Using Science to Address Environmental Issues
Environmental History, Legislation, and Economics

Ask a question
Do experiments and collect data
Interpret data
Formulate hypothesis to explain data
Well-tested and accepted patterns
In data become scientific laws
Do more experiments to test hypothesis
Revise hypothesis if necessary
Well-tested and accepted hypotheses become scientific theories
© 2004 Brooks/Cole – Thomson Learning

Distinguish between deductive and inductive reasoning.
Reasoning is purposeful mental activity that involves drawing inferences and conclusions from observations, facts, or assumptions (premises).
Formal reasoning problems can often be solved by applying an algorithm, a set of procedures that are guaranteed to produce a solution, or by using logical processes, such as deductive and inductive reasoning.

Inductive and deductive reasoning are two methods of logic used to arrive at a conclusion based on information assumed to be true. Both are used in research to establish hypotheses.
Deductive reasoning arrives at a specific conclusion based on generalizations.
Inductive reasoning takes events and makes generalizations
All men are mortal. Joe is a man. Therefore Joe is mortal. If the first two statements are true, then the conclusion must be true.
2
Bachelor's are unmarried men. Bill is unmarried. Therefore,
Bill is a bachelor.
3
To get a Bachelor's degree at Utah Sate University, a student must have 120 credits. Sally has more than 130 credits.
Therefore, Sally has a bachelor's degree.

This cat is black. That cat is black. A third cat is black. Therefore all cats are black.
2
This marble from the bag is black. That marble from the bag is black. A third marble from the bag is black. Therefore all the marbles in the bag black.
2
Most universities and colleges in Utah ban alcohol from campus. That most universities and colleges in the U.S. ban alcohol from campus.

Risk assessment is a step in a risk management process.
Risk assessment is the determination of quantitative or qualitative value of risk related to a concrete situation and a recognized threat (also called hazard). Quantitative risk
assessment requires calculations of two components of risk:
R, the magnitude of the potential loss L, and the probability
p, that the loss will occur.

Environmental risk assessment is a means of evaluating possible harm to human health or ecological surroundings as a result of exposure to certain chemicals. It has been incorporated as a decision making tool into nearly all major federal and state regulatory programs. Risk based methods are used in programs ranging from establishing wastewater discharge limits and drinking water goals to underground storage tank
(closures to Comprehensive
Environmental Response,
Compensation, and Liability Act
(CERCLA or Superfund) projects .

Describe how a dose-response curve is used in determining the health effects of environmental pollutants.
.
The dose-response relationship, or exposure-response
relationship, describes the change in effect on an organism caused by differing levels of exposure (or doses) to a stressor (usually a chemical) after a certain exposure time. This may apply to individuals (e.g.: a small amount has no observable effect, a large amount is fatal), or to populations
(e.g.: how many people or organisms are affected at different levels of exposure).

A dose-response curve defines the relationship between dose and response based on the following assumptions: 1) response increases as dose increases 2) there is a threshold dose- a dose below which there is no effect. This simple model is useful to develop basic doseresponse relationships however, more complex dose-response relationships would be predicted for many endocrine toxicants depending on the target organ and the species exposed.

Discuss the precautionary principle as it relates to the introduction of new technologies or products.
The precautionary principle is a moral and political principle which states that if an action or policy might cause severe or irreversible harm to the public or to the environment, in the absence of a scientific consensus that harm would not ensue, the burden of proof falls on those who would advocate taking the action.
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Explain how policy makers use cost-benefit analyses to help formulate and evaluate environmental legislation.

Households
Capitalist Market Economic System
Flow of money
Money flows from households to businesses to pay for products
Products flow from businesses to households
Flow of products
Businesses
Flow of factors of production
Labor and other factors of production flow from households to businesses
Money flows from businesses to households to pay for labor and other production
Flow of money

Demand curve
Supply curve
Quantity demanded
Surplus
Quantity supplied
If the price is too high, more oil is available than buyers are willing to buy
Quantity supplied
At this market equilibrium price, the quantity of oil that suppliers are willing to sell is the same as the quantity buyers are willing to buy
If the price is too low buyers want to buy more than suppliers are willing to sell
Shortage Quantity demanded
Quantity

Type of
Economic
System
Command
Market
Cause of
Environmental Pollution and Degradation
Economic activity
(flow of matter and energy resources)
Too little economic incentive to care for the environment
Solution
Regulate economic activity
Put a price on harmful environmental activities so marketplace can respond

Households
Capitalist Market Economic System
Flow of money
Money flows from households to businesses to pay for products
Products flow from businesses to households
Flow of products
Businesses
Flow of factors of production
Labor and other factors of production flow from households to businesses
Money flows from businesses to households to pay for labor and other production
Flow of money

It is very expensive to try to get to zero pollution
As more pollutants are removed, the cost of removing each additional unit increases
0 25% 50%
Percentage of pollutants removed
75% 100%

High
This curve is the sum of the two bottom curves
Minimal effort
Most cost-effective effort
Zero discharge
(toxic waste)
Better effort
Cost to society
Extra cost
Cleanup costs
Low
100% 75% 50%
Pollution remaining
25% 0%

Briefly describe the history of the Lake Washington pollution problem of the 1950s and how it was resolved.
Lake Washington, a deep, 27-mile-long freshwater lake. During the 1940s and early 1950s, cities on the east side of Lake Washington completed 11 sewer systems that emptied into Lake Washington.
The sewage was releasing large amounts of phosphates from human wastes and from detergents into the lake.
Phosphate acts as
“fertilizer” for bacteria and algae.
Eutropfication

…………describes a dilemma in which multiple individuals acting independently and solely and rationally consulting their own self-interest will ultimately destroy a shared limited resource even when it is clear that it is not in anyone's long term interest for this to happen.

……………hypothetical and simplified situation from medieval land tenure in Europe, of herders sharing a common parcel of land (the commons), on which they are each entitled to let their cows graze. In Hardin's example, it is in each herder's interest to put the next (and succeeding) cows he acquires onto the land, even if the carrying capacity of the commons is exceeded and it is damaged for all as a result. The herder receives all of the benefits from an additional cow, while the damage to the commons is shared by the entire group. If all herders make this individually rational economic decision, the commons will be destroyed to the detriment of all.

Define conservation and distinguish between conservation and preservation.
Conservation is the sustainable use and management of natural resources including wildlife, water, air, and earth deposits. Natural resources may be renewable or nonrenewable.

Preservation, in contrast to conservation,attempts to maintain in their present condition areas of the
Earth that are so far untouched by humans. This is due to the concern that mankind is encroaching onto the environment at such a rate that many untamed landscapes are being given over to farming, industry, housing, tourism and other human developments, and that we our losing too much of what is
“natural'.

Describe the environmental contributions of the following people: John
James Audubon, Henry
David Thoreau, George
Perkins Marsh, Theodore
Roosevelt, Gifford
Pinchot, John Muir,
Franklin Roosevelt, Aldo
Leopold, Wallace Stegner,
Rachel Carson, and Paul
Ehrlich.

Thoreau was most well-known for the autobiographical story of his experiences in the woods on Walden Pond in
Massachusetts where he lived very simply in commune with nature for nearly two years from 1845 to 1847
……..his most significant contribution is the way his writings encapsulate environmental stewardship. He constantly sought greater passion and meaning for his life through his relationship with nature.
Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862)

George Perkins Marsh (1801-1882), an American naturalist, organizer, lawyer, diplomat, and businessman whose ecological insights brought awareness to humankind's impacts on the Earth.
In an era of massive industrialization,
Marsh introduced a different fashion for measuring progress. While acknowledging the need for human use of the natural environment,
Marsh used his writing to challenge
Americans to reconsider their misuse and mismanagement of their national bounty. In 1864, Marsh wrote:
"Nature, left undisturbed, so fashions her territory as to give it almost unchanging permanence of form, outline, and proportion, except when shattered by geologic convulsions….

In 1902 he established the first national park at Crater Lake, Oregon and went on to create four more (Wind Cave National Park,
SD; Sully's Hill, ND; Platt National Park, OK; and Mesa Verde
National Park, CO). During his tenure as president from 1901 to 1909 he created 51 wildlife refugees, passed the Antiquities Act (which led to the creation of 18 national monuments), and created the National
Park Service.

Gifford Pinchot (August 11, 1865 – October 4, 1946) was the first Chief of the United States Forest Service
(1905–1910) and the Governor of
Pennsylvania (1923–1927, 1931–1935).
He was a Republican and
Progressive. Pinchot is known for reforming the management and development of forests in the United
States and for advocating the conservation of the nation's reserves by planned use and renewal.
He called it "the art of producing from the forest whatever it can yield for the service of man." Pinchot coined the term conservation ethic as applied to natural resources.

His direct activism helped to save the Yosemite Valley, Sequoia
National Park and other wilderness areas. The Sierra Club, which he founded, is now one of the most important conservation organizations in the United States. His writings and philosophy strongly influenced the formation of the modern environmental movement.
John Muir (21 April 1838 –
24 December 1914) was a
Scottish-born American naturalist, author, and early advocate of preservation of
U.S. wilderness.

With a long-term interest in the science of forestry and resource management, FDR was particularly struck by the waste of
American natural resources at a time of great need.
…….policies incorporated the emerging field of ecology with federal policies to manage watersheds, maintain forests, teach agriculture, and hold fast the flying soils of the southern plains.
Franklin Delano Roosevelt
(January 30, 1882 – April 12,
1945), the only U.S. President elected to more than two terms.

Aldo Leopold (January 11, 1887 – April 21,
1948) was an American ecologist, forester, and environmentalist. He was influential in the development of modern environmental ethics and in the movement for wilderness preservation. Leopold is considered to be the father of wildlife management in the United States and was a life-long fisherman and hunter

Wallace Earle Stegner (February 18, 1909 – April 13,
1993) was an American historian, novelist, short story writer, and environmentalist.
….biography of John Wesley
Powell, the first man to explore the Colorado River through the Grand Canyon and his subsequent career as a government scientist and advocate of water conservation in the
American West.

In the late 1950s, Carson turned her attention to conservation and the environmental problems caused by synthetic pesticides. The result was Silent Spring (1962), which brought environmental concerns to an unprecedented portion of the
American public.

Paul Ralph Ehrlich (born 29 May 1932 ) is an American entomologist specializing in Lepidoptera (butterflies). He became a household name after publication of his 1968 book “The Population Bomb”, in which he predicted that
"In the 1970's and 1980's . . . hundreds of millions of people are going to starve to death in spite of any crash programs embarked upon now

Relate how environmental impact statements provide such powerful protection of the environment.
An environmental impact statement (EIS) under United States environmental law, is a document required by the National
Environmental Policy Act for federal government agency actions
"significantly affecting the quality of the human environment."A tool for decision making, an EIS describes the positive and negative environmental effects of proposed agency action – and cites alternative actions.

Sketch a simple diagram that shows how economics is related to natural capital. Make sure you include sources and sinks.
In economics, capital or capital goods or real capital refers to factors of production used to create goods or services that are not themselves significantly consumed (though they may depreciate) in the production process. Capital goods may be acquired with money or financial capital. In finance and accounting, capital generally refers to financial wealth, especially that used to start or maintain a business.

Economists do not take into account the impact and value of the loss of natural habitats
(wetlands, forests, savannahs, etc), wildlife, arable land or non-renewable/finite resources.
Nor do they account for the cost of air, water or soil pollution, affecting both the environment and human health.

Describe various approaches to pollution control, including command and control regulation and incentive-based regulation (that is, emissions charges and marketable wastedischarge permits).
"
Command and control" regulations focus on preventing environmental problems by specifying how a company will manage a pollution-generating process. This approach generally relies on detailed regulations followed up by an ongoing inspection program.
In the United States, the
Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRA) is a prime example of this kind of regulation

…..an incentive-based regulation (that is, emissions charges and marketable waste-discharge permits).
.
Incentive-based instruments use financial means, directly or indirectly, to motivate polluters to reduce the health and environmental risks posed by their facilities, processes, or products.
These instruments typically provide monetary and near-monetary rewards for polluting less, and impose costs of various types for polluting more.
Finally, incentive-based forms of regulation can provide a stimulus for technological change and innovation in pollution control.

Give two reasons why the national income accounts are incomplete estimates of national economic performance.
There are three main ways of calculating these numbers; the output approach, the income approach and the
expenditure approach. In theory, the three must yield the same, because total expenditures on goods and services (GNE) must equal the total income paid to the producers (GNI), and that must also equal the total value of the output of goods and services (GNP).
A variety of measures of national income and output are used in economics to estimate total economic activity in a country or region, including gross domestic product (GDP), gross national product (GNP), and net national income (NNI).

However, in practice minor differences are obtained from the various methods for several reasons, including changes in inventory levels and errors in the statistics. This is because goods in inventory have been produced (therefore included in GNP), but not yet sold (therefore not yet included in GNE). Similar timing issues can also cause a slight discrepancy between the value of goods produced (GNP) and the payments to the factors that produced the goods, particularly if inputs are purchased on credit, and also because wages are collected often after a period of production.
National income and output (Billions of dollars)
Period Ending 2003
Gross national product
Net U.S. income receipts from rest of the world
U.S. income receipts
U.S. income payments
Gross domestic product
Private consumption of fixed capital
Government consumption of fixed capital
Statistical discrepancy
National Income
11,059.3
55.2
329.1
273.9
11,004.1
1,135.9
218.1
25.6
9,679.7

Distinguish among the following economic terms: marginal cost of pollution, marginal cost of pollution abatement, optimum amount of pollution.

The marginal cost of abatement of pollution is the cost of operating
(including depreciation and financial charges) a fleet of electric-operated trucks in replacement of the fleet of diesel trucks minus the cost of operating the diesel trucks. Thus the marginal cost of abatement of pollution is the extra cost required to be incurred to reduce pollution.
If the marginal cost of pollution is GREATER THAN or EQUAL to the
Marginal Cost of abatement of pollution , it is desirable for society to ban the use of diesel operated trucks the electric (battery) operated trucks.
If the marginal cost of abatement is greater than the marginal cost of pollution, there is no point in trying for abatement.

…..effective dose equivalent
Toxicology (from the Greek words toxicos and logos) is the study of the adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms. It is the study of symptoms, mechanisms, treatments and detection of poisoning, especially the poisoning of people.
…..median lethal dose, LD
50

Marginal cost is the change in total cost that arises when the quantity produced changes by one unit. It is the cost of producing one more unit of a good
In general terms, marginal cost at each level of production includes any additional costs required to produce the next unit. If producing additional vehicles requires, for example, building a new factory, the marginal cost of those extra vehicles includes the cost of the new factory.

Marginal cost of pollution is the additional cost inflicted on the society by producing one more unit of a good which in the process of production generates pollution. For example the the cost (to the people in the neighborhood) of washing clothes more frequently because of dust and the cost of getting medical treatment for sickness arising out of dust, carbon and other toxic gases in the air by a new fleet of diesel operated cement trucks operating in a neighborhood is the marginal cost of air pollution suffered by the society.
This does not include actual habitat destruction costs?

Discuss some of the complexities of the "jobs versus the environment" issue in the Pacific Northwest.
Weighing the Costs and
Benefits
From the environmentalists' perspective, the benefits of preserving the northern spotted owl and its habitat far outweigh any of the costs. First, saving the spotted owl will save an entire ecosystem on which plants, other animals, and humans depend.
The spotted owl is considered an indicator species -- a gauge of the health of the ecosystem that provides its habitat.

The steady decline of this species signals the demise of other species, such as elk and flying squirrel, that inhabit these forests, and the disruption of the productive forces of nature that sustain human life. The ancient forests and the life they harbor form a complex web of interdependent relationships that play a critical role in preventing soil erosion, floods, and landslides, providing clean water for agriculture and cities, enhancing the productivity of salmon fisheries, enriching the soil with vital nutrients, and ameliorating the greenhouse effect. No amount of reforestation can replace this highly developed and diverse system which has taken millennia to evolve.

Describe some of the environmental problems facing formerly communist governments in Central and Eastern Europe.

…..
big exporters of pollution to neighboring and distant countries. Because of their deteriorated environment, people in these republics have poor health and a life expectancy 3 to 6 years below the average for Europe.
After 42 years of
Communist rule, the country struggled with economic change to a free market economy. It recognized that environmental recovery directly relates to economic improvement.

Years of neglecting environmental regulations, not considered a high priority, have brought on this predicament. Some of the problems are common to other Central and Eastern European countries. They are:
1)
2) severe air pollution including sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, and acid rain;
2) water pollution including agricultural runoff of soil, nitrates, pesticides, and industrial contamination by toxic organics and metals;
3)
4)
3) untreated or poorly treated wastewater discharges of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), nutrients, and total suspended solids (TSS); and
4) solid and hazardous wastes at an unknown number of sites containing metals, organics, and radioactive contaminants.

These types of pollution can cause decreased life expectancy, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in breast milk, excessive chronic illness among children during atmospheric inversions, and lead in children's blood. Metals extensively contaminate food crops, and chlorinated hydrophobic organics pollute pork, beef, and poultry items.

Much of the pollution stems from a policy that subsidized the price of energy, water, and agricultural chemicals. Industries failed to invest in pollution control or prevention. They either did not enforce environmental regulations or, in some cases, found it was cheaper to pay the fine than to fix the problem.
If you want more of something Subsidize it!!

The root of many of the environmental problems in the republics is the poor quality of coal available between 1948-1989.
After World War II, the mining and combustion of soft brown lignite coal increased from 15 to more than 100 million metric tons per -year