5/6/2010
QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
METHODS
OBSERVATION THEORY AND APPLICATION
Assigment 1
Reviewd by:
Assist. Prof. Elif KARAOSMANOĞLU
Prep. by:
İlhan ÇİFTÇİ & Selim SARIYERLİ
Qualitative Research Meth0ds
Bahçeşehir University
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Observation Articles:
The past, present and future of observational research in marketing by Nick Lee and Amanda J.
Broderick Aston Business School, Birmingham, UK
Abstract
•
Purpose – To introduce the contents of the special issue, and provide an integrative overview
of the development of observational methodologies in marketing research, as well as some
directions for the future.
•
Design/methodology/approach – A historical review of the development of observational
methods, beginning with philosophical foundations, is provided. Key philosophical debates
are summarized, and trends in observational methods are described and analyzed, with
particular reference to the impact of technology. Following this, the contributions to the
special issue are summarized and brought together.
•
Findings – Observational research in marketing is more than the well-known method of
“participant-observation.” In fact, technology has the potential to revolutionize observational
research, and move it beyond a solely “qualitative” method. The internet, video, scannertracking, and neuroimaging methods are all likely to have a big impact on the development
of traditional and innovative observation methods in the future. The articles in the special
issue provide a good overview of these developments.
•
Research limitations/implications – The views of the authors may differ from those of
others.
•
Practical implications – Observation is a far more wide-ranging strategy than many
perceive.There is a need for more expertise in all types of observational methodologies
within marketing research schools and departments, in order to take account of the vast
opportunities which are currently emerging.
•
Originality/value – Provides an original perspective on observational methods, and serves as
a useful overview of trends and developments in the field.
Observation in Marketing Research lies on many viewpoints; rationalist viewpoint lies in direct
opposition to the empiricist viewpoint of those such as John Locke, Francis Bacon and later the
logical positivists, such as Rudolf Carnap, that the only knowledge we can have must be that which
we can directly observe. Another rationalism-empiricism debate is physicsts’ approach to string
theory. In social science, however is accepted in general terms,but the debate continues around
foloowing three issues: exactly what the “social world” is and what we can know about it; how we
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should obtain formation about this world; and the role of a priori theory in shaping our empirical
processes. These three questions are interlinked in that one’s beliefs about the nature of the social
world should as a matter of course influence thoughts about what can be known about the world,
and then exactly how data should be collected. Unfortunately, these debates have tended to focus
on the least important aspect, how one should collect data, or what is informally known as the
“qualitative-quantitative divide.” In marketing research ,the use of observation was believed by
most scholars to most often used as a qualitative technique. However, in more contemporary
times,qualitative methods have evolved beyond their marginal status to begin to play a major role in
marketing research, particularly in consumer behavior Nevertheless, the evolution of qualitative
research in marketing appears to have been primarily driven by the phenomenologically-based
methods such as interviewing, rather than observational methods. One upshot of this is that the
general term “observation” is likely to be synonymous with the common ethnographic method of
“participant observation” in the minds of many scholars. Participant observation is not commonly
used in marketing may lead to a situation where it is not often part of the “evoked set” of research
methods which come to mind for many researchers when they are considering collecting data. The
use of participant observation to collect data may be extremely time-consuming,highly expensive
and difficult. In the current “publish or perish” environment this is not a very highly popular choice.
When the time comes for analysing this data, few marketing academics are routinely trained in the
analysis of field notes and other types of data which result from participant observation. Finally
there are few mentors to guide the progress of participant observation researcher which means that
the specific “participant observation” is not particularly appropriate for marketing scholarly
researchers.
Churchill’s prominent “Marketing Research: Methodological Foundations” (Churchill and Iacobucci,
2004) defines two main types of data collection methodology; communication and observation.
Communication is defined as any data collection method where we must ask our research
participants to give us the data we need, such as interviews or surveys. On the other hand,
observational methods do not require our participants to do so. Yet, such methods are not
necessarily qualitative in nature, just as communication methods are not necessarily quantitative as
was shown above. Even Churchill and Iacobucci (2004) give examples of quantitative observational
methods such as head counts, and physiological measures. In fact, as technology advances
inexorably, the qualitative “participant observation” model has become only one small component of
a vast and exciting set of observational methods. One method in particular which has proven to be
extremely influential in contemporary marketing research is the historical approach to modeling the
behavioral impacts of marketing variables (Wittink, 2005). Econometric modeling based on historical
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data (such as supermarket scanner tracking) has become the dominant force in contemporary
marketing research, at least in the so-called “A-list” journals. This method is quite observational
because it is observed over the course of a given time period by way of a direct record of overall
consumer purchasing. Technology has allowed us to leverage the theoretical advantages of
observational work, such as the possibility of objective measurement of activity and ability to follow
behavior over a given time period, along with the traditional merits of quantitative surveys (e.g. large
sample size) No researcher is required to follow consumers, recording their purchases. As well as
this, researchers are able to access historical behavioral data, which is traditionally unavailable to
observational researchers, who need to wait for a behavior to occur before recording it. Such
developments have the potential to revolutionize how we understand the impacts of marketing
variables on consumer purchasing.
Technology is also allowing us to push the boundaries of what is possible in qualitative and
interpretive observational methodologies as well. This is most clearly seen with the rise of the
internet and a methodology which has come to be known as “netnography” (Kozinets, 2002; Nelson
and Otnes, 2005). The vast amount of interaction which now goes on between individuals
participating in web-based social contact or information seeking and sending behaviors has resulted
in a virtual goldmine of information for those researchers who are interested in issues such as wordof-mouth, branding and the sociocultural aspects of consumer products. In the context of
netnography the interest is not on pure behavior, but on deeper social and cultural interaction both
between consumers themselves and between consumers and products/brands. Even though such
methods deal with the “words” of participants, they are not communication methods as researchers
are not asking questions of participants. Instead, researchers are observing the social behavior of
participants, which areexpressed in words (and also in other ways). With the increasing amount of
web-connected cameras and the like, researchers may soon be able to carry out observational
research in contexts which were impossible in the recent past. Such contexts may have been too
dangerous, too remote, or perhaps simply too expensive to get to.However, the development which
may have the potential to make the most telling advances in our understanding is the rise of
neuroscientific tools to directly observe the various activities which occur in the brain (Senior and
Rippon, 2007).The ability to directly observe the neural activity which occurs in correlation with
various behaviors and decisions seems likely to lead eventually to a revolution in our understanding
of why and how individuals make decisions regarding marketing activities.
The idea of “neuromarketing” seems to have developed a negative reputation amongst many
neuroscientists (Nature Neuroscience, 2004). Yet brain imaging has the potential to contribute to our
understanding of almost all areas of marketing in ways we can only begin to imagine at present (Lee
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et al., 2007). Such research is quite clearly observational in nature, although it may involve some
questioning if attitudinal and decision-related correlates are sought rather than purely behavioral
ones. However, neuroimaging is clearly a long way from what many marketing scholars consider to
be “observational” research. Observational research (according to researcher) is any research which
collects empirical data not by questioning respondents, but by observing behavior and/or other
forms of activity. The recognition that direct observation of human activity is a necessary and
important methodology, even if it is not often the easiest or most resource-effective.
Another data collection method is Starr and Fernandez’s “Mindcam” methodology. This methodology
uses advanced miniaturized video recording equipment to provide observational data from the
perspective of the subject, not the researcher, i.e. a first-person perspective. These data are then
used as stimuli in an in-depth interview process. As such, the Mindcam method provides an almost
perfect example of how technology is able to enhance our ability to do observational research in
what could be called a “traditional” sense.Fernandez explain, traditional observation relies on the
researcher’s interpretation of event and even when using video recording equipment, the researcher
is essentially “directing” how events are recorded. We are then in a situation of having a partial
record (the video) of a partial view of the subject’s reality (i.e. the observation by the researcher).The
Mindcam method has the potential to remove this layer of interpretation from observational
research, allowing a closer and richer view of how the subject experiences the world.
1st article of Senior et al. is an introduction to three different neuroscientific methodologies which
have the potential to revolutionize marketing research. Senior et al. describe the core principles
behind functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), magnetoencephalography (MEG) and
transcranial magnetic stimulation, and also provide an interesting historical overview of their
development. The aim is to introduce to general marketing researchers the techniques and to show
their possible usage. Senior et al. also provide the results of a qualitative study examining the
experiences of subjects of fMRI and MEG data collection procedures. Taken together, the authors
hope that this work will help to increase the usage of neuroimaging among marketers and also help
ensure that it is done in an ethical manner. The next article by Kenning, Plassmann and Alhert is also
about neuroimaging, but the focus is squarely on fMRI.Kenning, Plassmann and Alhert provide a
useful preamble describing previous work in consumer research and follow this up with a wideranging introduction to different forms of neuroscientific data collection.The concentration on fMRI
allows Kenning, Plassmann and Alhert to explicate the form of a typical fMRI study, including how
data might be collected, analyzed and interpreted. Some current limitations of fMRI are also
detailed, which leads the authors to the conclusion that it may be some time before fMRI is used as a
matter of course by marketers. This article and that by Senior et al. should enhance the
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dissemination of neuroimaging methodologies into marketing research, thus making a significant
contribution to what we know about how and why consumers and other marketing actors behave in
the ways they do.Chamberlain and Broderick’s article is also concerned with the use of physiological
observational methods. However, this paper shows how such methods can be used to study a topic
which has been of interest to marketing and consumer researchers for many years: emotions.The
main contribution of the article is to show how modern observational methodologies can provide
new ways of measuring constructs which have heretofore mainly been operationalized using
traditional methods (such as self-report psychometric measures). The final article, by Schlosser
shows how observational methodologies and technology can combine in order to enhance the actual
practice of marketing “in the field,” More specifically, the study shows how mobile observational
technologies such as handheld computers can change the employee-manager relationship.While
Schlosser focuses on the sales manager-salesperson relationship, the article is relevant to all
researchers, particularly given the often close relationship between an observational researcher and
his or her subjects. Professor Gummesson is an iconoclastic thinker and has already made a
significant contribution to management research methodology. In his commentary Gummesson
presents his belief that observational methods are under-utilized in marketing research, even though
they can provide many unique insights.He sets out his belief that reliance on verbal data is in no way
enough to illuminate the full richness of the marketing milieu.Gummesson presents his own very
personal strategy for research, interactive research, focusing on the interaction between the
researcher and the subject, the researcher and the data, and the researcher and the audience of the
research. While this approach may not suit all readers, it certainly provides an interesting and
valuable counterpoint to much contemporary and traditional marketing research.In conclusion,
traditional or “newer” observational methodologies, are or can be powerful indication of the
opportunities available to researchers within marketing.
Application
How Turkey’s Abkhaz Community Resolves Interpersonal Conflict:
Observation apllication is related to the Abkhaz Community Conflict Resolution. Author Muzaffer
Ercan Yilmaz is a professor of conflict resolution and international relations at Balikesir University in
Balikesir, Turkey. Firstly he explained the Abkhaz Community migration from Caucasus region to
Turkey. In accoradance to his explanation there have been various place Abkhaz Community live in
place in Turkey and close areas.
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Author perfomed his research in Aegean Region. The fundamental reason of his choice is his
knowledge about this region and his Abkhaz close friends.
Auıthor started to live with Abkhaz Community in Balıkesir, In – dept interview and observation
studies are both used to conduct this paper reseach.
The interviewees were selected through snowball sampling. This means that I first identified two
Balikesir University professors from the Abkhaz community who led me to other potential
interviewees. Ultimately, I interviewed 20 people, mainly from Bandirma province in Balikesir. Men
made up 60% of the same and women, 40%. Their ages ranged from 17-48, with a mean age of 22.8
and a standard deviation of 7.05. All of the interviewees were white and most were well educated:
85% had a college degree, 10% had a Ph.D., and 5% had a high school degree.
Structured and non structured interviews performed to obtain materials.Non structured interviews
play a role to conduct semi structured questions asked. During an interview, respondents were
basically asked to describe the types of interpersonal conflict they have experienced and how they
unofficially resolved them.
Observation method used after interviews. Author spent a few weeks with the Abkhaz in Balikesir,
visiting many Abkhaz families and observing them in different settings, including at popular
gatherings, festivals, and during activities of daily living. I also visited some Abkhaz non-governmental
organizations and inquired into the basic rules governing interpersonal relations.
Abkhaz Community Structure
Abkhaz Community rules are determined by Aleyfe. It is the Abkhaz Board and conflict resolution
centre. Aleyfe regulates all aspects of social life in the community. Ayhabıra is the leader of Aleyfe.
Generally Ayhabıra is selected from the elder member of the community. Rarely, female and young
professions are selected Aleyfe Leader.
Ayhabıra meetings are made whenever it needs. There is no regulatory rules to perform meeting
adjustment time. Decisions are taken with consensus. Aleyfe decisions and decision making sytle is
changing with respect to the conflict environment.
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Firstly, Aleyfe tries to solve conflict with conflict parties. Conflict sides explain their unhappy
conditions and give authority to solve problem from the Aleyfe. This is the normal way.
whenenever conflict parties do not accept the consensus, Ayhabıra observe the parties’ behavior.
They look for conduct that produces a negative response or hinders a positive one. They also try to
determine if a lack of information or misinformation could be at the root of the conflict. Then,
outside the presence of the parties, the ayhabıra members share their understandings of the conflict
and their perceptions of the parties with each other. Next, they try to come to a consensus regarding
how the conflict can be resolved.
If an individual party does not accept an ayhabıra decision, he or she will be sanctioned by the
community, such as by being shunned by the group. Isolation causes psychological stress and is
enough to make most Abkhaz readjust their views to those of the community.
Conclusion
The ayhabıra and ayhaba contribute to socialpeace and harmony in the Abkhaz community by
functioning as a “quasi-mediation service” in acountry where professional mediation is not yet
available.
A major shortcoming of the Abkhaz way of resolving interpersonal conflicts is that it is based on
community traditions. Another is that male elders usually make up the ayhabıra and serve as
ayhabas, which could lead to structural discrimination in decision making. This could explain
why women do not commonly bring disputes to the ayhabıra.
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