Zaman Gelap
Abad ke-5 sampai Abad ke-10
Akhir Cendekiawan Arab
• Setelah tahun 1100, cendekiawan Arab terus
berkurang (tidak ada penerus)
Alkemi
• Arab juga meneruskan kegiatan alkemi
• Mereka memadukan alkemi dari Yunani dengan
alkemi dari Cina (dari Taoisme)
• Kelompok eksoterik menguat lagi sehingga
kedua-duanya esoterik dan eksoterik sama
kuatnya
• Dari kegiatan mereka ditemukan bahan alkali
caustik (soda alkali)
Zaman Pertengahan
• Zaman Gelap disusul oleh Zaman Pertengahan
(Medieval) pada abad ke-10
Zaman Pertengahan
Abad ke-10 sampai Abad ke-15
Karakteristik Zaman
• Kehidupan di Eropa relatif lebih tenang
• Kegairahan belajar mulai bangkit lagi. Mulai
ada pendidikan di luar katedral
• Karya Yunani dan Arab diterjemahkan dari
bahasa Arab ke bahasa Latin terutama oleh
orang Yahudi
• Perhatian kepada filsafat tararah ke metafisika
dan bahkan diperdebatkan
• Filsafat digunakan untuk menjustifikasi agama
• Universitas dengan istilah universitas mulai
muncul pada zaman ini
• Metoda induktif mulai digunakan di dalam
pencarian pengetahuan
Zaman Pertengahan
Filsafat Metafisika
Aliran Filsafat
• Sejak zaman Yunani Kuno sudah ada perbedaan
aliran di bidang metafisika
• Pada zaman pertengahan, setiap aliran
mengemukakan argumentasi masing-masing
• Ada yang berpegang kepada Plato serta ada
yang berpegang kepada Aristoteles
Perdebatan
• Ada kalanya, aliran berbeda saling berdebat
• Argumentasi cukup marak pada abad ke-12
sampai ke-14; Universitas juga mempelajari
esensi universal pada filsafat
• Dari zaman ke zaman terjadi pergeseran anutan
dari satu aliran ke aliran lainnya
Zaman Pertengahan
Studium dan Universitas
Studium
• Bermunculan studium yakni tempat orang
mempelajari bidang pengetahuan tertentu di
bawah pengajar
• Ada tiga studium yang sangat terkenal yakni
studium di Salerno (medik), Bologna (hukum
dan teologi), dan Paris (seni dan teologi);
semacam program studi sekarang
Studium Generale
• Studium generale adalah studium yang terbuka
untuk semua pelajar (dari berbagai negeri)
• Jadi generale di sini berarti terbuka untuk
semua jenis pelajar
• Biasanya studium yang terkenal berbentuk
studium generale
Zaman Pertengahan
Studium dan Uunivesitas
Docendi, Doctor, Magister
• Pengajaran di studium dilakukan melalui
docendi (menggurui)
• Kemudian pengajar dibekali lisensi mengajar
oleh katedral atau kaisar berupa licentiae
docendi dan ius ubique docendi (berhak
mengajar di mana-mana)
• Pelaksana docendi adalah doctor sehingga arti
doctor adalah pemberi docendi atau guru
• Pengajar juga dikenal sebagai magister yang
artinya juga guru
• Doctor dan magister adalah sejajar. Ada jenis
studium yang menggunakan istilah doctor dan
ada yang menggunakan istilah magister
Zaman Pertengahan
Studium dan Universitas
Legere
• Jarang ada buku sehingga buku hanya
dimiliki oleh para pengajar
• Pengajaran berlangsung melalui pembacaan
(legere, lectus) oleh pengajar dan pelajar
mencatatnya
• Pengajar yang membaca dikenal sebagai lektor
yakni mereka yang membaca (sekarang dikenal
sebagai lektor)
• Ada juga commentatio (komentar) dan summa
(ringkasan)
Disputatio dan Tesis
• Sewaktu-waktu ada disputatio yakni perdebatan
• Di dalam disputatio, ada yang mendudukkan
atau menempatkan (thesis) pemikiran yang
perlu dipertahankannya terhadap sanggahan
• Secara harfiah, thesis berarti mendudukkan
atau menempatkan
Disputations
Like other university-educated men, the doctor was rational in a
dialectical way, in using Aristotle’s logic and its medieval
developments. He was trained in this according to statutory
rules that governed how often pupils and masters should dispute.
In most universities masters were obliged to respond to
questions, including quodlibets. Bolognese doctors who were
entitled to teach had to dispute once a week and make
arrangements for the publication of their solution to the
questions. Physicians and philosophers of standing were also
obliged to dispute on or near feast days; we know that Dino del
Garbo did so in Bologna and that he once disputed with Gentile
da Foligno in the street. . We have seen how, even in the twelfth
century, logic was popular in the heroic schools, and now that
the Posterior Analytics of Aristotle seemed to supply a
programme for investigating the natural world, its range and
power were greatly increased. Disputations were exercises in
sustaining one thesis over another by questioning its premisses
or logic, and an important technique was the ‘distinction’ where
different meanings could be drawn out of single term. The result
could be an exciting or noisy meeting (we have noted Bacon’s
complaint that doctors were too anxious to dispute). They were
also public affairs and provided an external face of university
rationality, whether medical or otherwise
Dubia
The written form of disputation was the dubium, the
disputed question. This had a rigid and complex form and
some disputed questions were hugely elaborate. These
two features have repelled both sixteenth-century
Hellenists and humanists and some later historians, but it
will serve our purposes to take a quick look at the form.
A disputed question was one that arose from the study of
a text and normally took the form of a question that
expected a positive answer, beginning An …or
Utrum…(‘Whether…’). Then came a section in which all
the negative arguments were brought forward. Ideally, the
form of the argument was syllogistic, with both major
and minor propositions being drawn from the text, from
the words of another authority or from sensory
experience. These arguments were then attacked and
destroyed in the same way, leaving the positive answer
unscathed. Along the way other small objections or
‘instances’ were brought up and disposed of, as if to show
that all possible objections could be satisfied.
Commentators such as Dino del Garbo and Gentile da
Foligno in the first half of the fourteenth century
commonly put the objections in the mouth of the reader, a
sort of student-figure: ‘But you will at once say …’, Sed
statim tu dices …
Zaman Pertengahan
Studium dan Universitas
Tujuan Belajar
• Tujuan belajar di studium adalah untuk menjadi
doctor atau magister dengan hak mengajar
(dengan semua hak yang berkenaan dengan
jabatannya)
Gelar
• Kecuali hukum, medik, dan teologi, semua
lainnya adalah filsasat, sehingga gelar lulusan
menjadi PhD
• Lulusan medik adalah MD dan luluan hukum
LLD (bukan PhD)
Pakaian
• Di Oxford dan Cambridge, toga adalah pakaian
sehari-hari (kini dipakai pada upacara saja)
Base Converter (from Internet)
A German merchant of the fifteenth century asked an
eminent professor where he should send his son for a
good business education. The professor responded
that German universities would be sufficient to teach
the boy addition and subtraction but he would have
to go to Italy to learn multiplication and division.
Before you smile indulgently, try multiplying or even
just adding the Roman numerals CCLXIV,
MDCCCIX, and MLXXXI without first translating
them
John Allen Paulis, Beyond Numeracy
• From Byte Magazine
– April 1883
– Professor Eaton Zweiback of Slippery Rock
University recently announced the discovery oa a
new number system called “Binary System.” This
system uses only two numerals, 0 and 1, as opposed
to the decimal system which uses ten. Professor
Zweiback claims that the binary system will have no
practical value and will be used mostly as a
mathematical novelty
– April 1883
– Havard anthropologists have discovered the remains
of an ancient Arabian city just 75 miles north of
where ancient Babylon one stood. Little is known
about the inhabitants of this city except for the fact
for some unknown reason they wrote the numeral
zero with a slash through it. The anthropologists are
completely puzzled as to why these people used such
a strange symbol.
Zaman Pertengahan
Studium dan Universitas
Universitas Scholarium
• Dalam bahasa Latin, universitas berarti
organisasi atau korporasi
• Karena mahasiswa luar kota di Bologna
mengalami sejumlah kesulitan (pemondokan,
makan), pada tahun ± 1158, mereka
membentuk universitas scholarium (korporasi
pelajar)
• Mahasiswa berasal dari setiap negeri
membentuk consiliarii masing-masing
• Mereka mengangkat rector scholarium (rektor
pelajar) untuk menentukan kurikulum dan upah
pengajar
• Dari Bologna, model universitas scholarium
menyebar ke Padua, Roma, Montpellier,
Salamanca, Perancis bagian selatan (umumnya
di Eropa selatan)
Zaman Pertengahan
Studium dan Universitas
Universitas Magistrorum
• Di Paris, universitas dibentuk oleh para
magister menjadi universitas magistrorum
(korporasi pengajar)
• Pimpinan dan organisasi universitas dipegang
oleh para magister
• Model universitas magistrorum menyebar ke
Oxford, Cambridge, dan Eropa utara (dan ke
jajahan mereka)
Cessatio
• Cessastio adalah berhenti (mogok). Cessatio
terjadi kalau timbul masalah serius
• Pada tahun 1229, terjadi cessatio di Universitas
Paris selama hampir dua tahun. Banyak
magister dan pelajar pergi ke Oxford
Zaman Pertengahan
Studium dan Universitas
Tradisi di Universitas Paris
• Metoda ajar belajar: collatio (kuliah) dan lectio
(penjelasan)
• Masa kuliah:
• 1. St Remi (Okt) - Lent, dan
• 2. Easter - St. Pierre (29 Juni)
• Lulusan: di bawah magister adalah
determinatio (baccaulaureate) dengan hak
mengajar di bawah supervisi magister
Upacara di Universitas Paris
• Di Paris terdapat upacara wisuda berupa pidato
pengukuhan (sekarang: untuk guru besar),
duduk di kursi magister dan memakai topi
magister
Zaman Pertengahan
Studium dan Universitas
Pembentukan Universitas Baru
• Mula-mula reputasi universitas bergantung
kepada namanya yang terkenal
• Pengajar dari universitas kurang terkenal yang
pindah ke universitas lebih terkenal sering
harus menempuh ujian dulu
• Kaisar atau raja ingin mendirikan universitas.
Agar memiliki reputasi, pendiriannya
dilakukan melalui keputusan kaisar atau raja
• Sering terjadi bahwa kaisar atau raja sendiri
yang menjadi kepala dari universitas itu dan
menjabat sebagai chancellor
• Dengan demikian, orang yang sehari-hari
mengepalai universitas menjadi vice
chancellor. Di sejumlah universitas, tradisi ini
masih berlaku sampai sekarang
•
University (from MD Pacific)
•
In early medieval Europe all learning was contained in
the monasteries, teaching was limited to the training of
the clergy. When Charlemagne invited Alcuin of York to
Aix to set up a palace school, Alcuin’s first task was to
teach the emperor himself, as well as the young princes,
to read and write.
By the year 1000 the feudal system was
established, some governments were stabilized,
commerce revived, towns prospered. Learning was still a
monopoly of the cathedral schools, with one noteworthy
exception: since early in the 10th century, scholars had
gathered at Salerno in Italy to teach and study medicine.
The Civitas Hippocratica, the city Hippocrates, was
the first secular academic community in Europe and a
direct offshoot of Arabic learning: the legend of its
founding by a Greek, a Latin, an Arab, and a Jewish
physician symbolized the four non-ecclesiastic sources of
knowledge. Although it became famous throughout
Europe and was eventually called a university, it
remained a medical school only and had no role in the
new academe. The first true universities, and the models
for those that followed, were those of Bologna and Paris.
Both were born that founded: they were already
thriving centers of learning when they won notice from
• popes and kings. Within a century their counterparts
were growing up everywhere, organized by
students as in Bologna in Italy, southern France,
and Spain, or by teachers as in Paris. The
universities became the pets or princes; the learned
to balance the competing favors of church and state
and became the third force [catatan: sacerdotium,
emporium of regnum, and studium] in the flowering
of European culture in the Middle Ages.
•
A center of learning was then a studium, a place
of study. Until 1200 when medicine and philosophy
were added, Bologna had only two branches of
study, civil law and canon law. Its students were
mostly men of mature years already holding church
or state office; unlike the lusty youths who late
overran Paris’s Left Bank and sober Oxford town,
they took their pleasures discreetly. But they came
in numbers that nearly doubled the town’s
population: they were foreigners and without legal
rights, and the Bolognese mulcted them mercilessly
for their lodgings, food, textbooks, and teaching
fees.
•
The emperor Frederick I (Barbarossa), with four
•
•
•
•
doctors of law of Bologna to advise him, in 1158 issued
the first charter of student rights, freeing them from civil
jurisdiction and placing them under their teachers’
authority. But in Bologna the teachers were Bolognese
and unlikely to pass judgment against a fellow townsman.
Finally for mutual protection the students organized
themselves into a universitas, a term that meant merely
“the whole” and was the name of any medieval guild.
By threatening to leave in a body for some other city
with teachers of law, the universitas scholarum, the guild
of scholars, was able to fix reasonable prices for board
and lodgings. They also dictated fees, lecture hours,
curriculum, and permi9ssible absences for their teachers.
Through their elected officers, a rector at the head of each
guild and a council of representatives from each student
“nation” who were empowered to remove the rector, the
students became the administration of the Bologna
studium.
The pattern of student governance was followed by
Padua, Rome, and seven other Italian universities born in
the 13th to 15th centuries. It was adopted by Montpellier,
with its strong faculties of medicine and law, and all the
French universities south of the Loire, and was specified
for Salamanca by Alfonso X (“the Wise”), Spain’s
brilliant intellectual king, in his charter of 1254.
A parallel birth began in Paris in the 12th century
•
•
•
when scholars flocked from everywhere in Europe to the
Ile de la Cite to hear Peter Abelard discourse on theology
and logic in the cathedral school of Notre-Dame. His
disciples in turn became masters and, as in Bologna, the
masters and scholars multiplied until they spilled from
the Ile to the gabled wooden houses of the Petit Pont, the
“little bridge,” and on to the left bank of the Seine.
In Paris the masters rather than the scholars first
organized a universitas as a curb on the chancellor, who
was appointed by the bishop and had the sole power to
grant a teaching license, often for an exorbitant bribe.
The universitas magistrorum, the guild of masters, was
able as a body to exclude even a chancellor’s licentiate
from teaching withour their approval by refusing to admit
him to the ruild. They instituted the inception, a
ceremony at which the candidate delivered his inaugural
address, was crowned with the magisterial cap, and
seated in the magisterial chair. This was the first formal
graduation and awarding of an academic degree.
In 1200, after a bloody town-gown riot in which five
students were killed, king Philip Augustus of France
granted the masters and scholars of Paris full rights as
clergy and placed them under the ecclesiastic rather than
the civil courts. In 1211 Innocent III invited the masters’
• guild of Paris to send a representative (proctor) to
the papal court, and 20 years later Gregory IX with
his bull Parens scientiarum, “Mother of Learning,”
placed the papal seal on the university’s hardwon
independence.
•
The Spanish kings were among the first of many
sovereigns who established universities, but a papal
bull or an imperial charter was necessary to create a
studium generale whose masters had the ius ubique
docendi, the right to teach everywhere. Palencia,
founded about 1212 by Alfonso IX, never gained
this international standing; Salamanca struggled
under three kings, from 1220 to 1255, when with a
papal bull it flowered into one of the leading
universities in Europe.
•
England first university was born when Henry
II, in his quarrel with Thomas a Becket, forbade
ecclesiastic travel across the Channel and
summoned the English clergy home; apparently in
retaliation, France expelled all alien scholars. The
English masters and scholars, hurrying home from
Paris, gravitated toward the thriving commercial
town of Oxford, which had no cathedral with its
attendant school but had housed learned residents
•
•
•
from time to time. With a charter from king John in 1200
but no papal recognition, Oxford won international
acceptance on its repute alone.
Some of the most distinguished medieval universities
were borne out of the touchy pride of the scholarly
communities which magnified quarrels into riots and
resulted in mass migrations. Cambridge was founded in
1209 by 2000 angry masters and scholars from Oxford
when king John consented to the hanging of several
scholars in retaliation for the death of a woman of the
town. The entire students body of Bologna migrated
twice, in 1220 and 1260, to Padua where the merchant
princes of the Venetian republic eventually nurtured a
greater university than its parent. Portugal’s university,
founded in 1290, shuttled repeatedly between hostile
Lisbon and isolated Coimbra until 1537, when it settled
permanently in the provincial city.
A university could alight anywhere: it consisted only
of masters and scholars and they had a universal language
in Latin. Nothing physical remains of the 11th, 12th, or
13th century universities because they had nothing: no
land, buildings, classrooms, libraries. Textbooks were
rented from booksellers, often by the page. Assemblies
and doctoral inceptions were held in the cathedral or
• local church. A master taught in his own lodgings or
hired a hall out of his students’ fees; from about
1400, when the student nations began acquiring
their own buildings or “colleges,” he might rent his
classroom from them. All that remains of medieval
Bologna is one such building, the College of Spain.
Padua’s handsome buildings date from the
Renaissance; Oxford’s architectural treasures, such
as Magdalen tower and the Bodleian, are Tudor.
•
Merton College, dating back before 1300 and
probably the oldest extant university building, was
the first of the autonomous residential colleges,
governed by their own faculty and fellows (i.e.
graduates), which became Oxford’s special
contribution to the university concept. Elsewhere
the college existed only as the property of a student
nation or as a philanthropic hospice for poor
students.
•
The black gowns still worn as daily dress at
Oxford and Cambridge, the billowing long gowns
and colorful hoods that adorn an academic
procession, are an evolved form of medieval
scholarly dress; the mortar-board is an 18th century
English development of the square magisterial cap,
or biretum.
•
By the end of the middle ages 80 universities
had been established in Europe, from Prague and
Heidelberg in the east to St. Andrews in Scotland,
from Uppsala in Sweden and Copenhagen in
Denmark to Valladolid and Barcelona in Spain.
Spain had also given the New World its first
universities at Lima in 1551, Mexico city in 1553,
and Bogota 1572. Not all the medieval universities
survived, and some remained modest. Of the great
ones, Paris at its peak may have had 7000 students,
Oxford 3000.
•
To their successors the studia of the Middle
Ages bequeathed the name university to designate a
community of mastersand scholars; the concept of a
curriculum of study leading within a stated period
to examinations and a degree; the form of
governance, the organization of learning by
faculties, and the ideal of academic freedom form
control by the state.
Zaman Pertengahan
Metoda Deduktif dan Induktif
Metoda Deduktif
• Dimulai dari yang telah diketahui (premis),
melalui penalaran, mencapai konklusi
• Metoda ini digemari karena argumentasinya
sangat kuat dan lagi pula mereka tidak usah
melakukan kegiatan manual (kegiatan manual
dilakukan oleh para budak)
Asumsi
• Kelemahan metoda deduktif terletak pada kasus
ketika yang diketahui itu (premis) tidak ada
• Diciptakan asumsi untuk dijadikan yang
diketahui itu yakni dijadikan premis
• Asumsi tidak diuji, terserah mau diterima atau
tidak
Zaman Pertengahan
Metoda Deduktif dan Induktif
Belantara Asumsi
• Karena banyak hal tidak memiliki atau
menemukan premis, maka asumsi
bermunculan tanpa kendali
• Hal yang sama dapat diterangkan melalui
asumsi yang berbeda-beda
Parsimoni (Pisau Cukur Ockham)
• William Ockham mempopulerkan kegiatan
untuk hanya memilih argumentasi yang paling
sederhana untuk diterima dan yang lainnya
ditolak (seperti dicukur)
• Prinsip untuk hanya menerima argumentasi
yang paling sederhana dikenal sebagai
parsimoni atau pisau cukur Ockham
• Parsimoni berlaku sampai sekarang
OCKHAMS’S RAZOR
Ockham’s razor, also spelled Occam’s razor,
also called Law of Economy, or Law of Parsimony,
name given to the principle stated by William of
Ockham (1285-1349?), a Scholastic, that non sunt
multiplicanda entia practer necessitatum; i.e. entities
are not to be multiplied beyond necessity.
The principle was, in fact, invoked before
Ockham by Durand de Saint-Pourçain, a French
Dominican theologian and philosopher of dubious
orthodoxy, who used it to explain that abstraction is the
apprehension of some real entity, such as an
Aristotelian cognitive species, an active intellect, or a
disposition, all of which he spurned as unnecessary.
Likewise, in science, Nicole d’Oresme, a 14th-century
French physicist, invoked the law of economy, as did
Galileo later, in defending the simplest hypothesis of
the heavens. Other later scientists stated similar
simplifying laws and principles.
Ockham, however, mentioned the principle so
frequently and employed it so sharply that it was called
“Ockham’s frazor.” He used it, for instance, to dispense
with relations, which he held to be nothing distinct
from their foundation in things; with efficient causality,
which he tended to view merely as regular succession;
with motion, which is merely the reappearance of a
thing in a different place; with psychological powers
distinct for each mode of sense; and with the presence
of ideas in the mind of the Creator, which are merely
the creatures themselves.
Zaman Pertengahan
Metoda Deduktif dan Induktif
Kisah Gigi Kuda
• Dikisahkan pada tahun 1432, terjadi
perdebatan di biara tentang berapa
jumlah gigi di mulut kuda
• Semua karya kuno dan karya besar
dibaca untuk dicari premis, tetapi belum
juga ditemukan
• Dengan izin para tetua, biarawan muda
membantu dengan menyeret kuda ke
dalam ruangan dan menghitung giginya
• Dianggap sebagai cara hina, biarawan
muda dan kuda diusir dan perdebatan
berlangsung
• Setelah lelah berdebat, mereka
berdamai dengan kesimpulan: jumlah
gigi di mulut kuda adalah suatu misteri,
tidak mungkin diketahui
THE STORY OF HORSE TEETH
In the year of our Lord, 1432, there arose a grievous
quarrel among the brethren over the number of teeth in
the mouth of a horse. For thirteen days the disputation
raged without ceasing. All the ancient books and
chronicles were fetched out, and wonderful and
ponderous erudition was made manifest. At he
beginning of the fourteenth day a youthful friar of
goodly bearing asked his learned superiors for
permission to add a word, and straightaway, to the
wonder of the disputants, whose deep wisdom he
sorely vexed, he beseeched them in a manner coarse
and unheard of, to look in the mouth of a horse and
find answers to their questionings. At this, their dignity
being grievously hurt, they waxed exceedingly wroth;
and joining in a mighty uproar they flew upon him and
smote him hip and thigh and cast him out forthwith.
For, they said, “Surely Satan hath tempted this bold
neophyte to declare unholy and unheard-of ways of
finding truth, contrary to all the teachings of the
fathers.” After many days of grievous strife the dove of
peace set on the assembly, and they, as one man,
declaring the problem to be an everlasting mystery
because of a dearth of historical and theological
evidence thereof, so ordered the same writ down.
– Dari Francis Bacon as cited by CEK Mees,
“Scientific thought and Social Reconstruction,”
American Scientist 22 (1934): 13-24.
Zaman Pertengahan
Metoda Deduktif dan Induktif
Metoda Induktif
• Diperlukan metoda induktif untuk menemukan
jumlah gigi di mulut kuda, sehingga metoda
induktif mulai digunakan
• Kelemahan: terjadi lompatan induktif yang
membuat argumentasi lemah
• Penganut: Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon,
John Duns Scotus, William Ockham
Bahaya Metoda Induktif
• Metoda induktif dapat menghasilkan sesuatu
yang bertentangan dengan doktrin penguasa
• Contoh: Kopernikus menemukan sistem
heliosentris yang bertentangan dengan doktrin
katedral (yang geosentris)
Zaman Pertengahan
Alkemi
Terjemahan
• Terjemahan tulisan Arab ke Latin juga
mencakup alkemi
• Alkemi menyerap berbagai sumber termasuk
dari Cina (alkemi Tao)
Buku Jabir
• Pada 1310, Jabir menerbitkan 4 buku alkemi
• Logam memiliki prinsip terbakar dan karatan
dari belerang serta prinsip cair dan lebur dari
merkuri
• Paduan yang cocok dari belerang dan merkuri
dapat menghasilkan emas
• Eksoterik dan esoterik sama majunya
• Ada kalanya menghasilkan bahan kimia baru
ALCHEMY
Alchemy, the pseudoscience whose aims were
to transform base metals such as lead or copper into
silver or gold. Although such attempts have involved
chemical
procedures,
evidence
linking
the
pseudoscience with the development of chemistry itself
remains inconclusive.
The theory that five elements (air, water,
earth, fire, space) in various combinations constitute all
matter was postulated in almost identical form in
ancient China, India, and Greece. Further, the world of
matter was seen to function by means of antagonistic,
opposing “forces”—e.g., hot and cold, wet and dry,
positive and negative, male and female. Under their
similar astrological heritages, philosophers of these
three cultures found correspondences among the
elements, planets, and metals.
Astrologers believed that events in the
macrocosm of the natural world were reflected in the
human microcosm, and vice versa. Thus, under the
proper astrological influences, a “perfection,” or
“healing,” of lead into gold might occur, just as the
human soul could achieve a perfect state in heaven.
The artisan in his laboratory could perhaps hasten this
process by careful nurture and long heating, by “kill-
ing” the metal and then “reviving” it in a finer form.
While the practical alchemists invented and
used many laboratory apparatuses and procedures that
in modified form are used today, they were still
essentially artisans and did not wish to reveal their
trade secrets. In an effort to preserve the esoteric nature
of their practices, they devised many concealing,
symbolic names for the materials with which they
work. In addition, Greek writers usually ascribed their
manuscripts to some god, hero, king, or philosopher of
old as a further concealment.
The confusing tendencies were intensified as
the mystically minded began to develop alchemical
ideas. As Hellenistic philosophy shifted more and more
from the technical scientific viewpoint to the emphasis
on divine revelation of Gnosticism, Neoplatonism, and
Christianity, the alchemical writings became esoteric to
the point of total obscurity. In time the Chinese
practitioners, who sought to make gold not for its own
sake but as an elixir of immortality, also came to
emphasize the esoteric aspects at the expense of all
practical technique, and the art degenerated into a mass
of superstition. Alchemy in India eventually met with a
similar fate.
Arabic alchemy is as mysterious in its origins
as the other currents. It presumably migrated to Egypt
during the Hellenistic period, where it became
incorporated into the work of the first alchemist whose
identity has been authenticated, Zomisos of Panopolis.
Through their contact with China, the Arabs adopted
the use of a transmuting “medicine,” the mysterious
substance that appears later in European alchemy as
the philosopher’s stone. Translations of the Arabic
works of ar-Razi (c. 850-923 or 924) by Christian
scholars in the 12th century led to a revival of the art in
Europe. By 1300 the subject was being discussed by
the leading philosophers, scientists, and theologians of
the day. Important alchemical discoveries of the period
include the mineral acids and alcohol. Medical
chemistry, or pharmacy, emerged from this revival two
centuries later under the influence of Paracelsus (14931541), a Swiss-German alchemist.
Renaissance physicists and chemists began to
discount the possibility of transmutation on the basis of
a renewed interest in Greek atomism. The chemical
facts that had been accumulated by the alchemists were
now reinterpreted and made the basis upon which
modern chemistry was erected. It was not until the 19th
century, however, that the possibility of chemical goldmaking was conclusively contradicted by scientific
evidence. Sporadic revivals of alchemical philosophies
and techniques persisted into the 20th century.
Zaman Pertengahan
Filsafat Scholaticism
Filsafat Scholasticism
• Pada zaman pertengahan, sejumlah biarawan
menjadi ahli filsafat
• Di antaranya St. Agustin, St. Anselmus, St.
Thomas Aquinas
• Mereka menggunakan filsafat untuk
menerangkan agama dan doktrin katedral
• Aliran filsafat mereka dikenal sebagai
scholaticism
• Thomas Aquinas: Eternal law, natural law,
human law, divine law
Scholaticism dan Induksi
• Scholasticism tidak menolak metoda induksi
dengan syarat
• Syaratnya adalah seluruh kegiatan induktif
tidak boleh bertentangan dengan doktrin
katedral
Zaman Pertengahan
Filsafat Scholasticism
• Di Universitas
– Metoda
•
•
•
•
Pilih buku terkenal disebut auctor
Perisksa semua dokumen lain tentang itu
Cari perbedaan
Perbedaan dianalisis (kata dan logik) untuk
dipertemukan
– Genre
• Dua genre: quetiones dan summa
• Quetiones yakni pertanyaan untuk dicari pro dan
dan kontra
• Summa yakni sistem semua pertanyaan yang
dapat menjawab semua pertanyaan
Zaman Pertengahan
Filsafat Scholasticism
• Sekolah
– Pertama adalah lectio yakni pengajar membaca tetapi
tidak boleh bertanya
– Kedua adalah disputatio yakni perdebatan
• Biasa yakni pertanyaan sudah diumumkan
terlebih dahulu dan dipersiapkan
• Quodlibetal yakni pertanyaan pelajar tanpa
diumumkan terlebih dahulu sehingga tanpa
persiapan
• Pengajar menjawab dan pelajar menyanggah
bolak balik
• Ada yang mencatat sehingga pengajar dapat
membuat ringkasan untuk diumumkan besok
hari
Zaman Kebangkitan
Abad ke-15 sampai Abad ke-18
Karakteristik Zaman
• Disebut sebagai Renaissance, banyak
perubahan terjadi pada zaman ini
• Kemajuan di bidang observasi dan eksperimen
• Sintesis agung ilmu dengan matematika
• Metoda ilmiah
• Alkemi menjadi kimia
• Kemajuan di bidang matematika dan ilmu alam
• Kemajuan di bidang pertukangan
Penjelajahan
•
•
•
•
•
•
Terjadi penjelajahan ke seluruh dunia
Columbus tiba di benua Amerika
Vasco da Gama mengelilingi Afrika ke Timur
Magellan mengelilingi bumi
James Cook sampai ke Australia
Belanda sampai ke Banten
Zaman Kebangkitan
Observasi dan Eksperimen
Observasi Ilmiah
• Observasi astronomi melalui teropong
dilakukan oleh Kopernikus, Galileo, Tycho
Brahe
• Lahir teori heheliosentris (berbeda dengan
geosentris) dan ditemukan bulan di planet
saturnus
• Heliosentris ditentang oleh Katedral
• (kini dilindungi dengan kebebasan akademik)
Temuan
• Kopernikus mengemukakan sistem heliosentri
dengan garis edar lingkaran
• Kepler (dengan data Tycho Brahe) menemukan
garis edar berbentuk elips
• Galileo menemukan bulan di planet Jupiter
melalui teropong
Zaman Kebangkitan
Observasi dan Eksperimen
Eksperimen Ilmiah
• Galileo menjatuhkan benda dari menara Pisa
dan menemukan bahwa benda ringan dan berat
tiba di tanah dalam waktu yang sama
(membantah asumsi Aristoteles)
• Galileo melakukan percobaan tentang gerak
benda pada bidang miring dan menyusun
rumus gerak benda
Dinamika Gerak (Gallileo)
• Sebelum Newton, Galileo menemukan
dinamika gerak
• Termasuk rumus gerak, gerak parabola, gaya
sentripetal
SCHOLASTICISM
The philosophical systems and speculative
tendencies of various medieval Christian thinkers who,
working on a background of fixed religious dogma,
sought to solve anew general philosophical problems (as
of faith and reason, will and intellect, realism and
nominalism, and the provability of the existence of God),
initially under the influence of the mystical and
intuitional tradition of patristic philosophy and especially
Augustinianism and later under that of Aristotle.
In the early Middle Ages the authority of the
Church Fathers still remain important especially that of
the Pseudo-Dionysus, with his hierarchically ordered
cosmos. (Pseudo-Dionysus wrote under the name of
Dionysus the Areopagite—one of St. Paul’s convents—
around AD 500 in order to clothe his own works in a
borrowed authority.) The impact of the controversial
theologian Peter Abelard in the 11th century, however,
brought logic to the forefront of scholastic philosophy
and rendered reliance upon the authority of the Fathers
alone inadequate.
For such medieval theologians as Albertus Magnus
and Thomas Aquinas, reasoned assumed an important
role in theology, not as the antithesis of faith, but as its
supplement. Thus, the scholastics made a systematic
attempt to map out the field of theology as a science and
in so doing developed new treatises on matters that had
previously belonged to preaching (e.g. the sacraments).
They began to prevail over the more contemplative and
monastic schools, which held that theology considered
in wisdom rather than in science. They borrowed freely
from the philosophy of Aristotle, which came to them
largely via the Islamic philosophers Averoes (1126-98)
and Avicenna (980-1037). They aimed at a synthesis of
learning in which theology surmounted the hierarchy
of knowledge.
The primary methods of teaching were the
lectio (lecture) and the disputatio (formal debate),
which consisted largely in the presentation and analysis
of syllogisms. Although there was fairly general
agreement as to method and aim, Scholastics did not
always agree among themselves on points of doctrines.
Distinct schools of theology emerged, the most
influential being those of the Franciscan Duns Scotus,
for whom a world created in God’s groundless,
absolute freedom could exhibit no “necessary reasons,”
and the Dominican St. Thomas Aquinas, for whom
faith, in general, presupposed and therefore required
natural reason. The Thomist position tended
increasingly to prevail, and Aquinas was eventually
declared “common doctor” of the church and consider-
ed the repository of sound and orthodox doctrine. His
Summa Theologiae (“Summary of Theology”) became
the standard textbook of theology, and the era of the
great commentaries on Aquinas began. One of the most
famous was that of a 16th-century Dominican, Cardinal
Thomas de Vio, commonly known as Cajetan.
The polemical atmosphere of the Reformation
and Counter-Reformation introduced a new factor.
While Protestant theologians stressed scriptural and
patristic authority and despised the Scholastics as
logic-chopping obscurantists, Catholic theologians
came to rely on the latter more and more heavily. The
Metaphysical Disputations of the late 16th-century
Jesuit Francisco Suares, however, reveal a concern for
the spirit rather than the letter of Scholasticism. Rather
than commentary on Aquinas, his work is an original
philosophical treatises inspired by Aquinas and others.
The first author to try to extract a philosophy
(apart from theology) from Aquinas was the
Dominican John of St. Thomas in the 17th century with
his Cursus Philosophicus, and this example was much
followed. The medieval synthesis was still further
fragmented as new treatises were devised on such
subjects as ecclesiology, apologetics, moral theology,
and cosmology. Nevertheless, the medieval were
retained
as a point of reference, and these philosophers and
theologians saw themselves as the heirs to the
Scholastic tradition. Th18th and 19th centuries were a
period of decadent Scholasticism. The tradition
survived as a form of emasculated Aristotelianism out
of touch with contemporary thought and science, it
continues to be taught in Latin, providing what
amounted to a memory test for Catholic seminarians.
A Thomist revival was announced and
stimulated by Pope Leo XIII’s encyclical Aeterni Puris
(1879); so called Neoscholasticism became the
dominant school in the Roman Catholic universities,
although it proved at first incapable of dialogue with
contemporary philosophy and played a conservative
role in the Modernist crisis of the early years of the 20th
century. Subsequently, however, Neoscholasticism and
Neothomism earned renewed respect on the basis of
the historical scholarship of the French Christian
philosopher Etienne Gilson and others, who traced the
original contributions of the Scholastics and their
influence on subsequent philosophy.
Zaman Kebangkitan
Observasi dan Eksperimen
Teori Newton
• Newton mengemukakan teori mekanika:
kelembaman dan gravitasi
• Merupakan salah satu temuan terbesar di bidang
ilmu
Sintesis Agung
• Observasi, eksperimen, dan teori Newton
menggunakan matematika sehingga terjadi
sintesis di antara ilmu alam dengan matematika
• Sintesis ini sangat produktif sehingga
menghasilkan kemajuan yang pesat di bidang
ilmu
Matematika
• Mengalami kemajuan yang pesat, dari ahli
matematika Italia, ke Perancis, dan ke Jerman
Zaman Kebangkitan
Observasi dan Eksperimen
Alkemi
• Alkemi eksoterik dan esoterik terus
berkembang
• Mereka mencari suatu bahan yang dinamakan
elixir (al-iksir) atau philosopher’s stone yang
dipercaya dapat menjadi katalisator pembuatan
emas dari bahan murah
• Elixir dapat membuat orang panjang umur
• Pembuatan emas tidak mereka peroleh, tetapi
mereka menemukan sejumlah bahan baru
• Kegiatan mereka mendekati kegiatan kimia
Bernard Trevisan
• Ada kisah tentang Bernard Trevisan yang sejak
muda berusaha membuat emas tetapi tidak
berhasil (agaknya fiktif)
Zaman Pertengahan
Observasi dan Eksperimen
Paracelsus dan Pengobatan
• Nama aslinya adalah Theophratus Philippus
Aureolus Bombastus von Hohenheim,
kemudian menggunakan nama Paracelsus
(1493-1541)
• Anak seorang dokter dan kemudian belajar di
Universitas Basel dan menjadi dokter
• Paracelsus percaya bahwa bahan dari alkemi
dapat dijadikan obat sehingga bertengkar
dengan para dokter dan farmasi yang masih
menggunakan pengobatan cara kuno
• Ketika diangkat menjadi guru besar medik di
Universitas Basel, pada tahun 1527, di depan
umum, Paracelsus membakar buku pengobatan
kuno
• Dimusuhi banyak orang, Paracelsus pergi
meninggalkan Basel dan berkelana
•
•
The most important name in this period is Philippus
Aurolius Paracelsus (Theophrastus Bombastus von
Hohenheim, 1493-1541) who cast alchemy into a new
form, rejecting some of the occultism that had
accumulated over the years and promoting the use of
observations and experiments to learn about the human
body. He rejected Gnostic traditions, but kept much of the
Hermetical, neo-Platonic, and Pythagorean philosophies;
however, Hermetical science had so much Aristotelian
theory that his rejection of Gnosticism was practically
meaningless. In particular, Paracelsus rejected the magic
theories of Agrippa and Flamel. He did not think of
himself as magician, and scorned those who did.
Paracelsus pioneered the use chemicals and minerals in
medicine, and wrote “Many have said of Alchemy, that it
is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is the
aim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie
in medicines.” His hermetical views were that sickness
and health in the body relied on the harmony of man the
microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an
approach different from those before him, using this
analogy not in the manner of soul-purification but in the
manner that humans must have certain balances of
minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the
•
body had chemical remedies that could cure them. While
his attempt of treating diseases with such remedies as
Mercury might seem ill-advised from a modern point of
view, his basic idea of chemically produced medicines
has stood time surprisingly well.
Zaman Pertengahan
Observasi dan Eksperimen
Paracelsus dan Alkemi
• Paracelsus percaya bahwa alkemi dapat
mengubah bahan alami dan menghasilkan
bahan baru untuk keperluan baru
• Walaupun gagal membuat emas, para alkemi
berhasil menemukan sejumlah bahan baru
Alkemi Menjadi Kimia
• Dibantu dengan teori ilmiah, alkemi memudar
dan hilang
• Dirintis oleh Lavoisier, muncul kimia yang
mengenal teori dan eksperimen di laboratorium
Pembetulan Kalender
• Pada tahun 1527, Paus Gregorius membetulkan
kalender (ada lompatan 10 hari di bulan
Oktober)
Zaman Pertengahan
Observasi dan Eksperimen
Sistem Metrik
Pada tahun 1798 pada kongres ilmu internasional,
satuan meter diterima sebagai sistem metrik yang baru.
Satu meter adalah 1/10.000.000 bagian dari ¼
keliling bumi dari kutub ke kutub.
Dari satuan meter, ditentukan satuan liter dan
kilogram (massa 1 liter air)
Sistem metrik menggunakan kelipatan 10, mili-,
centi-, deci- (Latin) dan deca-, hecto-, kilo- (Yunani)
•
•
In 1788, a year in which there were 2000 units of
measure current in France (most of them used only in one
locality), a commission of six scientists was set up to
consider how to establish a uniform system. Its members,
who included Coulomb, Laplace and Lavoisier, could
hardly have been more distinguished. It would start work
in 1789, exactly a thousand years after Charlemagne had
established uniform measures throughout his empire
(some of which still survived in Britain).
The Commission’s first decision was to make a
completely new start, with some constant of physics as its
base. There were two possibilities (neither of which
would have been open to Charlemagne). One was to
make use of Christiaan Huygens’ discovery that the
period of oscillation of a pendulum depended only on its
length (so that, for instance, the standard could be the
length of a pendulum with a period of one second). The
other possibility was to base the standard on the length of
a meridian (that is, a great circle passing through the two
poles). The National Assembly could not make up its
mind: on 8 May 1790 it decided for the pendulum; on 30
March 1791, for a quarter of meridian (that is, the
distance between a pole and the equator). At the same
time Lavoisier had devised a means for accurately
determining the weight of a prescribed unit volume of
water: this would then provide a new measure of weight,
linked to that for length.
•
•
•
At the end of the day the pendulum was rejected,
partly because it lacked charisma—but also for the good
scientific reason (already known to Newton) that gravity
varies slightly over the world’s surface. The problem,
then, was to measure the meridian: the only practical way
to do this was to find a meridian, running precisely from
north to south and joining two coastal locations. The
difference in the two latitudes (determined
astronomically) then provides the means for measuring
the length of the quarter-meridian.
Conveniently France proved to be the only country in
the world where a meridian could be found satisfying the
requisite conditions; even more conveniently it could be
chosen to pass through the Paris Observatory. In fact, the
meridian so chosen intersects the coast of the
Mediterranean just inside Spain, but with a little
diplomacy French surveyors could be allowed to start
their work there.
this was exactly how the operation was planned: two
surveyors would map the line of the meridian by means
of the triangulation process established by Snel two
centuries earlier. One would start at the north end, and the
other at the south, to meet, by prearrangement,
somewhere in the middle. And in 1791, Lavoisier, who
has become Treasurer of the Academy, arranged for the
necessary finance.
•
•
•
Two astronomers, Pierre Méchain (1744-1804) and
Jean-Baptiste Delambre (1749-1822), were appointed to
the task and equipped with a new instrument, superior to
the English theodolite, invented by the chevalier de
Borda in 1780. The two could hardly have been more
different, as would be reflected in the way they carried
out their work and surmonted the many obstacles
encountered: Méchain, who would work north from the
coast near Barcelona, was pessimistic and withdrawn,
while Delambre, who would work south from Dunkirk,
was optimistic and outgoing.
The distanced to be covered by each were measured in
toises, then the unit most commonly used (but due to be
superseded as a result of the task in hand). Because the
Spanish sector was almost unknown, Méchain was
assigned much the shorter distance, 170,000 toises, where
Delambre got 380,000. The two would then meet in the
small town of Rodez, somewhere south of the Dordogne.
The modus operandi was to carry out successive
triangulations by sighting standard signals, in the form fo
large coloured boards, placed on lical high points,
sometimes natural (e.g. the summit of a hill), sometimes
man-made (e.g. the top of a bell-tower). These then
defined stations for locating succeeding triangulation
points. In addition, there would be five astronomical
stations, located by star-sights as with sea navigation.
Two of these were the terminal points, Dunkirk and
Barcelona, a third was the Panthéon in Paris, and the
•
•
•
•
remaining, Carcassonne in south, and Evaux in central
France. The result was that there would be four separate
stages in measuring the distance by triangulation.
The time was hardly propitous for such an
undertaking: the French Revolution did not make life
easier for Méchain and Delambre, and suspicious local
people, without any idea of what was going on,
obstructed the work when their help was needed. With
the rudimentary infrastructure of the time, many
triangulation points were almost inaccessible—and things
were worse when the weather was bad.
The operation was carried out with two baselines,
each 12 kilometres long. This distance had to measured
with extreme accuarcy; othrwose the whole project would
be worthless. The was the problem of finding two areas,
along the meridian, each with a straight road across
perfectly flat terrain. In the north this was the main road
between Melun and Lieusaint, just south of Paris.
Delambre built two stone pyramids, 25 metres high, at
each end: even so, 500 trees had to be cut down to clear
the line of sight between them. Equally thorough
preparations were needed for the southern baseline near
Perpignan.
The actual measurement, taking some seven weeks in
the early summer of 1789, was carried out by olacing,
successively end to end, four identical platinum rules of
standard length. Endless care was to taken to protect
them from sunlight, to ensure perfect alignment and fit
•
•
between two successive rulers. Using a system devised
by Lavoisier (who by this time had lost his head to the
guillotine), a copper ruler, with a different coefficient of
expansion, was used for corrections taking into account
changes caused by heat in the length of the platinum
standard. Some idea of the care taken is shown by an
average rate of progress of 20 metres per hour. At the end
of the day, when two baselines were compared as a result
of the triangulations carried out across the distance
seperating them, the error was of the order of 3
centimetere over a distance of 12 kilometres—and
astonishing degree of accuracy.
Méchain and Delambre were busy for more than six
years, but while they were still at work, the Commission
in Paris was also involved. First, it had to decide on new
names for the measures, and then how they were to ber
relatied. To ensure that the new system could be used
internationally, new terms were coined from Latin and
Greek roots (following the practice, recently adopted, for
the newly discovered chemical elements). The key units,
named mètre, litre and gramme, could be subdivided into
smaller units, defined by Latin suffixes, milli-, centi- and
déci-, and consolidated into large units, with Greek
suffixes, déca, hecto and kilo. At the same time the liquid
measure, the litre, was defined as 1 cubic décimetre, so
that the weight of a litre of water would then define a
kilogramme.
•
•
In 1798, the year of completion, Napoleon who would
become first consul of France a year later, had led French
armies in conquests that radically changed the political
alignment of Europe. Talleyrand, the French Foreign
Minister, acting on the principle of carpe diem, convened
what was effectively the first ever international scientific
congress. Its agenda had one main item: the adoption of
the new metric system.
The powers invited to the congress were either neutral
or allied, the later consisting largely of recently
constituted French puppet states, such as the Cutch
Bavarian Republic. England, which on 1 August 1798
had destroyed the French fleet at the battle of Aboukir,
was not invited, nor were Prussia and the United States.
The English-speaking world, with its archaic system of
weights and measures, is still paying the price. The rest
of the world has had the benefit of the metric system for
more than 200 years.
Zaman Pertengahan
Observasi dan Eksperimen
Rekapitulasi Perkembangan
• Kopernikus: heliosentrik (tata surya)
• Kepler (dengan data dari Tycho Brahe): gerakan
benda langit adalah elips
• Galileo Galilei: dinamika gerak (percepatan
jatuh dan sentrifugal, gerak parabola dan
proyektil), bulan di Jupiter
• Isaac Newton: teori gravitasi
Dampak
• Bumi hanya planet kecil, arti manusia di jagad
raya menjadi kecil
• Komet bisa diterangkan, banyak tahayul lenyap
• Tuhan berurusan dengan jagad raya yang besar
sehingga urusan manusia hanya bagian kecil
Zaman kebangkitan
Metoda Ilmiah
Metoda Ilmiah Descartes
• Rene Descartes menulis Risalat Metoda
• Ada empat aturan pada metoda ilmiah ini yang
dimulai dari meragukan apa yang belum
diyakini secara pasti
• Ragukan masa kini, masa lalu, masa depan, dan
pikiran orang lain
• Bahkan Descartes meragukan keberadaan
dirinya sendiri. Katanya cogito ergo sum (saya
berpikir maka saya ada)
Pengaruh Metoda Descartes
• Aturan Descartes ini berpengaruh sampai
sekarang
• Metoda ini digunakan pada metodologi
penelitian
METHODIC DOUBT
Methodic doubt in Cartesian philosophy, a
way of searching for certainty by systematically though
tentatively doubting everything. First, all statements
are classified according to type and source of
knowledge—e.g. knowledge from tradition, empirical
knowledge, and mathematical knowledge. Then,
examples from each class are examined. If a way can
be found to doubt the truth of any statement, then all
other statements of that type are also set aside as
dubitable. The doubt is methodic because it assures
systematic completeness, but also because no claim is
made that all—or even that any—statements in a
dubitable class are really false or that one must or can
distrust them in an ordinary sense. The method is to set
aside as conceivably false all statements and types of
knowledge that are not indubitably true. The hope is
that, by eliminating all statements and types of
knowledge the truth of which can be doubted in any
way, one will find some indubitable certainties.
In the first half of the 17th century, the French
Rationalist Rene Descartes used methodic doubt to
reach certain knowledge of self-existence in the act of
thinking, expressed in the indubitable proposition
cogito, ergo sum (“I think, therefore I am”). He found
knowledge from tradition to be dubitable because
authorities disagree; empirical knowledge dubitable
because of illusions, hallucinations, and dreams; and
mathematical knowledge dubitable because people
made errors in calculating. He proposed an allpowerful, deceiving demon a a way of involving
universal doubt. Although the demon could deceive
men regarding which sensations and ideas are truly of
the world, or could even make them think that there is
an external world when there is none, the demon could
not make men think that they exist when they do not.
Zaman Kebangkitan
Metoda Ilmiah: Aturan Descartes
Aturan #1
• Jangan menerima sesuatu sebagai kebenaran
selama kita tidak mengetahui secara jelas
bahwa sesuatu itu adalah demikian
• (ini dikenal sebagai methodic doubt)
Aturan #2
• Membagi kesulitan yang sedang diperiksa ke
dalam sebanyak mungkin bagian dan seperlu
mungkin untuk memperoleh pemecahan yang
pantas
• (kemudian dikritik sebagai reduksionis karena
melihat sesuatu dari bagian-bagian dan bukan
secara menyeluruh)
Zaman Kebangkitgan
Metoda Ilmiah
Aturan #3
• Mengatur pikiran kita menurut urutan sehingga
dengan memulai penelitian pada obyek yang
paling sederhana dan yang paling mudah untuk
diketahui, langkah demi langkah, ke bagian
yang lebih kompleks
Aturan #4
• Di dalam setiap kasus kita membuat
perhitungan yang lengkap dan ditinjau secara
umum sehingga kita dapat memastikan bahwa
tidak ada cara yang terlewatkan
Zaman Kebangkitan
Metoda Ilmiah
Kritik terhadap Descartes
• Metoda ilmiah Descartes masih kita pergunakan
sampai sekarang
• Di semua penelitian, kita membagi dan
membatasi masalah kita ke dalam bagian
tertentu
• Kemudian kita membatasi masalah kita pada
bagian tertentu saja
• Muncul kritik yang mengatakan bahwa metoda
ini adalah reduksionis karena melihat sesuatu
dari bagian-bagian
• Ada yang mengusulkan metoda wholistic yakni
memecahkan masalah secara keseluruhan
Zaman Kebangkitan
Observasi dan Eksperimen
Contoh Tubuh Manusia
• Tubuh dipecah menjadi jiwa dan raga
• Jiwa dipecah menjadi psikiatri dan psikologi
• Raga dipecah menjadi banyak bagian (mata,
kulit, jantung, dan lainnya)
• Tiap bagian dipelajari tersendiri dengan
keahlian terpisah
• Ada yang ingin melihat tubuh manusia secara
utuh
• Tidak jelas bagaimana sebenarnya metoda
wholistic ini
• Masih di dalam pembicaraan
Zaman Kebangkitan
Bidang Pertukangan
Bidang Pertukangan
• Bidang pertukangan juga mengalami kemajuan
yang cepat
• Terjadi sumbangan secara silang di antara ilmu
dan pertukangan
• Pertukangan membuat alat yang lebih canggih
(teropong, kompas) untuk digunakan oleh ilmu
• Sebaliknya temuan ilmiah dapat dimanfaatkan
oleh pertukangan untuk meningkatkan
kemampuan pertukangan
Teknik dan Teknologi
• Ilmu dan pertukangan yang maju kelak menjadi
ilmu teknik dan teknologi
•
Changes in the University (from MD Pacific)
•
As early as the 14th century the poet Petrarch urged the
founding of a chair of Greek in Florence, and by the next
century Renaissance enthusiasm for the new learning
began its sweep through the academic communities. In
Italy the universities were hospitable also to men like
Vesalius and Galideo at Padua, although elsewhere the
surge of scientific interest was expressed mainly in
academies of aristocratic amateurs, often founded by
royalty.
As Aristotle and medieval scholasticism gave way to
Plato and classic literature, history and belles-lettres, a
university education became for the first time a
gentleman’s and not merely a cleric’s or lawyer’s pursuit.
The clash of Reformation and Counter-Reformation
threw the universities into their first historic crisis: at
Luther’s own university of Wittenberg enrollment fell
from 330 to 85 within a year of his rebellion, and Paris’
40 colleges were nearly deserted for a time, until rulers of
both creeds began reinvigorating the old universities and
establishing new ones. Out of the Protestant effort came
Leyden, Jena, Koenigsberg, which later produced
Immanuel Kant, Halle (1693) with its famous medical
school, Goettingen, which inherited a great monastic
library and was liberally endowed besides by George II
•
•
• of England as Elector of Hanover in 1736. The
teaching order of Jesuits founded by Ignatius
Loyola in 1541 became a powerful educational
force in the Catholic world.
•
Royalty
Zaman Modern
Abad ke-18 sampai Sekarang
Revolusi Industri
• Revolusi industri pada abad ke-18 digunakan
sebagai waktu dimulainya zaman modern
• Kemajuannya dapat kita saksikan pada zaman
ini, terutama di bidang ilmu dan teknologi
• Ada yang mengidentifikasi zaman sekarang ini
sebagai zaman informasi pascaindustri
Filsafat
• Ada sejumlah aliran filsafat yang berkembang
pada zaman modern (Hegel, Marx, Satre, dan
lainnya), namun di sini, kita hanya melihat
aliran yang banyak sangkut pautnya dengan
filsafat ilmu
• Mereka mencakup filsafat positivisme, filsafat
analitik (linguistik), dan filsafat postivisme
logika
Zaman Modern
Abad ke-18 sampai sekarang
Bill Mckibben
(National Geographic, August 2006, p. 39)
“The industrial revolution began the day in 1712
that Thomas Newcomen figured out how to use a
steam engine to pump water out of a coal mine, so
that it could be mined more cheaply and easily, thus
allowing more steam engines.”
Zaman Modern
Aliran Filsafat
Filsafat Positivisme
• Diidentifikasi juga sebagai filsafat ilmu
• Membatasi filsafat kepada hal-hal yang dapat
diuji secara empirik
Filsafat Analitik
• Dikenal juga sebagai filsafat linguistik (bahasa)
• Filsafat diungkapkan dan dikomunikasikan
melalui bahasa sehingga masalah filsafat adalah
masalah bahasa
Filsafat Positivisme Logika
• Positivisme ditambahkan dengan logika dan
analisis bahasa
• Metodologi penelitian bertumpu juga pada
filsafat ini
Zaman Modern
Kemajuan Ilmu dan Teknologi
Kemajuan Ilmu
• Kemajuan pesat terjadi di berbagai cabang ilmu
• Muncul jurnal untuk publikasi temuan ilmiah
• Terdapat hadiah (termasuk Nobel) bagi temuan
yang dinilai sangat menonjol
• Penerapan temuan ilmu ke teknologi terjadi
dalam tenggang waktu yang makin singkat
Kemajuan Ilmu Teknik
•
•
•
•
Ilmu teknik juga mengalami kemajuan pesat
Terpecah ke dalam sejumlah disiplin
Menggunakan temuan di bidang ilmu
Membuat alat canggih untuk penelitian di
bidang ilmu
Zaman Modern
Kemajuan Ilmu dan Teknologi
Beberapa dimensi kemajuan
• Sangat kecil sampai ke partikel subatomik dan
bahkan partikel elementer
• Sangat besar sampai ke galaksi dan cluster
galaksi
• Sangat cepat pada siklotron dan pencepat
partikel subatomik lainnya
• Sangat jauh melalui pesawat antariksa dan
bahkan ke luar tata surya
• Sangat mendekati inti kehidupan sampai ke
genetika dan gnome
• Sangat cerdas sampai ke komputer dan
kecerdasan buatan
• Sangat menyentuh kesehatan sampai ke
transplantasi dan cloning
• Sangat halus sampai ke nanoelektronika dengan
skala nanometer (submikron)
Zaman Modern
Kemajuan Ilmu dan Teknologi
Segi Positif
• Ada mesin tenaga alam sehingga hewan dan
budak menjadi bebas
• Ada mesin terampil dan robot sehingga
membebaskan manusia dari pekerjaan
monoton dan berbahaya
• Ada mesin komupter sehingga membebaskan
manusia dari hitung yang lambat
• Ada pengobatan canggih sehingga
membebaskan manusia dari banyak jenis
penyakit
Segi Negatif
• Alat digunakan untuk perang dan membunuh
orang secara massal
• Senjata nuklir dapat memusnahkan peradaban
manusia
Zaman Modern
Kemajuan Ilmu dan Teknologi
Moral Ilmuwan
• Ilmuwan makin berbahaya sehingga diperlukan
ilmuwan yang bermoral dan jujur
• Diperlukan etika untuk eksperimen, biasanya,
dilakukan melalui dewan etika
• Ada juga etika publikasi yang perlu dipatuhi
oleh para ilmuwan
Konvensi Internasional
•
•
•
•
Larangan senjata pembunuh massal
Perlindungan terhadap bumi
Perlindungan terhadap hewan dan tumbuhan
Hak asasi manusia
Zaman Modern
Ilmu dan Teknologi
Dari Ilmu ke Teknologi
• Dua abad lalu, tidak diketahui apa gunanya
listrik
• Satu setengah abad lalu, tidak diketaui apa
gunanya sistem bilangan biner
• Pada waktu lalu, tidak diketahui apa gunanya
bilangan prima
Kecepatan Kemajuan
•
•
•
•
Tiap 18 tahun isi perpustakaan melipat dua
Jumlah organisasi ilmuwan bertambah
Waktu antara ilmu ke teknologi makin singkat
Kecepatan gerak yang dihasilkan manusia
makin besar