Collecting Primary Data:
Observations
Objectives
By the end of this session you will be able to:
• Describe some of the advantages and
disadvantages of the observational approach.
• Select an observational approach appropriate to
a given research objective.
• Analyse and interpret observational data.
• Produce observational data that are valid and
reliable.
• Use observational methods in an ethical
manner.
Observation: is there
movement?
Observation: shrinking haze
Observation: left/right brain
conflict
Observation
• Triangulate with other
data gathering methods.
• Getting to understand
participants’ symbolic
world.
• Observing what
participants are unwilling
to reveal.
• Observing the difference
between what
participants say or think
they do, and what they
actually DO.
How do we ‘observe’?
Schemas/concepts
Sensory INPUTS
• Sight
• Sound
• Smell
• Touch
• Taste
Interpretations
OUTPUTS
Observation roles
Overt observation
Announced participant
Announced observer
Participant
observation
Non-participant
observation
Undercover participant
Undercover observer
Covert observation
Merits of participant observation
Participant observation is of value in that it:
• Is effective at observing non-verbal
behaviour.
• Is immediate in the sense that it elicits
data on events as they happen.
• Allows for a more natural relationship to
develop over time between the researcher
and respondent.
Challenges of participant
observation
•
•
•
•
Insider v. outsider status – confusion.
‘Going native’ – bias.
Being ‘outed’ – respondent anger.
Collecting the data – how/when?
The process of observation
• Getting in.
• Tracking.
• Informed consent.
• Becoming invisible.
• Developing
relationships.
• Building rapport.
• Eavesdropping.
• Handling identity.
• Asking questions.
• Observing and learning.
• Locating ‘stars’.
• Getting out.
Gathering data: field notes
• Date, time, place.
• Physical appearance of inhabitants.
• Physical appearance of setting (layout,
artefacts).
• Observation of activities being undertaken
(including sequence of events).
• Observation of non-verbal behaviours (body
language).
• Tone of conversations (polite, formal, angry, etc.)
• Key quotations.
• Personal views, reflections and emotions.
Expanding and analysing field
notes
• Primary observation: chronological log. Raw
data (i.e., no explanations or analysis) of
observations on people, their surroundings,
behaviours and conversations.
• Reflection and recall during the process of
writing up field notes.
• Pre-analysis of data: ideas and inferences.
• Experiential data: impressions and personal
feelings about events, people, conversations
and interpretations of own emotional reactions.
Structured observation
More quantitative than the use of field notes.
Advantages include:
• It should result in more reliable data because the
results can be replicated either by the same
researcher at a different time, or by other
researchers.
• It allows data to be collected at the time they
occur and does not have to rely on the recall of
participants or their interpretation of events.
• It collects data that participants themselves may
not realize are important.
Alternative ways of coding an
event
(a) Simple checklist
Event
1
2
3
III
IIII
I
(b) Sequence record
Event
2
2
1
3
1
1
1
2
3
(c) Sequence record on timescale
Elapsed
time
(mins)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Event
1
2
322
1
12
2
1
Enhancing validity
• Select cases/settings on the basis of their
potential for being representative of the
population.
• Study cases in one field that are similar to
cases in another.
• Stay in the field long enough to observe or
experience the full range of routines and
behaviours that typify the case.
Enhancing reliability
• Record observed events so that the data can be
reviewed and, if necessary, re-interpreted by
another researcher.
• Keep very comprehensive notes, as some
details that appeared hardly relevant at the time
of the observation may later prove to be crucial.
• Use structure in the data gathering process
(e.g., coding events).
• Triangulation – multiple methods of data
collection.
Writing up observational data
Accounts could include:
• The context of the study
(physical setting, history,
etc.).
• The number of participants.
• The activities taking place.
• The division of labour and
hierarchies.
• Significant events.
• Members’ perspectives and
meanings.
• Social rules and basic
patterns of order.
Summary
• Observation is more than just ‘seeing’; it also involves complex
combinations of all the senses and the interpretation of observed
events.
• Observation can be overt or covert and involve the active
participation of the observer or non-participation.
• One of the challenges of the observational approach is the
gathering of data, particularly if the observer is a covert
participant.
• Field notes should be as comprehensive as possible and should
be taken either as events are observed or as soon as possible
afterwards.
• Observational methods will often be triangulated with other
research approaches, such as interviews and questionnaires.
• For structured observation, coding schedules will be used based
on the principle of either noting events over a period of time or
noting when an event occurs.
• Ethical issues arise, particularly where covert observation is
being used. Researchers may do well to make use of a code of
ethics drawn up by the relevant professional body, if such a code
exists.