejudices

A negative view of others based on their membership in a different
group
-this often develops once an individual learns of their membership within a
group

In young children it is not so much a negative view of others as it is
an enhanced view of one’s own group
-does not often involve overt hostility at this age, view others as “not as good”

As children enter their elementary school years their knowledge of
racial stereotypes and prejudices increases
-prejudice tends to decline during these years as children learn that societal
norms discourage openly favoring their group over others

During early adolescence prejudice often increases
again

The resurgence of prejudice is thought to reflect two processes
1) Having been exposed to prejudices some of them are internalized
within the child/adolescent
2) In their search for identity, adolescent’s preference for their own
group often intensifies
-Greater prejudice at this age usually reflects a more positive view
of their own group and a more negative view of other groups
How are prejudices formed?

Children form some prejudices as a byproduct of categorizing
their social worlds.





When children are addressed by race sex or class they attribute those
titles and memberships to themselves, and conversely to others.
A child will naturally prefer his or her own social group as opposed to
others
Negative opinions of other groups can emerge if multiple social groups
are set in a competitive environment, or if animosity is perceived.
Prejudice can be reduced by mixing children into diverse groups and
setting cooperative goals.
It is also important not to label children as this affects their self image.

Ethical concerns limit studies of prejudice to correlational
studies so identifying “how” is challenging

Popular Belief: bias and prejudice emerge naturally out of
children’s efforts to understand their social world

As children’s social horizons expand they continue to categorize
and try to decide how different groups of people “go together”
ex. race, gender, age
Jane Elliot’s Blue Eyes/Brown Eyes Experiment
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6BrFHq-t2VY&feature=related
How Can We Limit Prejudice?

Encourage friendly and constructive contacts between children
from different groups
- works best with in a non-competitive activity in which children are pursuing
common goals

Have children play different roles
- allows them to see how prejudice impacts others, reduces egocentrism

Educate children about the racism and/or prejudice experienced
by others throughout history
Through these experiences children discover for themselves that each
person is a unique mix of experiences, skills, and values.