Final Exam Review
Topic #1: Psychological Disorders – Neuroses
What is Abnormal?
Criteria
 1) Distress is present (person is suffering, unhappy, afraid)
 2) Behaviour is maladaptive (impaired functioning, inability to meet
responsibilities)
 3) Socially Deviant (behaviour is unusual, not normal)
Medical model  proposes that it is useful to think of abnormal behaviour as a
disease
Diagnosis  involves distinguishing one illness from another
Etiology  refers to the apparent causation and developmental history of an illness
Prognosis  a forecast about the probable course of an illness
Stereotypes of Psychological Disorders
1) Psychological disorders are incurable
2) People with psychological disorders are often violent and dangerous
3) People with psychological disorders behave in bizarre ways and are very
different from normal people
Classifying Abnormality
 DSM-IV (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders)
Multiaxal Evaluation – information is recorded on the five axes described
here
1) Axis 1  Clinical Syndromes
2) Axis II  Personality Disorders or Mental Retardation
3) Axis III  General Medical Conditions
4) Axis IV  Psychosocial and Environmental Problems
Prevalence  refers to the percentage of a population that exhibits a disorder
during a specified time period
Epidemiology  the study of the distribution of mental or physical disorders in a
population
Critical Thinking Application – Working with Probabilities in Thinking about
Mental Illness
Representative heuristic  the estimated probability of an event is based on how
similar the event is to the typical prototype of that event
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Neurotic:
 Distressing problem but person is still coherent and can function
socially (once acute phase of disorder is treated).
 E.g. most disorders discussed today
Psychotic:
 More bizarre, involving delusions or hallucinations. Individual has
impaired thought processes and cannot function socially. Treatment is
long term
 E.g. schizophrenia (next week)
Anxiety:
o Fear in situations that pose no objective threat
o 3 components:
A) Cognitive:
 Extreme/chronic worry; fear of harm
B) Physiological:
 Muscle tension, increased heart rate and blood pressure
C) Behavioural:
 Shaking, jumpiness, pacing, avoidance
Three Categories of Psychological Disorders
Anxiety Disorders:
 Subtypes:
o Generalized anxiety disorder  Chronic, high level of anxiety not tied to
any specific threat
o Phobic disorder  Persistent, irrational fear of object or situation that
presents no real danger
o Panic disorder  Recurrent attacks of overwhelming anxiety that occur
suddenly and unexpectedly
o Obsessive-compulsive disorder  Persistent, uncontrollable intrusions of
unwanted thoughts and urges to engage in senseless rituals
 Prevalence/well-known victim
o 19%
o Howard Hughes  OCD
 Etiology: Biological factors
o Genetic vulnerability  twin studies and other evidence suggest a mild
genetic predisposition to anxiety disorders
o Anxiety sensitivity  Oversensitivity to physical symptoms of anxiety may
lead to overreactions to feelings of anxiety, so anxiety breeds more
anxiety.
o Neurochemical bases  Disturbances in neural circuits releasing GABA
may contribute to some disorders; abnormalities at serotonin synapses
have been implicated in panic and obsessive-compulsive disorders.
 Etiology: Psychological factors
o Learning  Many anxiety responses may be acquired through classical
conditioning or observational learning; phobic responses may be
maintained by operant reinforcement
o Stress  High stress may help to precipitate the onset of anxiety
disorders
o Cognition  People who misinterpret harmless situations as threatening
and who focus excessive attention on perceived threats are more
vulnerable to anxiety disorders
Mood Disorders:
 Subtypes
o Major depressive disorder  Two or more major depressive episodes
marked by feelings of sadness, worthless, despair
o Bipolar disorder  One or more manic episodes marked by inflated selfesteem, grandiosity, and elevated mood and energy, usually accompanied
by major depressive episodes
 Prevalence/well-known victim
o 15%
o Jim Carrey has suffered from depression
 Etiology: Biological factors
o Genetic vulnerability  Twin studies and other evidence suggest a genetic
predisposition to mood disorders
o Sleep disturbances  Disruption of biological rhythms and sleep patterns
may lead to neurochemical changes that contribute to mood disorders
o Neurochemical bases  Disturbances in neural circuits releasing
norepinephrine may contribute to some mood disorders; abnormalities
at serotonin synapses have also been implicated as a factor in depression
 Etiological: Psychological factors
o Interpersonal roots  Behavioural theories emphasize how inadequate
social skills can result in a paucity of reinforcers and other effects that
make people vulnerable to depression
o Stress  High stress can act as a precipitating factor that triggers
depression or bipolar disorder
o Cognition  Negative thinking can contribute to the development of
depression; rumination may extend and amplify depression
Schizophrenic Disorders
 Subtypes
o Paranoid schizophrenia  Delusions of persecution and delusions of
grandeur; frequent auditory hallucinations
o Catatonic schizophrenia  Motor disturbances ranging from immobility
to excessive, purposeless activity
o Disorganized schizophrenia  Flat or inappropriate emotions;
disorganized speech and adaptive behaviour
o Undifferentiated schizophrenia  Idiosyncratic mixtures of schizophrenic
symptoms that cannot be placed into above three categories
 Prevalence/well-known victim
o John Nash, the Nobel Prize-winning mathematician whose story was told
in the film A Beautiful Mind, has struggled with schizophrenia
 Etiology: Biological Factors
o Genetic vulnerability  Twin studies and other evidence suggest a
genetic predisposition to schizophrenic disorders
o Neurochemical bases  Overactivity in neural circuits releasing
dopamine is associated with schizophrenia; but abnormalities in other
neurotransmitter systems may also contribute
o Structural abnormalities  Enlarged brain ventricles are associated with
schizophrenia, but they may be an effect rather than a cause of the
disorder
 Etiology: Psychological factors
o Expressed emotion  A family’s expressed emotion is a good predictor of
the course of a schizophrenic patient’s illness
o Stress  High stress can precipitate schizophrenic disorder in people
who are vulnerable to schizophrenic
o The neurodevelopmental hypothesis  Insults to the brain sustained
during prenatal development or at birth may disrupt maturational
processes in the brain resulting in elevated vulnerability to
schizophrenia
Anxiety Disorders
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Panic Disorders: (2-3%)
o Presence of recurrent, and unexpected panic attacks:
 Intense dread, shortness of breath, chest pain, choking, fear of
going crazy or losing control or dying, shaking, sweating,
nausea…
o May lead to Agoraphobia (fear of open spaces)
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Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
o Re-experiencing traumatic event (e.g. dreams, flashbacks, reliving the
experience)
o Avoidance of stimuli associated with the trauma (thoughts, feelings,
people, places)
o Difficulties with sleep, concentration, irritability
o http://movieclips.com/e7Xc-born-on-the-fourth-of-july-movie-thehomecoming-speech/

Social Phobia: (3-13%)
o Fear of performance in social situations
 Public speaking/ Eating, drinking, writing in public
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Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders (2%)
o Obsessions:
 Persistent, uncontrollable thoughts
o Compulsions:
 Rituals, behaviours that reduce anxiety
o Four different themes:
 Obsessions and checking
 Symmetry and order
 Cleanliness and washing
 Hoarding
o Case examples:
 Illustration from movie “As Good as it Gets”
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=48jD-ZEuB0I
 Howie Mandel: Germaphobic & Hypochondriac
Somatoform Disorders
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Hypochondriasis:
o 4-9% in medical practice
o Inordinate preoccupation with health and illness
o excessive anxiety about having a disease
o http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lkIQ39538Ig&feature=related
o http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tV_ORdpOK3g

Somatization Disorder:
o (1-2% women)
o History of diverse physical complaints for which there is NO organic
basis
o Long medical history of treatments for minor physical ailments
Dissociative Disorders

Multiple Personality Disorder (very rare)
o Presence of at least 2 distinct personalities within the same individual
o Leads to sudden changes in identity and consciousness
o Each personality has its unique style and may unaware of the
existence of the other personalities
o Often related to severe abuse in early childhood
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Depression
o Lifetime prevalence rates
 20% in women; 10% in men
o Why more common in women?
 Cost of caring
 Exposure to higher levels of stress
 Victimization, abuse
 Ruminative cognitive style
 Perpetuates negative mood
 More likely to report symptoms
o Seasonal Affective Disorders (SAD)
 Depressive symptoms related to physiological consequences of
shorter winter days
 Treatable with light therapy
Theories of Depression
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Biological predisposition
o Concordance rates in twins:
 Identical: 65% Fraternal: 15%
o G X E models (interaction of genetic and environmental contributors)
Cognitive perspective
o Beck: Negative (dysfunctional) attitudes
o Seligman: Attribution Theory
 How do you explain your circumstances?
 Internal vs external
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Stable vs unstable
Global vs specific
 Depression: internal, stable, global
attributions for negative events
Diathesis-stress models
 Depression results from an interaction between
personality and negative life events e.g. Dependency and
Self-Criticism
Mood Disorders
 Bipolar Disorders:
o Periods of depression alternate with manic episodes
o Mania:
 abnormally elevated mood, inflated self-esteem, pressure of
speech, increased energy, decreased need for sleep, overactivity, lack of inhibition and impaired judgment
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3mJoHqmtFcQ
 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-12701154
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=adE54NTUHCk
o Prevalence rates:
 1% in men and women
 Strong genetic component
Suicide
 University students:
o 40-50% have had suicidal thoughts
o 15% attempt suicide
 3rd leading cause of death among 15-24 year-olds
 Major Risk Factors:
o Talking about wanting to hurt oneself/ Having a plan
o Feelings of isolation; withdrawal from friends and family
o Feeling trapped, like there is no way out
o Having a serious mental or physical illness
 Including depression and feelings of hopelessness
o Experiencing a major loss or stressor
 Feelings of shame, humiliation, failure, rejection
o History of child abuse (leading to self-harm in women)
o Abuse of drugs or alcohol/ impulsivity
 How to help:
o 1) Establish communication
 Talk about suicidal wishes
o 2) Identify needs that have been frustrated
 Search for love, recognition, respect?
o 3) Broaden suicidal person’s perspective
 Impermanence of feelings
 This too will pass
 Give yourself the chance to experience a better future
 Provide support for treatment
Topic #2: Psychological Disorders – Psychoses
Schizophrenic Disorders
 Schizophrenia
 “Split Mind”
 Not a multiple personality disorder, but a thought disorder
 1. a) Symptoms:
 1. Disturbed Thought Content
 Delusions: Grandiose or Persecutory
 Expression is bizarre (e.g. loose associations/ poverty of
speech)
 2. Hallucinations and Disturbed Behaviour
 E.g. hearing voices/ speaking to imaginary people
 Agitation or catatonic stupor
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_qCcSQPh2Bc
 3. Disturbed Emotions
 E.g. laughing inappropriately/ blunted, flat affect
 4. Deterioration in Functioning
 E.g. Neglect of personal hygiene, social withdrawal
 4 Types
o Paranoid Type  paranoid schizophrenia is dominated by delusions
of persecution, along with delusions of grandeur
o Catatonic Type  Catatonic schizophrenia is marked by striking
motor disturbances, ranging from muscular rigidity to random motor
activity
o Disorganized Type  In disorganized schizophrenia, a particularly
severe deterioration of adaptive behaviour is seen
o Undifferentiated Type  Undifferentiated schizophrenia, which is
marked by idiosyncratic mixtures of schizophrenia symptoms
 Negative Symptoms  involve behavioural deficits, such as flattened
emotions, social withdrawal, apathy, impaired attention, and poverty of
speech
 Positive Symptoms  involve behavioural excesses or peculiarities, such as
hallucinations, delusions, bizarre behaviour, and wild flights of ideas
Prisons: The New State Asylums
 Frontline Show Available Online
o Note: 2 multiple choice questions extracted from segment shown in
class will be on the final)
 http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/asylums/
o Chapters 1 & 5
Theories of Schizophrenia
• Genetic Contribution: (p. 636)
• But what is inherited?
• Excess dopamine:
• Evidence:
• Drugs that increase dopamine produce symptoms similar to
schizophrenia
• Anti-psychotic drugs that decrease dopamine activity lessen
schizophrenic symptoms
• Epigenetics:
• Study of chemical changes to a gene that influence its expression
• (without altering DNA sequence)
• 1/200 genes of psychotic patients show epigenetic differences
• For genes involved in neurotransmission & brain development
• Neurochemical Factors:
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Structural Abnormalities in the Brain
 Enlarged brain ventricles
 Could be a consequence or cause
 Metabolic abnormalities in frontal and temporal lobes
 Reduced metabolic activity in area in prefrontal cortex and increased
metabolic activity in area in temporal lobe
 Frontal lobe  positive symptoms
 Temporal lobe  negative symptoms
Neurodevelopmental Hypothesis
 Schizophrenia is caused in part by various disruptions in the normal
maturational processes of the brain before or at birth
 Insults to the brain during senstitive phases of prenatal
developmental or during birth can cause subtle neurological damage
that elevates individuals’ vulnerability to schizeophrenia years later
in adolescence and early adulthood
Expressed Emotion
 Expressed emotions  the degree to which a relative of a
schizophrenic patient displays critical or emotionally overinvolved
attitudes toward the patient
Precipitating Stress
 Various biological and psychological factors influence individuals
vulnerability to schizophrenia
 High stress can trigger relapses
Personality Disorders
 DSM-IV Definition:
 Inflexible, enduring patterns of behavior that create impairment in
functioning (especially conflict with others) and/or subjective
distress
o May involve up to 15% of population
 Cluster A: Odd-Eccentric
o Distrustful, socially aloof, unable to connect with others
o schizoid, schizotypal, paranoid
 Cluster B: Dramatic/Impulsive
o Self-centered, (overdramatic), low impulse control
o histrionic, narcissistic, anti-social, borderline
 Cluster C: Anxious/Fearful
o Maladaptive efforts to control anxiety
o dependent, obsessive-compulsive, avoidant

A) Cluster A: Paranoid: (4%)
o Suspects (without sufficient basis) that others are exploiting, harming,
or deceiving him or her
 Tends to be angry or hostile
o Is preoccupied with unjustified doubts about the loyalty or
trustworthiness of friends or associates
o Perceives attacks on his or her character that are not apparent to
others and is quick to react angrily
o Has recurrent suspicions, without justification, regarding the fidelity
of spouse or partner
o Avoids confiding in others for fear of betrayal
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b) Cluster B: Borderline: (2%)
o 20% of psychiatric patients
o Frantic efforts to avoid real or imagined abandonment
o A pattern of unstable and intense interpersonal relationships
o Emotions spiral out of control, leading to extremes of anxiety, sadness,
rage
o Recurrent suicidal behavior, gestures or threats or self-mutilating
behaviour
o Identity disturbance, unstable self-image or sense of self
o Impulsivity in at least 2 areas (e.g. spending, sex, substance abuse,
reckless driving, binge eating)
Antisocial: (3%)
o Antisocial behaviors; violate the rights of others without shame or
regret
 i.e. Takes advantage of others; is out for number one
o Superficial charm but deceitful, using lies to con others
o Callous; no remorse
o Irritable and aggressive, as indicated by repeated physical fights or
assaults http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B2fjkWIUjS8
o Onset before age 15 (conduct disorder)
o Most promising cause:
 Biological predisposition (limbic and frontal lobe
abnormalities) Combined with neglect and abuse
c) Cluster C: Obsessive-compulsive: (8%)
o Preoccupied with rules, details, organization, to the point where the
major point of the activity is lost
o Perfectionism that interferes with task completion
o Excessively devoted to work and productivity to the exclusion of
friendships or leisure activities
o Show rigidity and stubbornness
o Reluctant to delegate tasks or to work with others unless they submit
exactly to his way of doing things
Avoidant Personality Disorder: (2%)
o Avoids occupational activities that involve significant interpersonal
contact, because of fears of criticism, disapproval, or rejection
o Views the self as socially inept, inadequate, or inferior to others
o Is preoccupied with being criticized or rejected in social situations
 Fear of being shamed or ridiculed
Diagnostic Problems
 Personality disorders overlap too much with Axis I disorders
 Solution is dimensional approach
PERSONAL APPLICATION
 Eating disorder  severe disturbances in eating behaviour characterized by
preoccupation with weight and unhealthy efforts to control weight
 Anorexic nervosa  involves intense fear or gaining weight, disturbed body
image, refusal to maintain normal weight, and dangerous measures to lose
weight
 Bulimia Nervosa  involves habitually engaging in out-of-control overeating
followed by unhealthy compensatory efforts, such as self-induced vomiting,
fasting, abuse laxatives and diuretics, and excessive exercise
 Binge-Eating Disorder  involves distress-inducing eating binges that are not
accompanied by the purging, fasting, and excessive exercise seen in bulimia
Topic #3: Psychotherapy
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When:
 1. You’re feeling significant levels of discomfort
 2. Your functioning is impaired
 3. Someone else tells you that you need help
 4. Have persistent suicidal thoughts
Where?
 Ontario Psychological Association: (416) 961-0069
 Your physician can refer you
 Local Hospitals:
 North York General 416-756-6316
 Humber River Regional 416-747-3833
 Distress Centers: (416) 598-1211 or (416) 486-1456
 Counseling and Development Center: 736-5297
 York University Psychology Clinic: 650-8488
 Free online mental health advice and information for young people:
 www.yoomagazine.net
How: Costs
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Depends on the problem
Depends on the technique
Depends on the therapist
• But overall, studies show that different therapies have comparable
results
Common therapeutic ingredients:
• Alliance with the therapist *
• Emotional support and empathic understanding:
• Allowing emotions to be expressed
• Rationale for one’s problems
• Gaining new insights and new coping tools
Spontaneous Remission  a recovery from a disorder that occurs without formal
treatment
Different Therapeutic Approaches

All approaches differ on:
o Assumptions regarding the origins of the problem
o Therapist’s stance
o Method of treatment
o Goals of treatment

i) Psychodynamic Therapy:
o Problem: resides in unconscious conflicts, repressed memories
o Therapist: “blank-screen”
o Method: free-association, dream analysis, transference analysis
o Goal: make the unconscious conscious
o Case illustration:
o Psychoanalysis  an insight therapy that emphasizes the recovery of
unconscious conflicts, motives, and defences through techniques such
as free association and transference
o interpretation  refers to the therapist’s attempts to explain the inner
significance of the client’s thoughts, feelings, memories, and
behaviours
o Resistance  refers to largely unconscious defensive manoeuvres
intended to hinder the progress of therapy

ii) Behaviour Therapy
o Problem: resides in faulty learning
o Therapist: examines current conditions that elicit the problem
o Method: apply learning principles to get rid of symptoms
 training/ exposure/ counter-conditioning
o Goal: alleviate symptoms/ modify behavior
Behavioural Technique Examples
 a) Systematic Desensitization:
o Effective with phobias
o Use “counterconditioning”
o Steps:
 Set-up a hierarchy of anxiety-triggering situations
 Learn relaxation response
 Imagine least anxiety-provoking situation while maintaining a
relaxed state
 Imagine more difficult situations until most difficult is
imagined while maintaining a relaxed state
 Practice with real-life situations

iii) Cognitive Therapy
o Problem: is a function of the way you think
o Therapist: more directive and challenging
o Method: Challenge your automatic thoughts and underlying beliefs
 Use of homework exercises
o Goal: Realistic thinking/ Better perspective
o Self-instructional training  clients are taught to develop and use
verbal statements that help them to cope with difficult contexts
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Cognitive-Behaviour Therapy (CBT):
o Combines elements of both cognitive and behavioural
therapies
o Recommended for depression and anxiety
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GqW8p9WPweQ&feature
=related
Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy:
o Bring attention to the here and now
o Stop identification with irrational beliefs
o Practice acceptance and self-compassion
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iv) Client-Centered Therapy
o Problem: incongruence with one’s true self
o Therapist: Non-directive, genuine, empathic and unconditional
o Method: therapeutic relationship allows fuller experiencing and
greater acceptance of the self
o Goal: self-actualization / greater congruence
o Emotion-focused couples therapy  the relationship is not providing
for the attachment needs of the relationship partners
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v) Biomedical Approach
o Problem:
 Chemical imbalance/ Structural abnormalities in the brain
o Therapist:
 Medical doctor (family or psychiatrist) will monitor
symptoms and adjust medication/ monitor treatment
o Method:
 Depression: Jogging, antidepressants, TMS, ECT, deep brain
stimulation
o
o
o
o
 Bipolar Disorders: Mood stabilizers, neuroleptics
 Anxiety: Tranquilizers
 Schizophrenia: Anti-psychotics (neuroleptics)
Goal: reduce symptoms
Movie: “Deep Brain Stimulation” (10 min.)
Trephening  removing portions of the cortex as a treatment for
hallucinations
Psychopharmacotherapy  the treatment of mental disorders with
medication
Basic Counseling Skills
 Positive psychotherapy  developed by Martin Seligman; attempts to get
clients to recognize their strengths, appreciate their blessings, savour
positive experience, forgive those who have wronged them, and find meaning
in their lives
 Group therapy  the simultaneous treatment of several clients in a group
 Eclecticism  involves drawing ideas from two or more systems of therapy
instead of committing to just one
Insight therapies  involve verbal interactions intended to enhance clients’ selfknowledge and thus promote healthful changes in personality and behaviour
Behaviour therapies  involve the application of learning principles to direct efforts
to change clients’ maladaptive behaviours
Biomedical therapies  physiological interventions intended to reduce symptoms
associated with psychological disorders
Featured Study: Combining Insight Therapy and Medication
 The continuation of combined medication and psychotherapy mat represent
the best long-term treatment strategy for preserving recovery in elderly
patients with recurrent major depression
Sensitivity to Multiculturalism
 North American minority groups underutilize therapeutic services because
1) Cultural barriers
2) Language barriers
3) Institutional barriers
Deinstitutionalization  transferring the treatment of mental illness from
impatient institutions to community-based facilities that emphasize outpatient care
 Two developments:
1) the emergence of effective drug therapies for severe disorders
2) the development of community mental health centres to coordinate local
care
Personal Application: Looking for a Therapist
 Where do you find therapeutic services?
 Is the therapist’s profession or sex important?
 Is treatment always expensive?
 Is the therapist’s theoretical approach important?
 What should you look for in a prospective therapist?
 What if there isn’t any progress?
 What should you expect from therapy?
Critical Thinking: From Crisis to Wellness
Placebo effects  occur when people’s expectations lead them to experience some
change even though they receive a fake treatment
Regression toward the mean  occurs when people who score extremely high or
low on some trait are measured a second time and their new scores fall closer to the
mean (average)
Topic #4: The Power of the Situation
Social Psychology:
 A): Definition
o Scientific study of how individuals behave, think and feel in social
situations
 How we are affected by the actual, or implied presence of
others (p. 700)
o How we relate to one another (next week)
o How social pressures can exert significant influence on behaviour
 E.g. Influence of cults; Jonestown mass suicide
 B) Social Roles and Rules
o Social role: Defined pattern of behavior that is expected of a person when
functioning in a given setting
 See social schemas (p. 702)
Zombardo’s Prison Experiment:
 Corruption in prisons:
o Bad seeds, or bad soil?
 Study:
o 22 subjects screened for psychological maturity and health
o Randomly assigned to role of guard or prisoner
o Guards: Worked 8-hour shift/ wore uniform, whistle and club
 Task=maintain reasonable degree of order
o Prisoners: Stayed in mock prison 24hrs/day and wore degrading
uniform
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 Lived in bare cells
After 6 days of role simulation:
o Indoctrination into roles that could not be attributed to personal
dispositions
o Guards devised cruel routines
o Prisoners broke down
o Study had to be called off.
Prisoner abuse
o Process of deindividuation, devaluation of the prisoners, and power
differential
o Prisons are “bad soil”
o http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=5474164325345921501
o http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z0jYx8nwjFQ
Conformity
 Adjusting our behavior or thinking to bring it in line with some group
standard
• Solomon Asch’s experiment (early 50’s)
 People can be led to say “black” when they see “white”
 70% agreed at least once with the wrong answer
 Modern day replication:
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iRh5qy09nNw&feature=related
 Factors that promote conformity:
• Group size (p. 725)/ Group unanimity/ Ambiguity of situation
• In group pressure
• Also see “groupthink” (p. 733)
Groupthink  occurs when members of a cohesive group emphasize concurrence
at the expense of critical thinking in arriving at a decision
Features of groups:
Roles  allocate special responsibilities to some members
Norms  suitable behaviour
Communication structure  reflects who talks to whom
Power structure  determines which members wield the most influence
Bystander effect  people are less likely to provide needed help when they are in
groups than when they are alone
Diffusion of Responsibility  “someone else will help”
Social loafing  a reduction in effort by individuals when they work in groups as
compared to when they work by themselves
Group polarization  occurs when group discussion strengthens a group’s
dominant point of view and produces a shift toward a more extreme decision in that
direction
Group cohesiveness  refers to the strength of the liking relationships linking
group members to each other and to the group itself
Advantages of Working in Groups
 Greater accuracy than individuals on person perception tasks
 Generate better diagnoses than individuals physicians
 Outperform individuals on academic tests
 Better at solving complicated logic problems
Obedience to Authority
 A) Would you electrocute a stranger?
 Milgram’s study:
o Emerged from a need to understand the Holocaust
o Ordinary people, following authority, can become agents of aggression
 2/3 participants administrated the highest level of shock
following “legitimate authority”
o Conditions for disobedience:
 Experimenter left the room or was replaced by an ordinary
man
 The victim was right there in the room
 Participant worked with peers who refused to go further
o Modern Day Replication:
http://thesituationist.wordpress.com/2009/09/10/replicatingmilgrams-obedience-experiment-yet-again/
Featured Study: “I Was Just Following Orders”
Obedience to authority is more common than they thought
Anyone might obey orders to inflict harm on innocent strangers
Foot-in-the-door Technique
 Get people to comply to small requests, and you will be more likely to have
them comply to greater requests later (p. 742)
 Study in California:
o (Described in class)
o Initial agreement to experimental request:
 Lawn sign: 17% only say “yes”
o When a smaller request is presented first:
 #1 License plate sticker: 65% say “yes”
 #2 Lawn sign: 76% now say “yes”
Critical thinking: Whom Can You Trust?
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Does the source have a vested interest in the issue at hand?
What are the source’s credentials?
Is the information grossly inconsistent with the conventional view on the
issue?
What was the method of analysis used in reaching the conclusion?
Reciprocity norm  the rule that we should pay back in kind what we
receive from others
Lowball technique  involves getting someone to commit to an attractive
proposition before its hidden costs are releaved
Attribution Error
 More likely to make internal attribution and underestimate situational
influences for others’ behaviour (p. 706)
 Why do we blame the victim?
o We have a tendency to make internal attributions for victims’
misfortunes
o Just world hypothesis: (defensive attribution)
 World is fair and we get what we deserve
 Also called defensive attribution, and makes one feel less likely
to be victimized in a similar way (p. 707)
 Self-Serving Bias:
o Tendency to make internal attributions for positive events, and
external ones for negative events that happen to us (p. 707)
 Except for depressives who make internal attributions for
negative events
 Conclusion: The power of attributions
 Fundamental attribution  oberserver’s bias in favour of internal
attributions in explaining other’s behaviour. (internal attributions)
 Actors favour external attributions for their behaviour, whereas observers
are more likely to explain the same behaviour with internal attributions
Weiner’s Model of Attribution for Success and Failure
 Assumes that people’s explanation for success and failure emphasize
internal versus external causes and stable versus unstable causes
Culture and Attritional Tendencies
 Individualism  involves putting personal goals ahead of group goals and
defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group
memberships
 Collectivism  involves putting group goals ahead of personal goals and
defining one’s identity in terms of the groups one belongs to
Ethics of Deception
 Is it acceptable for psychologists to lie to subjects in the name of
research?
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Pros:
 Cons:
 Ethics committees: Now require deception to be kept to a minimum, and
to be justified.
Topic #5: Love and War
Roots of Prejudice
 “US” vs “THEM”
o Ingroup/outgroup distinction based on a variety of arbitrary factors
 If we were to wake up some morning and find that everyone
was the same race, creed and color, we would find some other
cause for prejudice by noon. George Aiken
 Ethnocentrism:
o Universal tendency to view one’s ingroup as better than outgroups
(see p. 739)
o Human madness at its most destructive
 3 components to prejudicial attitudes (p. 737)
o 1) Stereotypes (beliefs)
 inaccurate perception of outgroup as sharing the same
characteristics
o 2) Emotions: e.g. hostility
o 3) Predisposition to action: e.g. discrimination
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Prejudice: Definition
• Unjustifiable and negative attitude towards a group
Emotional roots of prejudice
• Scapegoating: Outgroups provide outlet for anger
• Serves self-esteem needs: Prejudice helps maintain a positive selfimage
Cognitive roots of prejudice:
• Categorization allows us to simplify our world
 Distorts the reality that members of other groups are very
heterogeneous
• The “just-world” phenomenon: We assume we get what we deserve!
How prejudiced are people today?
• Prejudices persist to this day
 Up to 10% of population more extremist
The Prejudiced Personality:
o Authoritarian personality:
 Attitudes and values marked by rigidity, and oversimplification
i.e. Absolute right vs. absolute wrong
Intolerant of differences
Thinks in stereotyped ways about minorities
 Concerned with power and authority
 Observational Learning:
o Responsible for the transmission of prejudices across generations
 i.e. exposure to parental prejudicial attitudes can lead to
prejudicial attitudes in children
implicit prejudice  people may not be aware that they are carrying around this
prejudice
explicit prejudice  consciously held negative evaluation of an outgroup that is
retrieved from memory and can be self-reported
Terrorism
 Definition:
o Politically motivated violence
o Intended to instil feelings of terror and helplessness in a population in
order to influence decision-making
 Complex roots
o Avoid simplistic explanations (e.g. the attribution error)
 Political factors:
o Absence of democracy and the inability of individual members to
influence decision-making
 Religion:
o Need for a death-transcending belief system
 Threat of different belief systems
 Take your own life for the promise of salvation
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Economic and Social Deprivation:
o Inherent position of weakness: political, economic, military
o Subjective perception of injustice and deprivation
o Politically motivated violence when there are no military means
Personal factors:
o Deep resentment of authority/blaming “outgroup”
o Engagement with a terrorist organization:
 Recruitment & Training
Strategies for Overcoming Prejudice
 1) Increase cooperative contacts between member of rival groups
o Develop friendships with individuals of different backgrounds
 2) Heal thyself!
o Address feelings of insecurity and low self-esteem
o Know thyself
Identify your own prejudices and examine critically
 3) Societal level:
o Address poverty & inequity
o Allow democracies to flourish
Attitudes  positive or negative evaluations of objects of thought
Strength  view strong attitudes as ones that are firmly held (resistant to change)
and durable over time, and that have a powerful impact on behaviour
Accessibility  how often one thinks about it and how quickly it comes to mind
Ambivalent  conflicted evaluations that include both positive and negative
feelings about an object of thought
Determinants of an attitude:
Importance  the subjective sense of caring and significance that a person attaches
to an attitude
Vested interest  when an attitude relates to an issue that can affect an individual’s
personal outcomes
Knowledge and information  the more knowledge and information one has about
an object of thought, the stronger one’s attitude about it tends to be
Altruism
 Unselfish regard for others’ welfare
 Bystander Apathy:
o Case of Kitty Genovese
o Failure to help is related to the number of people present and
identification with victim: Illustrated with clip.
o http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OSsPfbup0ac&feature=related
o http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tzLZD1gA5us
 Who will help whom?
o Factors influencing decisions to help (next slide)
Four Factors Influencing Decisions to help  social comparison, perceived
responsibility, self-efficacy, potential costs
Attraction
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What factors lead to friendship and romance?
o Proximity: How close someone lives to you
 Familiarity breeds fondness
o Physical Attractiveness:
 Important influence on first impressions
 “Halo effect”: What is beautiful is good
o Similarity:
 Friends and couples more likely to share common attitudes,
beliefs, interests, and to be similar in age, race, education,
intelligence, and economic status.
 Choice of Mate:
o Social exchange model: exchange of assets
o Evolutionary model: sex differences in preferences
Reciprocity  involves liking those who show that they like you
Romantic ideals  people want their partner to measure up to their ideals
Love
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Sternberg’s Theory:
o 3 Ingredients
 Intimacy:
sharing, communication, support
 Passion:
chemistry, arousal, intensity
 Commitment:
long-term plans, dedication to the relationship
o The presence or absence of these ingredients will determine the type
of love that exists between 2 people, leading to:
 7 flavors of love
Cultural Differences in Close Relationships
 cultures vary considerably in terms of how they understand and
conceptualize love and relationships
Love as Attachment
Attachment anxiety  reflects how much people worry that their partners will not
be available when needed
Attachment avoidance  reflects the degree to which people feel uncomfortable
with closeness and intimacy and therefore tend to maintain emotional distance from
their partners
Effects of Physical Appearance on Person Perception
 Halo Effect:
o What is beautiful is good & competent
 Good-looking people seen as more sociable, friendly, poised,
warm and well adjusted (p. 701)
 Good looking individuals also expected to be more successful
 Some evidence for good-looking people to secure better jobs
 Self-fulfilling prophecy?
o Arbitrary: No relationship between appearance and better
personality
 Looks are not “earned” they are inherited
Social schemas  organized clusters of ideas about categories of social events and
people
Stereotypes  widely held beliefs that people have certain characteristics because
of their membership in a particular group
Illusory correlation  occurs when people estimate that they have encountered
more confirmations of an association between social traits than they have actually
seen
Social neuroscience  an approach to research and theory in social psychology
that “integrates models of neuroscience and social psychology to study the
mechanisms of social behavior”