Chapter 16:
The Church and the
Age of Enlightenment
THE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH
1. King Louis’s France (pp. 580–587)
ANTICIPATORY SET
Review the quote from Pope Bl. John Paul II (p. 580), and then discuss
the following questions:
 What is the supreme question?
 What do they say is really the question, and who are they?
 What does the Church maintain is the answer to the supreme question?
1. King Louis’s France (pp. 580–587)
BASIC QUESTIONS
 How did King Louis XIV become the absolute monarch of France?
 What are Gallicanism, Jansenism, and Quietism?
 What was the effect of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes?
KEY IDEAS
 With the help of Cardinal Richelieu and his successor Cardinal Mazzarin, King
Louis XIV created a centralized, bureaucratic government.
 Gallicanism, which posits that the French Church is independent of the Pope
who is in turn inferior to an Ecumenical Council; Jansenism, a kind of
Calvinism; and Quietism, which asserts that the soul should remain completely
passive and not make any effort to do good or avoid evil, abounded in France
during the seventeenth century.
 With the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, Louis XIV removed the
Huguenots from France.
1. King Louis’s France (pp. 580–587)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
According to Hobbes’s Leviathan, why does human nature require a
strong political structure?
Hobbes paints a grim portrait of human beings as selfish beasts who, left to their
own devices, lead lives that can only be “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”
Hobbes thought that the state must impose unity from an absolute authority to
control the natural human tendency toward mutual hostility.
How does Hobbes’s view of the fallen state of man conflict with the
Church’s teaching?
Original Sin has damaged the original human condition; however, with God’s
grace and the proper exercise of free will, every person can cooperate with grace
to express true love of neighbor. This view is permeated by hope and optimism
1. King Louis’s France (pp. 580–587)
GUIDED EXERCISE
Discuss the following question:
 Based on last night’s reading, is Hobbes’s understanding of human nature correct?
1. King Louis’s France (pp. 580–587)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
How did Cardinal Richelieu both divide Germany and unite
France?
Though both nations were composed of hundreds of feudal provinces,
Cardinal Richelieu made it his business to keep the German states fairly
independent, which precluded any centralized military action, while in
France, he increased the monarch’s powers and decreased those of the
Protestant princes.
Why was Cardinal Richelieu against the Edict of Nantes?
He did not support its creation of a de facto Protestant state within a
1. King Louis’s France (pp. 580–587)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
How did the Fronde affect King Louis XIV’s views toward the
nobles of France?
The rebellion of the Fronde convinced the young king that he had to gain
control of the powerful noble factions within France.
Why were King Louis XIV’s good graces essential?
Since he held absolute power, to get ahead in France, a person had to
please him.
1. King Louis’s France (pp. 580–587)
FOCUS QUESTION
How did King Louis XIV create absolute power for himself ?
He dismissed the great lords of France from participation in the
government. By freeing them from taxation, he also precluded them from
interfering in his administration. Instead, he appointed lower nobles who
were grateful for the undreamt-of prestige and gave him unfailing loyalty.
1. King Louis’s France (pp. 580–587)
GUIDED EXERCISE
Discuss the following question:
 Why is Louis XIV’s absolutism a recipe for abuse that could have led easily to
revolution?
1. King Louis’s France (pp. 580–587)
FOCUS QUESTION
What was the Gallican tradition?
This longstanding view held that the French Church should be
independent of the papacy. In effect, it meant that secular rulers should
appoint bishops, control Church revenues, and even determine doctrines
and the practice of the Faith.
1. King Louis’s France (pp. 580–587)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
How did King Louis XIV show devotion to the Faith?
He attended Mass daily, said the Rosary, and in other ways exemplified an
authentic spirituality.
Why did King Louis XIV believe he should rule the Church in
France?
Louis XIV believed that everyone in France should be subject to him,
both laity and clergy.
1. King Louis’s France (pp. 580–587)
GUIDED EXERCISE
Analyze the illustration of King Louis XIV on page 583 using the
following question:
 How does this portrait illustrate extremes of power and vanity?
1. King Louis’s France (pp. 580–587)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What were some ways that Louis XIV showed respect for the
papacy?
Louis upheld the papal censure of the Sorbonne for condemning papal
teaching on infallibility. He also abandoned one of his minister’s policies
to limit the number of priests in France when the Pope condemned the
move.
What was the biggest example of Louis XIV’s disregard for papal
authority?
The king ordered the Four Gallican Articles to be taught in all the
1. King Louis’s France (pp. 580–587)
FOCUS QUESTION
What compromise did the Pope and the king reach over the
Gallican articles?
Louis XIV agreed to disavow the Declarations of 1682 and end the
mandatory teaching of the Four Gallican Articles. In return, the Pope
agreed to appoint all the bishops Louis had nominated for vacant sees in
France.
1. King Louis’s France (pp. 580–587)
GUIDED EXERCISE
Work with a partner to identify the Four Gallican Articles from the text.
1. King Louis’s France (pp. 580–587)
GUIDED EXERCISE
Discuss the sidebar “The Courtly Life of the Sun King” (p. 585) using the
following questions:




Did the Sun King have an ideal life?
Would you like to live a life like his?
What did his life lack?
What dangers lie in this life?
1. King Louis’s France (pp. 580–587)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
Which early Church Father did Bishop Jansen study devoutly?
He studied St. Augustine of Hippo.
What did Jansen think he had uncovered?
Jansen thought that he found an overlooked theory of grace in the
writings of St. Augustine; this was published posthumously in Augustinus
(1640).
1. King Louis’s France (pp. 580–587)
FOCUS QUESTION
Who were the three greatest promoters of Jansenism?
Jansen himself did not promote his theory but left it to the Church to
decide its truth. After Jansen’s death, Jansenism was promoted by his
friend Jean-Ambroise; Antoine Arnauld, a French philosopher; and the
mathematician Blaise Pascal.
1. King Louis’s France (pp. 580–587)
GRAPHIC ORGANIZER
Work with a partner to complete the following table on Jansenism and
Catholicism.
1. King Louis’s France (pp. 580–587)
1. King Louis’s France (pp. 580–587)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
How did King Louis XIV deal with Port Royal?
He had the convent razed and the bodies in the cemetery exhumed and placed in
unmarked graves, presumably so no one could venerate them.
What is heretical about Quietism?
Quietists advocate that each soul should totally abandon itself to God and make
no personal effort, not even the effort to fight temptations. It is heretical because
everyone should cooperate with grace to avoid evil and choose good.
What did the revocation of the Edict of Nantes mean for the Huguenots?
Huguenots who would not convert to Catholicism were effectively banished.
1. King Louis’s France (pp. 580–587)
HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT




Study Questions 1–6 (p. 612)
Practical Exercise 1 (p. 613)
Workbook Questions 1–25
Read “The Stuart Kings of England” through “Rise of Parliamentary
Democracy in England” (pp. 588–593)
1. King Louis’s France (pp. 580–587)
CLOSURE
Write one-sentence definitions of Gallicanism, Jansenism, and Quietism.
1. King Louis’s France (pp. 580–587)
ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT
Use the completed Graphic Organizer on page 586 to write a paragraph
explaining why the Jansenist theory of grace is erroneous.
2. The Stuart Kings of England (pp. 588–593)
ANTICIPATORY SET
Study the map of Ireland on page 590 and write a paragraph summarizing
the differences they observe regarding land ownership in 1641 and 1703.
2. The Stuart Kings of England (pp. 588–593)
BASIC QUESTIONS
 Who were the Stuart kings of England, and how did they fare?
 How did the Stuart kings and the Calvinist dictator Cromwell treat Catholics in
England and Ireland?
KEY IDEAS
 James I persecuted Catholics and discriminated against Calvinists. Charles I
expanded his power but was at odds with the Calvinist-dominated Parliament; he
was deposed at the end of the Civil War (1642–1651) and beheaded by Cromwell.
Charles II tolerated Catholics in England, but James II was forced to abdicate
during the Glorious Revolution because he produced a Catholic heir. Subsequent
legal measures ensured that there would never be another Catholic king in
England.
 Oliver Cromwell was a Calvinist military dictator who tried to eradicate
Catholicism from Ireland. The Irish Plantation system and other penal laws
oppressed Catholics severely.
2. The Stuart Kings of England (pp. 588–593)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What was the Gunpowder Plot?
This plot by a Catholic failed to blow up the king and Parliament.
What two big internal threats did James I face?
He feared both the Catholic minority, which he persecuted, and the
growing Calvinist power that dominated Parliament.
2. The Stuart Kings of England (pp. 588–593)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What was Charles I’s aim?
He wanted absolute rule, so he tried to increase revenue and centralize the
bureaucracy.
What were Charles I’s conflicts with Parliament?
Because he would not guarantee tolerance for Calvinists, the Calvinistdominated Parliament refused to grant him revenues to carry out his
policies.
2. The Stuart Kings of England (pp. 588–593)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What was the result of the English Civil War?
Calvinists rose to power under Oliver Cromwell, a dictator who beheaded
King Charles I.
How was Cromwell’s rule?
He formed a military dictatorship based on Puritan principles and
persecuted Catholics.
2. The Stuart Kings of England (pp. 588–593)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What were the Irish Plantations?
These large areas in northeastern Ireland were cleared of Catholics—
without their permission and without compensation—and resettled by
Scottish Protestants.
What was the aim of the plantations?
The goal was to eradicate Catholics from Ireland.
What was the Catholic reaction to the plantation system?
A rebellion broke out wherein about 3000 Protestants died.
2. The Stuart Kings of England (pp. 588–593)
GRAPHIC ORGANIZER
Work with a partner to complete the following table about Oliver
Cromwell’s plans for the Irish people.
2. The Stuart Kings of England (pp. 588–593)
2. The Stuart Kings of England (pp. 588–593)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What was the outcome of the plantation movements?
There were three major plantation movements whereby 81% of all fertile
land in Ireland was transferred to Protestant immigrants. This
impoverished the Catholic population.
How did Ulster go from the most Gaelic to the most British region
of Ireland?
The Ulster counties of the north and west of Ireland had comprised the
most fiercely Gaelic region. To break this, the first and most successful
plantation movement began there in 1609.
2. The Stuart Kings of England (pp. 588–593)
GUIDED EXERCISE
Work with a partner to compile a list of English actions against the Irish.
2. The Stuart Kings of England (pp. 588–593)
FOCUS QUESTION
What was the cause of the Protestant–Catholic troubles that plagued Northern
Ireland during the second half of the twentieth century?
After Ireland had gained independence from England in 1921, the English retained
control of the counties of Ulster. Both Protestants and Catholics considered
themselves to the rightful heirs to those lands. Extension: This problem was
exacerbated by the minority Protestant population holding power over the poorer,
majority Catholic population; a tiny minority of Catholics in the north formed a
radical terrorist organization.
What was King Charles II’s policy toward Catholics, and why did it end?
He was sympathetic to Catholics in England and discreetly tolerated them. This ended
when public pressure from the fabricated Popish Plot forced him to resume
persecution.
2. The Stuart Kings of England (pp. 588–593)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What was the justification for the Glorious Revolution that deposed King
James II?
Parliament claimed the right to revolution as described in John Locke’s Two
Treatises on Government, which argued that, when a king violates the social contract
with his subjects, the people have the right to replace that ruler with one of their
own choosing. They claimed that King James II had violated the social contract
by allowing his son to be baptized Catholic.
How did Parliament assure that there would never be another Catholic
king in England?
The Act of Settlement barred Catholics from political office and prohibited any
from sitting on the throne. Extension: Later Test Acts prohibited Catholics from
2. The Stuart Kings of England (pp. 588–593)
HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT




Study Questions 7–12 (p. 612)
Practical Exercise 2 (p. 613)
Workbook Questions 26–46
Read “The Scientific Revolution and the Age of Enlightenment”
through “The New Order in Science and Politics” (pp. 593-598)
2. The Stuart Kings of England (pp. 588–593)
CLOSURE
Free write for five minutes describing how the Stuart kings and the
Calvinist dictator Oliver Cromwell treated Catholics in England and
Ireland.
2. The Stuart Kings of England (pp. 588–593)
ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT
Complete the following table about the fate of the Stuart kings of
England.
2. The Stuart Kings of England (pp. 588–593)
3. The Scientific Revolution and the
Age of Enlightenment (pp. 593–598)
ANTICIPATORY SET
Mini-lecture: Science and Christianity.
3. The Scientific Revolution and the
Age of Enlightenment (pp. 593–598)
BASIC QUESTIONS
 What contributions did Descartes, Bacon, Copernicus, Brahe, Kepler,
Galileo, and Newton make?
 What are Locke’s concepts of the social contract and the rights of man?
KEY IDEAS
 Descartes founded subjective philosophy. Bacon championed inductive
reasoning. Copernicus introduced a heliocentric model of the universe,
which was supported by the observations of Brahe and the formulations
of Kepler. Galileo developed the scientific method. Newton founded
modern physics.
 Locke was optimistic about human capacity within politics in his theories
of the social contract and natural rights.
3. The Scientific Revolution and the
Age of Enlightenment (pp. 593–598)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What did Descartes seek to accomplish by philosophy?
He sought to achieve the same level of certainty he had seen in
mathematical demonstration.
How did Descartes’s dictum, “Cogito ergo sum,” affect
philosophy?
This turned philosophy upside down, moving it from the realm of reality
to subjective thought processes. Extension: St. Thomas Aquinas would
probably have said not, “I think therefore I am,” but rather, “I am [a
human being] therefore I think.”
3. The Scientific Revolution and the
Age of Enlightenment (pp. 593–598)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
How did Descartes view metaphysics?
Descartes believed that human beings are incapable to know metaphysical
truth, that is, truth transcending empirical data. Extension: Empirical
data is that which can be observed and measured using the five senses.
According to Francis Bacon, what can science do for human
beings?
Bacon said that scientific inquiry could help human beings control nature
and contribute to the wealth and comfort of civilization.
3. The Scientific Revolution and the
Age of Enlightenment (pp. 593–598)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What is Novum Organum?
This book by Bacon describes scientific inquiry. Extension: Bacon
predicted that human beings would fly and travel by submarine one day.
What is inductive knowledge?
This way of knowing collects empirical data from which general principles
are derived. Aristotle used deductive knowledge, which begins with
general principles known to be true and draws new conclusions from
them.
3. The Scientific Revolution and the
Age of Enlightenment (pp. 593–598)
GUIDED EXERCISE
Work with a partner to list Galileo’s other scientific contributions.
3. The Scientific Revolution and the
Age of Enlightenment (pp. 593–598)
FOCUS QUESTION
What did Nicholas Copernicus theorize?
Based on closer observation of the movement of the sun, planets, and
stars, Copernicus posited that the Ptolemaic model of the universe, in
which the earth is in the center, did not explain the motion of the stars as
well as a heliocentric model, wherein the earth and other bodies revolve
around the sun. Extension: Copernicus’s model did explain the
movements of the heavenly bodies more easily than the Ptolemaic model,
but Copernicus’s model was not conclusive because he assumed that the
planets have circular orbits when, in fact, they are elliptical.
3. The Scientific Revolution and the
Age of Enlightenment (pp. 593–598)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What did Tycho Brahe contribute to astronomy?
Though he disagreed with Copernicus’s heliocentric model of the solar
system, he amassed more detailed and accurate measurements of the
movement of celestial bodies than anyone before him.
What did Kepler contribute to the Copernican model?
He devised a mathematical model to describe the planets’ elliptical orbits
around the sun. Brahe’s systematic, empirical observations and Kepler’s
mathematical interpretation of the data helped give birth to the modern
scientific method.
3. The Scientific Revolution and the
Age of Enlightenment (pp. 593–598)
GRAPHIC ORGANIZER
Work with a partner to complete the following table on early contributors
to empirical science.
3. The Scientific Revolution and the
Age of Enlightenment (pp. 593–598)
3. The Scientific Revolution and the
Age of Enlightenment (pp. 593–598)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What method did Galileo Galilei pioneer?
Galileo applied the principle of experimentation to reach verifiable
conclusions. He combined observation, experimentation, and application
in a systematic way.
Why did some churchmen object to Galileo’s support of the
Copernican model?
The Copernican theory remained unproven, and some theologians
thought that a heliocentric system contradicted some passages of Sacred
Scripture. Many Catholic theologians and scientists—including Popes
3. The Scientific Revolution and the
Age of Enlightenment (pp. 593–598)
FOCUS QUESTION
Why was Galileo Galilei placed under house arrest in a mansion at
the end of his life?
After having agreed to abandon his assertions about the Copernican
system, he published his greatest work, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief
Systems of the World, which defends the Copernican theory and ridicules
the geocentric position. Churchmen demanded that he present his
findings as a hypothesis rather than fact. When he refused, he was
arrested and confined to his villas in Siena and Florence, where he
continued to pursue his work.
3. The Scientific Revolution and the
Age of Enlightenment (pp. 593–598)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What did Isaac Newton achieve?
He showed that Kepler’s laws of planetary motion and Galileo’s laws of
terrestrial motion were manifestations of the same law. He founded modern
physics.
What did some conclude from Newton’s explanation of the laws of
nature?
Some concluded that human reason could unlock the secrets of the universe.
How did the rise of natural science affect the political sphere?
Philosophers like Locke advocated optimistically the natural, inalienable rights
3. The Scientific Revolution and the
Age of Enlightenment (pp. 593–598)
HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT




Study Questions 13–17 (p. 612)
Practical Exercise 3 (p. 613)
Workbook Questions 47–66
Read “The Protagonists of the Enlightenment and Its Effects” through
“Conclusion” (pp. 599-608)
3. The Scientific Revolution and the
Age of Enlightenment (pp. 593–598)
CLOSURE
Free write for five minutes describing the relationship between
Christianity and the rise of modern science.
3. The Scientific Revolution and the
Age of Enlightenment (pp. 593–598)
ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT
Discuss the content of Scholasticism in the Medieval era, humanism in
the Renaissance, and the rise of modern science in the Enlightenment.
4. The Protagonists of the Enlightenment and
Its Effects (pp. 599–608)
ANTICIPATORY SET
Read the following excerpt on prayer from Voltaire’s Philosophical Dictionary,
and then discuss why Voltaire’s logic is sound but his conclusion is wrong.
 “The Eternal has his intentions from all eternity. If prayer accords with his
immutable wishes, it is quite useless to ask of him what he has resolved to do. If
one prays him to do the contrary of what he has resolved, it is praying him to be
weak, frivolous, inconstant; it is believing that he is thus, it is to mock him. Either
you ask him a just thing; in this case he must do it, and the thing will be done
without your praying him for it; entreating him is even to distrust him: or the
thing is unjust, and then you outrage him. You are worthy or unworthy of the
grace you implore: if worthy, he knows it better than you; if unworthy, you
commit a crime the more in asking for what you do not deserve.”
4. The Protagonists of the Enlightenment and
Its Effects (pp. 599–608)
BASIC QUESTION
 What did the major figures of the Enlightenment believe, how were their
ideas transmitted, and what were their effects?
KEY IDEA
 The major figures of the Enlightenment, philosophes, were Deists who
rejected Divine Revelation and the supernatural. They worked to destroy
the Church and advance their desired reforms. Their ideas were spread
through the Encyclopedia, the most prominent writer of which was Voltaire,
who advocated enlightened despotism. Rousseau blamed society for
human ills. He espoused the principles of liberty and equality, with political
authority coming from those ruled. Enlightened despots ruled Europe
with some success in Catholic Austria through Febronianism. The
philosophes destroyed their formidable enemy, the Jesuits.
4. The Protagonists of the Enlightenment and
Its Effects (pp. 599–608)
FOCUS QUESTION
Why did the philosophes reject Divine Revelation and supernatural
religion?
These intellectual proponents of the Enlightenment believed that all
knowledge ought to be based on rational demonstration, which rejects the
supernatural out of hand.
4. The Protagonists of the Enlightenment and
Its Effects (pp. 599–608)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What is Deism?
Deism is a rationalist philosophy that teaches that God created the
universe with its laws and guiding principles, set it in motion, and then
withdrew from it. He is more like a watchmaker who builds a watch,
winds it up, and then leaves it to run on its own than an immanent God
who is involved in the affairs of the world.
What is the connection between Deism and Freemasonry?
Many Deists organized a fraternal society called the Freemasons.
4. The Protagonists of the Enlightenment and
Its Effects (pp. 599–608)
GUIDED EXERCISE
Work with a partner to summarize the Deistic religion.
4. The Protagonists of the Enlightenment and
Its Effects (pp. 599–608)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What is the attitude of Freemasons toward the Catholic Church?
Freemasons actively work to destroy the Catholic Church and her
influence.
What was the Encyclopedia?
This seventeen-volume catalogue of knowledge in all subjects was
conceived and edited by Denis Diderot. However, rather than presenting
knowledge objectively, the authors presented the information from a
rationalist, materialist, and anti-supernatural viewpoint.
4. The Protagonists of the Enlightenment and
Its Effects (pp. 599–608)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
How was the Encyclopedia effective to propagate Enlightenment
ideas?
With the increase in literacy among Europeans, the Encyclopedia was read
widely throughout Europe, with about 25,000 sets sold before the French
Revolution.
What institution did Voltaire attack habitually?
The major institution Voltaire attacked was the Catholic Church.
4. The Protagonists of the Enlightenment and
Its Effects (pp. 599–608)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What did Voltaire believe concerning God and morals?
Voltaire asserted that belief in God and the discernment between good
and evil arises from reason alone, so he argued for natural religion and
natural morality. He portrayed Christianity as a foolish and absurd human
invention developed to quiet the masses.
What is enlightened despotism?
If a monarch were enlightened by reasonable ideas, his political power
could carry out effectively great reforms within society.
4. The Protagonists of the Enlightenment and
Its Effects (pp. 599–608)
GUIDED EXERCISE
Work with a partner to organize Voltaire’s actions toward Catholicism.
You should present at least three negative and at least three positive
actions.
4. The Protagonists of the Enlightenment and
Its Effects (pp. 599–608)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What is the social contract?
People allow themselves to be governed for their protection. All political
authority thus comes from the ruled rather than God. Free individuals, who live
together within a society, create—whether explicitly or implicitly—a social
contract through which they choose a ruler or rulers.
How were Rousseau and Voltaire opposites?
First, human reason and rationalist philosophy were at the center of Voltaire’s
writings, whereas Rousseau questioned the trustworthiness of human reason
alone and relied more on personal conscience and feelings. Second, Voltaire
justified enlightened despotism to bring about reform whereas Rousseau believed
that the state and its ruler or rulers should be subject to the General Will of
those ruled.
4. The Protagonists of the Enlightenment and
Its Effects (pp. 599–608)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
To what did Rousseau’s ambiguous concept of the General Will
lead?
This led to revolutionary movements within France and England’s
colonies in North America. The General Will as desire to be ruled by a
dictator led to communist revolutions and the emergence of fascism in
the twentieth century.
How was Rousseau’s life before he reached middle age?
He complained that he was neglected and misunderstood as a child. He
had no social status or wealth. He fathered five children by a mistress, all
4. The Protagonists of the Enlightenment and
Its Effects (pp. 599–608)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
According to Rousseau, what is the source of evil in life?
Society is the source of all evil. Human beings are naturally good, but
society forces them to be violent and false. He thought that primitive man
had been happy and innocent.
What did the principle of liberty mean to Rousseau?
Rousseau argued individuals should not be subject to any other person or
authority. Subjection to external authority is contrary to nature.
4. The Protagonists of the Enlightenment and
Its Effects (pp. 599–608)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What did Protestant skeptics hope to accomplish in Prussia?
They wanted to bring religious belief into harmony with the scientific
attitudes of the age, namely, a religion more associated with duty than
dogma.
Why did Frederick the Great think that he was best to lead Prussia?
A polyglot, poet, and essayist, Frederick saw himself as the intellectual
head of the state and thus the most enlightened man, best equipped to
lead according to reason.
4. The Protagonists of the Enlightenment and
Its Effects (pp. 599–608)
FOCUS QUESTION
How is the divine right of kings related to enlightened despotism?
These ideas rationalize absolute rule. The divine right of kings asserts that
a monarch receives authority from God directly and answers to him alone.
Enlightened despotism uses military and political power to accomplish the
ruler’s ends.
4. The Protagonists of the Enlightenment and
Its Effects (pp. 599–608)
GUIDED EXERCISE
Work with a partner to list at least three ways that Frederick the Great was
a despot and at least three ways that he was enlightened.
4. The Protagonists of the Enlightenment and
Its Effects (pp. 599–608)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
Who was Febronius, and what did he argue?
Febronius was the pen name of an auxiliary bishop in Germany, Johann
Nikolaus von Hontheim, who denied the authority of the Pope and
argued in favor of Conciliarism. He urged German bishops to assert
independence from the Pope and secular rulers to seize authority over
churches and Church holdings.
How did the Pope and the vast majority of German bishops
respond to Febronianism?
Pope Clement XIII condemned the writings of Febronius, and almost
every German bishop pledged his fidelity and allegiance to the Pope
4. The Protagonists of the Enlightenment and
Its Effects (pp. 599–608)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
How was the rule of Empress Maria-Theresa?
This devout Catholic monarch was a just, efficient, and patient reformer
of Austria.
What was the character of Maria-Theresa’s son Joseph II, and what
ideas did he embrace?
Joseph II was impulsive and impatient. He considered himself a philosophe
and adopted the ideas of Febronius.
4. The Protagonists of the Enlightenment and
Its Effects (pp. 599–608)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What held leaders in Catholic regions in check compared to leaders
in Protestant regions?
Leaders in Catholic regions were not able to assert complete domination
as easily because the churchmen wielded significant moral authority.
How did Gallicanism allow Catholic rulers to compete with their
Protestant neighbors?
Catholic rulers could ignore the Pope and bishops to control the Church
within their realms.
4. The Protagonists of the Enlightenment and
Its Effects (pp. 599–608)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What did Joseph II attempt in Austria?
He launched a massive reform program for Austria, which turned out to be disastrous.
How did Joseph II apply Febronian ideas to Austria?
He insisted on approving all papal documents before publication. He forbade bishops to
communicate directly with Rome, forcing them to take an oath of allegiance to himself. He
controlled the seminaries and had them use a watered-down catechism. Seminary
professors could preach on moral subjects but not doctrinal matters. He suppressed
“useless” religious communities and cut off the remaining ones from their superiors.
What was Joseph II’s legacy?
He saw all his reforms fail.
4. The Protagonists of the Enlightenment and
Its Effects (pp. 599–608)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
Why were the Jesuits so hated by the philosophes?
Educated, connected, established, intellectually powerful, and obedient to
the Pope, the Jesuits were the only Catholic group to counteract the
rationalist, anti-Catholic ideology of the Enlightenment effectively.
What did Jesuits criticize about the Portuguese government?
They criticized the government’s foreign policy, especially its having taken
a leading role in the slave trade.
4. The Protagonists of the Enlightenment and
Its Effects (pp. 599–608)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
What did Portugal want from the Jesuits in South America?
Portugal wanted to extend its territory and wealth by annexing South
American lands that were protected by Jesuit missions.
Who worked to suppress the Jesuits in France?
This was done by Gallicanists, Jansenists, philosophes, and the mistress of
Louis XV.
4. The Protagonists of the Enlightenment and
Its Effects (pp. 599–608)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
How were the Jesuits suppressed in Spain, and what were the
effects?
Relying on false evidence, the king banished all Jesuits and confiscated
their properties in Spain and South America. More than 500,000 people in
the missions lost their priests, and some 6000 Jesuits were expelled from
Spain.
Why did Pope Clement XIV suppress the Jesuits, and what was the
effect?
He had hoped to restore peace within the Church. Rather than peace, the
4. The Protagonists of the Enlightenment and
Its Effects (pp. 599–608)
HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT
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


Study Questions 18–28 (p. 612)
Practical Exercise 4 (p. 613)
Workbook Questions 67–90
Workbook Vocabulary
4. The Protagonists of the Enlightenment and
Its Effects (pp. 599–608)
CLOSURE
Write a paragraph exploring one of the following:
 The most important idea of the Enlightenment
 The most important figure of the Enlightenment
 The most important means by which the ideas of the Enlightenment were
disseminated
 The most important effect of the Enlightenment
4. The Protagonists of the Enlightenment and
Its Effects (pp. 599–608)
ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT
Discuss Practical Exercise 4 (p. 613) on how the Enlightenment was
related to the Reformation and the Wars of Religion.
THE END