WORLD HISTORY UNIT ONE
The Enlightenment
MAJOR CHANGES IN THOUGHT
Like other times that have come before- changes
the way that people see the world, in this case:
government
Will lead to widespread political change in
Europe
SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
Helped start this change of
ideas.
Renaissance had led to a
rebirth in classical learning
(Greeks and Romans) and then
people were inspired to
challenge what they knew
Believed nothing was beyond
the power of humans to
understand.
(Big change from
medieval- everything in
God’s hands)
Gave people confidence
GREAT THINKERS
Astronomy the first major scientific
area
Geocentric vs. Heliocentric theory- is
the earth or the sun the center of the
universe?
Nicolas Copernicus: 1543 First
modern thinker to propose
heliocentric theory
Johannes Kepler: 1601 Proves
mathematically
Galileo Galilei: 1610 Used
Telescope to prove rationally.
(got in trouble with church)
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
1st defined by Aristotle: a logical method of testing hypothesis.
Francis Bacon: Said medieval and renaissance scientists too quick to
accept what others had done. Had no use for abstract theories- you
should believe what you have proved for yourself. Empiricism:
experimental method
Rene Descartes: Put greater faith in reason than experiments.
Mathematical logic. Doubt everything until you can prove it through
reason.
NATURAL LAWS
The world is governed by nature rather than the direct hand of a
divine being. (Deism: God as a great clockmaker- he created us
and let us go- not listening to prayers)
You can study the world and understand it- there are forces that
are beyond our control, but NOT beyond our knowledge
Isaac Newton: Physics. 1687 There are natural laws, logical,
equations that govern gravity, force, friction, and
dozens of other things- we can understand them
QUALITY OF LIFE
Scientific discoveries and improvements were not merely abstractthey improved lives
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek- 1670 invented Microscope
Gabriel Fahrenheit: 1714 thermometer
Edward Jenner: 1699 inoculation for smallpox (borrowed from
India)
William Harvey: 1628 blood circulation
THE SOCIAL CONTRACT
From the idea that there are natural laws came the idea of Natural
Rights: things that belong to all humans no matter place in life.
The Social Contract: Government exists to serve the people- that
is why we give up our freedom to the government
If the government is not defending our rights, if it serves only its
own power- then it should not exist.
THOMAS HOBBES
First to define social contract
Wrote Leviathan (1651) horrified
by the English Civil War- said
humans are naturally aggressive
and cruel, government exists to
protect people.
Thought Absolute Monarchy the
best- (with a good monarch) total
power to enforce proper laws.
Got people talking about
government
JOHN LOCKE
Wrote Two Treatise on Government 1690
Defined “Natural Rights”- specifically
“Life, Liberty and Property” (foundation of
human rights)
Said the purpose of government is to
provide just enough protection to preserve
our rights- then leave us alone
Most radical thought- if the
government is NOT fulfilling
the social contract- people have
the right to overthrow it
Heavily influenced the
Declaration of Independence
DAVID HUME
Scottish. Questioned idea of
identitysaid there is nothing that continues
unchanged over time- ideas, and
humans are constantly evolving (and
that included government). But we
are not helpless- Free Will is the
most important gift man has- we can
design our own changes.
Fought to disentangle religion and
philosophy- saying that faith cannot
be proved, and therefore is outside
the realm of reason.
ENLIGHTENMENT IN FRANCE
Most sophisticated nation in
Europe in 1700s.
Intellectual debate became
fashion- which lead to creation
and spread of new ideas- far
beyond what government
would sanction
Center of Enlightenment
PHILOSOPHES
“Lovers of Wisdom”- thinkers, debaters, intellectuals. (First non
religious ones since fall of Rome)
Applied logic and scientific reasoning to understand and improve
government and society. (action, not just words)
Tried to dissect humanity, to understand why people make the choices
they do- and what they need from governmental leadership
VOLTAIRE
1694-1778. Leading mind of the Enlightenment.
Believed in tolerance, (both political and religious) freedom of
thought and speech.
Against corruption in government, idleness of aristocracy, prejudice,
superstition, religious persecution.
Jailed and exiled from France for his opinions, lived in Prussia and
Switzerland
Did believe a strong king could give best government- but should be
and “enlightened despot”
DENIS DIDEROT
1750 Published First modern
Encyclopedia: a 28 volume
compendium of human knowledge
(1st since Thomas Aquinas) Said
Human knowledge needed to be
collected so it could grow
Got contributions from thinkers in
all major fields of philosophy and
science.
Controversial because writings
challenged accepted church
doctrines, government forms, and
various laws. Had to be published
and distributed in secret
JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU
1762 Passionate champion of
individual freedom
Believed there should be as
little government as possible.
“man is born free- and
everywhere he is in chains.”
Power corrupt man’s natural
instincts, as does the inequality
of social classes.
Only good government should
be a democracy- the will of the
people
If people must give up some
freedom for common goodthey should be able to choose
what they give up, and how it is
used
BARON DE MONTESQUIEU
1748 Interested in political
liberty- studied the decline and
fall of Rome- said it went bad
because they changed from
Republic to Empire.
Admired English constitution and
separation of powers. (which he
exaggerated)
Said the power of the
government needed to be in many
hands so that no one group can
use it to destroy liberty.
Needs “Checks and Balances”
Greatly admired by Americans
in writing Constitution
CESARE BECCARIA
Italian.
Wrote “On Crimes and Punishments” discussing the origins of
crime in society, and what should be done about it.
Argued against use of torture, and said death penalty did not
prevent crime, so it is cruel.
Wrote about prisons, saying they would be better used for reform
for those who had committed crimes, rather than punish without
hope of redemption
THE ENLIGHTENMENT IN
AMERICA (NOT ON OUTLINE)
Enlightenment ideas spread to America- and inspired and
inspired action as well as debate.
Ideas like the social contract justified our revolution- the colonists
felt that the King and the British gov’t weren’t holding up their
side of the deal….
Declaration of Independence strongly influenced by Locke
After we won the revolution (yeah us!) we used enlightenment
ideas to create a new style of government. Primarily inspired by
ancient Roman government and the ideas of Baron de
Montesquieu. (separation of powers and checks/balances)
Bill of Rights has strong influences from Voltaire- freedom of
thought, action and tolerance
THOMAS JEFFERSON (REPLACES
IMMANUEL KANT)
Author of Declaration of Independence.
Borrowed (copied!) from Locke- natural rights become
“inalienable rights” of Life, Liberty, and Pursuit of
Happiness (property not such a big thing, it was easier to get
here)
Jefferson was also a driving force behind creating a Bill of
Rights (he was nervous about a government with too much
power) Supported freedom of speech and religion.
Irony is that at the same time, he- and most of the other
founding fathers were slave owners….
WOMEN’S RIGHTS
Legally- didn’t really exist. Rare for
women to be educated, or able to
own property in their own name, run
their own businesses, or choose
whom they married,
Most Enlightenment writers didn’t
really get into women’s rights- but
the discussion of rights in general
brought attention to the idea for the
first time. “If all men are born free,
how is it that all women are born
slaves?”
MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT
Early and important feminist
1792 Vindication of the Rights of Women. (a parody of the Declaration of
the Rights of Man) pointing at abuses of women, and demanding equal
treatment under the law
Argued for women’s education so that they could be full and productive
members of society.
ECONOMICS
Another new idea- using scientific approaches to study trade, business,
banking etc.. So that you can understand and control your economy.
Exploration(trade) and industrial revolution (business) had changed economy
of Europe- not based on weather like farming
PHYSIOCRATS
Thinkers who look for Natural Laws to define and control economics.
Focus on control and reform
Didn’t like Mercantilism (policy of using colonies for raw materials and
markets, and limiting trade) thought it gave government too much power over
the econ
Believed that the econ should actually control the government
LAISSEZ FAIRE
“Leave Alone” the main economic theory of the physiocrats.
Government should stay out of the economy.
Provide security for country- then allow a free market of supply/demand.
Opposed all forms of Tariffs (taxes on imports)
Would be general policy in Europe until late 1800s
ADAM SMITH
1776 The Wealth of Nations
Defined modern economic theory- specifically Laissez faire, and supply and
demand.
Father of Capitalism: a free market economy will make countries powerful by
making them rich.
JEREMY BENTHAM
Best known for concept of
Utilitarianism- the measure of anything should be- how useful is it for the
greatest number of people? (“greatest happiness principle”)
Argued for the abolition of slavery and the death penalty- and also the earliest
person on record to discuss idea of animal rights.
ART
Also reflected new ideas- went back for inspiration to the classical world
Valued symmetry and balance- logical harmony
NEOCLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE
Architecture of age of kings was Baroque- elaborate, decorated, over the top
Architecture of Enlightenment borrowed ideas from Greece and Rome- a far
simpler, more elegant style
Characterized by
Symmetrical shape
Tall columns
Triangular pediment
Domed roof
MUSIC/LITERATURE
Baroque music was Bach, and Handel- dramatic organ and choral pieces.
Music of Enlightenment lighter, true “classical” music
Hayden, Mozart, Beethoven
Writing was not only about philosophy- the modern novel developed
Had fully realized plots, suspense, explored characters thoughts and feelings.
Written mainly for the entertainment of the middle classes
ENLIGHTENMENT IDEAS SPREAD
Enlightenment began in France- but became important in other
areas as well.
Most successful in more “liberal” places, that were more involved
with “progressive” ideas like business, and less involved with
“traditions” like the Catholic Church. England, Holland and
Prussia particularly affected.
Few things can spread as quickly, or create as much change as a
revolutionary idea
QUESTIONING THE OLD
Enlightenment made strict class hierarchy seem wrong
People began to question the privileges of the aristocratic class.
In Middle Ages they provided protection- what did they provide
now?
Believed the govt’s role was to create justice, not indulge self
pleasure.
Peasants began to rumble- unhappy with system that keeps them
down
CENSORSHIP
Established leaders often felt that Enlightenment ideas
were unflattering- and wanted to restrict or silence them.
(Louis XIV esp.)
Banned and burned books- imprisoned and exiled
writers (Voltaire)
One trick writers used was to use satirical “fiction” with
made up names to avoid trouble (Candide)
SALONS
Informal gatherings of Enlightenment thinkers- most often
sponsored by noblewomen. (they had a long tradition of hosting
social gatherings for entertainment)
Madame Geoffrin’s the most famous
Launching place for writers, musicians etc… (Mozart)
Court of the mind, where wit, rather than beauty was worshipped
Critical to spread of ideas
ENLIGHTENMENT AND
MONARCHY
This is still the age of the absolute monarch
In Middle ages the purpose of king was to protect- now people
are safe- and they want more from their leader
Kings generally disliked the ideas that favored limiting their
power. (Louis XIV and XV strongly against)
ENLIGHTENED DESPOTS
Some rulers (though not many) became interested in
Enlightenment ideas and embraced them.
Kept their political power- but used it to create change
in society
Often backed change off if they felt challenged
FREDERICK THE GREAT
King of Prussia 1740-86.
Saw his role as “1 st servant of the state” (from Augustus)
Greatly influenced in his early reign by Voltaire. (they later fought bitterly)
Inherited a large army from his father- used them in peacetime to clear land,
build roads, other civil service projects. (again, Rome)
Provided opportunity for universal elementary education, abolished serfdom,
abolished torture
Invited people being persecuted in other countries (esp. Huguenots and Jews)
to come live in Prussia
CATHERINE THE GREAT
Tsarina of Russia 1729-1796
Another admirer of Voltaire and Diderot- corresponded extensively with both
Granted limited reforms- but backed off when nobles threatened to
undermine her power.
Admired the theory more than the practice- but brought the ideas into Russia
JOSEPH II
Emperor of Austria 1741-1790. Son of Maria Theresa (brother of Marie
Antoinette)
Probably the monarch most influenced by Enlightenment- known as “the Peasant
King”.
Went out in disguise to gather information about how his people lived and what
they needed.
Introduced numerous reforms including:
Abolition of serfdom freedom of press
Equality of taxation religious toleration
Elementary education and scholarships for higher ed
State funded hospitals and healthcare
Reforms ended with his death in 1790
(and partly b/c of French Revolution)
ENLIGHTENMENT AND AVERAGE
PEOPLE
90% of the people of Europe NOT noble
Most people more worried about food on the table than style of
government- but DID think the government should spend more
time making sure there WAS food.
Bad econ times make people call for change
MIDDLE CLASS
Only a maximum of 15% of the population in any European
country.
Was growing significantly due to increased trade with colonies
and growing industrialism (enlightenment and industrial
revolution cross each other significantly)
Backbone of Enlightenment- they want more
Making the $$ want the power to go with it
Most effective in England where they had a voice. Loudest in
France where they did not (Louis XIV-XVI)
PEASANTS
75 % of most populations (up to 90% in Eastern Europe, esp.
Austria and Russia)
Conditions varied wildly- some owned their land and were
relatively prosperous (England, France, Holland, Prussia)
SERFS
Tied to the land as they had been since fall of Rome
Still common in eastern Europe.
Enlightened Despots ended legal serfdom (Russia the last- not
until 1861) but nobles had little incentive to change a system that
worked for them.
Would become a restless underclass- no power- but a LOT of
anger.
RESULTS OF ENLIGHTENMENT
Opened the door to new discussions and ideas- which would lead
to eventual changes. (some peaceful- some not so much- age of
revolution is coming next)
Key changes
Belief in progress : things shouldn’t just stay status quo
A more worldly outlook: don’t just accept- work to make the world
a better place
Importance of the individual: one person’s ideas and actions are
important- make your own decisions