Grammatical Rules from Harbrace Handbook
3a Punctuating independent clauses
In case you are unfamiliar with or unsure about the conventions for punctuating independent clauses,
here is a short review. A comma and a coordinating conjunction can join two independent clauses. A
semicolon can join two independent clauses that are closely related. A semicolon generally signals
addition or contrast. A semicolon may also precede an independent clause that begins with a
conjunctive adverb such as however or nevertheless. A colon can join two independent clauses. The
second clause usually explains or elaborates the first. If you are following MLA guidelines, capitalize the
first word of a clause following a colon when the clause expresses a rule or principle. A period separates
clauses into distinct sentences. Occasionally, commas are used between independent clauses, but only
when the clauses are short, parallel in form, and unified in meaning. Ex. They came, they shopped, they
left.
3b Recognizing comma splices and fused sentences
Two methods for identifying comma splices and fused sentences
1. Locate a sentence that may be problematic. Put it into this frame sentence:
They do not understand the idea that __________________________.
Only complete sentences make sense when placed in the frame sentence. If just part of a test sentence
fits, you have probably located a comma splice or a fused sentence.
Test sentence 1: Plasma is the fourth state of matter.
Test: They do not understand the idea that plasma is the fourth state of matter.
[The test sentence makes sense in the frame sentence. No revision is necessary
Test sentence 2: Plasma is the fourth state of matter, some scientists believe that 99 percent of
the universe is made of it.
Test: They do not understand the idea that plasma is the fourth state of matter, some scientists
believe that 99 percent of the universe is made of it.
[The frame sentence does not make sense because there are two sentences completing it,
rather than one. The test sentence contains a comma splice and thus should be revised.]
Revision: Plasma is the fourth state of matter. Some scientists believe that 99 percent of the
universe is made of it.
3c Revising comma splice and fused sentences
(1) Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction to link clauses.
(2) Use a semicolon or a colon to link clauses or a period to separate them.
(3) Rewrite one clause as a phrase or as a dependent clause.
(4) Integrate one clause into the other.
(5) Use transitional words or phrases to link independent clauses.
CHECKLIST for Comma Splices and Fused Sentences
1.
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Common Sites for Comma Splices or Fused Sentences
With transitional words such as however and therefore
When an explanation or an example occurs in the second clause
When a positive clause follows a negative clause, or vice versa
When the subject of the second clause is a pronoun whose antecedent is in the first clause.
How to Fix Comma Splices and Fused Sentences
Link the clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction.
Link the clauses, using a semicolon or a colon.
Separate the clauses by punctuating each as a sentence.
Make one clause dependent.
Reduce on clause to a phrase.
Rewrite the sentence, integrating one clause into the other.
3d Divided quotations
When you divide quotations with attributive tags such as he said or she asked, be sure to use a
period between independent clauses.
6a Subject-verb agreement
A verb agrees with its subject in number. That is, when a subject is plural, the verb takes a plural
form; when the subject is singular, the verb takes a singular form. The subject and verb also agree in
person. First-person subjects require first-person verb forms, second-person subjects require
second-person verb forms, and third-person subjects require third-person verb forms. Notice in the
following examples that the singular third-person subject takes a singular verb (-s form) and that the
plural third-person subject takes a plural verb (base form).
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
Agreement errors are likely when other words come between the subject and the verb.
Subjects joined by and usually take a plural verb.
Agreement errors are common when subjects are joined by or or nor.
Inverted word order may lead to agreement errors.
Clauses with relative pronouns are common sites for agreement errors.
Agreement errors frequently occur with indefinite pronouns. The indefinite pronouns each,
either, everybody, everyone, and anyone are considered singular and so require singular verb
forms.
(7) Collective nouns and measurement words often cause agreement difficulties.
(8) Words ending in –s are sometimes singular.
(9) Verbs agree with subjects, not with subject complements.
(10)An agreement error may occur when the subject of a sentence is a noun clause beginning with
what.
6b Pronoun-antecedent agreement
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Indefinite pronouns can serve as antecedents.
An antecedent sometimes refers to both genders.
The pronoun agrees with the nearer of two antecedents joined by or or nor.
When a collective noun is the antecedent, the number of the pronoun depends on the meaning
of the noun.
15 The Apostrophe
15a Indicating ownership and other relationships
(1) Most singular nouns, indefinite pronouns, abbreviations, and acronyms require –‘s to form the
possessive case.
(2) Plural nouns ending in –s require only an apostrophe for the possessive form.
(3) To show collaboration or join ownership, add –s or an apostrophe to the second noun only.
(4) To show separate ownership or individual contributions, add –s’ or an apostrophe to each noun.
(5) Add –s’ to the last word of a compound noun.
(6) Add –s’ or just an apostrophe to a noun preceding a gerund.
(7) Follow an organization’s preference for its name or the name of a product; follow local
conventions for a geographical location.
15b Marking omissions of letters or numbers
15c Forming certain plurals
2a Recognizing sentence fragments
A complete sentence consists of a subject and a predicate.
2b Phrases as sentence fragments
2c Dependent clauses as sentence fragments
7a Verb forms
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Regular verbs have four forms.
Irregular verbs have from three to eight forms.
A phrasal verb consists of a main verb and a particle.
Auxiliary verbs combine with main verbs.
Participles are accompanied by auxiliary verbs.
7b Verb tenses
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Simple tenses have many uses, not all related to specific points in time.
Progressive tenses indicate that events have begun but have not been completed.
Perfect tenses indicate action performed prior to a particular time.
Perfect progressive tenses combine the forms and meanings of the progressive and the perfect
tenses.
(5) The auxiliary verb do is used for questioning, negating, or emphasizing.
(6) Verb tenses help convey the duration or time sequence of actions and events.
7c Voice
(1) Sentences in the passive voice include a form of the auxiliary verb be and a past participle.
(2) Sentence in the active voice and the passive voice differ in emphasis.
7d Mood
(1) Verb forms in the subjunctive mood serve a variety of functions.
(2) The subjunctive is used mainly in dependent clauses.
23c Relating Sentence Parts
A sentence that begins with one kind of grammatical structure and shifts to another is a mixed
construction.
(1) Mixed constructions are illogical.
(2) Sentence parts are linked together logically.
(a) Mismatch between subject and verb- the joining of a subject and verb must create a
meaningful idea.
(b) Illogical equation with be- When a form of the verb be joins two parts of a sentence (the
subject and subject complement), these two parts should be logically related.
(c) Mismatches in definition – When you write a sentence that states a formal definition be
sure that the subject and the predicate fit together grammatically. The term being defined
should be followed by a noun or a noun phrase, not an adverbial clause. Avoid using is
when or is where.
(d) Mismatch of reason with is because
(e) Mismatch between verb and complement – A verb and its complement should it together
meaningfully.
(3) Verbs used to integrate information are followed by specific types of complements.
Attributive tags are phrases used to identify sources of information. Most verbs in attributive
tags are followed by a noun clause beginning with that or a wh- word. A few common verbs and
their typical complements are listed below. (Some verbs such as explain fall into more than one
category.)
VERBS FOR ATTRIBUTION AND THEIR COMPLEMENTS
Verb + that noun clause
agree
claim
explain
report
suggest
argue
demonstrate maintain
state
think
Example: The researcher reported that the weather patterns had changed.
Verb + noun phrases + that noun clause.
convince
persuade
remind
tell
Example: He told the reports that he was planning to resign.
Verb + wh- noun clause
demonstrate discuss
report
suggest
describe
explain
state
wonder
Example: She described what had happened.
18 Spelling
18a Spell Checker – the spell checker is a wonderful invention, though you must use it with care. A spell
checker will usually flag
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misspellings of common words
some commonly confused words (such as affect and effect), and
obvious typographical errors (such as tge for the).
However, a spell checker generally will not detect
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specialized vocabulary or foreign words not in its dictionary,
typographical errors that are still correctly spelled words (such as was for saw), and
misuses of words that sound alike but are not on the spell checker’s list of words commonly
confused.
18b Spelling and pronunciation
18c Words that sound alike
18d Prefixes and suffixes
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Dropping or retaining a final e depends on whether the suffix begins with a vowel.
A final consonant is often doubled when a suffix begins with a vowel.
A final y is changed or retained depending on whether it is preceded by a vowel.
A final l is retained when –ly is added.
A noun is made plural by adding –s or –es to the singular form.
18e Confusion of ei and ie
An old rhyme will help you remember the order of letters in most words containing e and i:
Put i before e
Except after c
Or when sounded like a
As in neighbor and weigh.
Words with i before e: believe, chief, priest, yield
Words with e before i, after c: conceit, perceive, receive
Words with ei sounding like a in cake: eight, rein, their, heir
Words that are exceptions to the rules in the rhyme include either, neither, species, foreign, and weird.
18f Hypens
(1) Hyphens sometimes link two or more words that form a compound.
(2) Hyphens can be used to separate words into parts to clarify meaning.
(3) Hypens are frequently used in numbers, fractions, and units of measure.