PERKEMBANGAN PERANGKAT KOMPUTER DAN INTERCONNECTION
NETWORK
ABSTRACT
History of computer development started with the development of the mathematical sciences.
Starting with the use of human fingers, then created Abakus tool that can perform simple
arithmetic operations.
The development of computer innovation since 1960 to add a list of very interesting discoveries
and most important, namely the Reduced Instruction Set Architecture computers (RISC).
Essential elements used most common design is a RISC instruction set is limited and simple,
general-purpose registers numerous or use of compiler technology to optimize register usage,
and an emphasis on optimizing the instruction pipeline.
Basically, a computer program designed by using a method which does not enable parallel
computing, namely by completing each step in a single time. For programs that perform the
process in this way (parallel computing), then the program is designed to be able to divide the
task into the task-smaller task that can be done individually. Parallel Computing appear when the
computer carry more than one task simultaneously (concurrently).
In 1969, first formed a computer network. At that time only a computer network consists of
several computers connected by cables and hereinafter referred to as the ARPAnet. And
subsequently formed the Interconnected Network, abbreviated form the Internet. Internet is a
global network that connects computers to each other around the world. With the Internet,
computers can connect to each other to communicate, share and get information.
INTRODUCTION ORGANIZATION COMPUTERS
1. Computer
Computer is an electronic calculating machine that rapidly accept digital input information and
process information according to a set of instructions stored in the computer and generate output
information generated after processing. A list of commands is called a computer program and a
computer storage unit is a memory.
Computers functional units are: input, memory, arithmetic and logic, output and control.
2. Computer Organization
Computers are part of the organization that is closely associated with the operational units and
the interconnection between components of a computer system to realize the architectural
aspects. Examples are the organizational aspects of technology hardware, software interfaces,
memory technology, system memory, and control signals.
Differences between the Organization and Computer Architecture:
Computer Organization
The part that is closely related to operational units
Example: technology hardware, software interfaces, memory technology, system memory, and
control signals
Computer Architecture
attributes associated with computer systems programmer
Example: set of instructions, arithmetic is used, addressing technique, the mechanism of the I /
O
3. Structure and Function Main Computer
Computer Structures
Computer is a system that interacts with a particular way with the outside world. Interaction with
the outside world is done through peripheral devices and communication channels.
Computer structure is divided into 4 main structures:
1. Central Processing Unit (CPU), serves as the central control computer operations and
processing functions - the functions of the computer. The deal, simply referred to as a processor
CPU (processor) only.
2. Main Memory, serves as a data storage.
3. I / O, serves to move the data to the outside environment or other devices.
4. System Interconnection, is a system that connects the CPU, main memory and I / O.
Figure 1.2 Basic Computer Structure
CPU structure is divided into 4 main structures:
• Control Unit, serves to control the operation of the CPU and controls the overall computer.
• And Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), serves to establish a function - the function of data
processing computer.
• Register, serves as an internal storage for the CPU.
• CPU Interconnection, serves to connect all parts of the CPU.
Computer functions
In principle, there are four operating functions, namely:
• Function Data Processing Operations
• Function Data Storage Operations
• Function Data Transfer Operations
• Operation Control Function
Gambar Fungsi Komputer
Gambar Operasi pengolahan data
Gambar Operasi pemindahan data
Gambar Operasi pengolahan data
Gambar Operasi penyimpanan data
Gambar Operasi pengolahan data
EVOLUTION AND PERFORMANCE COMPUTER
History of Computers
History of computer development is divided into two, namely:
1. Before 1940
2. After 1940
Computer Before 1940
History of computer development started with the development of the mathematical sciences.
Starting with the use of human fingers, then created Abakus tool that can perform simple
arithmetic operations.
In 1617, John Napier has been suggested this tool called logarithms and Napier bones which can
perform various calculations of numbers.
Then Blaise Pascal created the first mechanical calculating machine in 1642 that operates by
moving the gear on the wheel and then has been developed by William Leibnitz.
In 1816 Charles Babbage has been fostering the difference engine that has been able to solve the
problem of mathematical calculations such as logarithm mechanically exactly up to twenty
digits.
This machine also has used a kind of "card" as an input, to save the "files" of data automatically
perform calculations and so on to output in printed form on paper. "Card" the first time it has
been used as input devices in the textile industry in the automatic loom Joseph Jecquard creation
in 1801.
In 1887 Herman Hoolerith has been popularizing the use of "card" as a data input tool that has
been widely used American population.
Howard Aiken introduced the use of electromechanical machine called the "Mark 1" in 1937,
electronic and mechanical. This machine can solve the problem of trigonometric functions in
addition to the calculations that have been done before these machines.
Computer After 1940
I. First Generation Computers:
Vacuum Tube 1940 - 1959
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator)
The ENIAC computer was invented by Dr. John Mauchly and Presper Eckert in 1946
EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
Tiub use tiub vacuum has also been reduced in the EDVAC, where the calculation process has
become faster than ENIAC
EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator)
EDSAC has introduced the use of mercury (mercury) in the tube to keep the memory.
UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Calculator)
In 1951 Dr. Mauchly and Eckert created UNIVAC I, the first computer is used to process the
data commerce.
II. Second Generation Computers: Transistor (1959 - 1964)
The second generation of computers have used a transistor and a diode to replace the vacuum
ducts and make computers smaller size and cheaper. A new way to save memory is also
introduced through magnetic technology. Keupayaan processing and computer main memory
size also increases and manjadikan it more efficient.
FORTRAN and COBOL emergence marks the beginning of a high-level language to replace
the language of instruction in the machine more difficult.
Minicomputer also been introduced which is the second largest in the computer generation. The
first version of the DEC PDP 8 was created in 1964 that is useful to process the data.
III. Third Generation Computers:
Integrated Circuits (1964 - 1980)
Chip began to replace the transistor as a computer with terhasilnya logical circuit terkamir or
better known as chips.
The smallest computer type microcomputers have emerged and quickly became the most popular
as the Apple II, IBM PC and Sinclair.
Many programming languages have emerged such as BASIC, Pascal and PL / 1. Most
microcomputers based on the interpretation of the language in depth, chip ROM to use BASIC
language.
IV. Fourth Generation Computers:
Very Large Scale Integration (1980 - 2000)
Chip was used to process and store memory. He is more sophisticated, equipped with up to
hundreds of thousands of transistor components called pengamiran scale is very large (very large
scale intergartion, VLSI). Processing can be done more precisely, to the millions of bits per
second. The computer's main memory becomes greater, causing the secondary memory is less
important. This advanced chip technology has realized one more class of computers called
Supercomputer.
V. Fifth Generation Computer
(2000 - Present)
Many advances in the field of computer design and technology increasingly allows the
manufacture of fifth generation computers. Non Neumann model will be replaced with a system
that is able to coordinate many CPUs to work in unison. Another advancement is the
superconducting technology that allows the flow of electrically without any obstacles, which will
accelerate the speed of information.
Design of Computer Performance
The performance of a computer system is the result of a process of all components of a
computer, which involves the CPU, main memory, secondary memory, bus, peripherals.
Desktop applications are virtually owned by all computer systems today include:
• Image processing
• The introduction of voice or speech
• Video conferencing
• mulitimedia
• Data transfer
This increase in microprocessor performance continues not unrelenting with various techniques
that have been developed, including:
• Branch Prediction, a technique which allows observing the first processor in the software and
perform branch prediction or group instruction to be executed next.
• Data Flow Analysis, the processor will analyze instruction - instruction that does not depend on
the results or other data to create optimum scheduling in execution.
• Speculative Execution, with a capital of branch prediction and analysis of data, the processor
can perform speculative execution before his time.
There are several methods to overcome the problem of the difference between the operating
speed of the microprocessor with other components, including:
• Increase the number of bits that are searched at a certain time to dilate and widen lintasa
DRAM bus system.
• Change DRAM interface so more efficiently by using caching techniques or other patterns on
chip DRAM buffer.
• Increase interconnection bandwidth processors and memory with the use of hierarchical bus faster bus for buffering and make the data flow structure.
STRUCTURE CPU
Main components of the CPU
1. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), in charge of forming a function - the function of data
processing computer. ALU often called machine language (machine language) as part of this
work instruction - machine language instructions given to him. Like the term, ALU consists of
two parts, the unit arithmetika and boolean logic unit.
2. Control Unit, in charge of controlling the operation of the CPU and overall control of the
computer, causing synchronization between the components in function - the function
operations. Included in this responsibility is the control unit fetches instructions - instructions
from main memory and determines the type of instruction.
3. Registers, is the CPU internal storage media used during data processing. This memory is
temporary, usually used to store data during processing or data for further processing.
4. CPU Interconnections, is the connection system and the bus that connects the internal
components of the CPU, ie ALU, control unit and registers - register and also by bus - the CPU
external bus that connects with other systems, such as main memory, device input / output.
Figure 3.1 The internal components of the CPU
Figure 3.2 Structure of internal detail CPU
CPU functions
The function of the CPU is running the program - a program stored in the main memory by
taking instructions - instructions, test instructions and executes commands one by one
corresponding groove.
The simplest view of the process of execution of the program is to take instruction processing
consists of two steps, namely: operation of reading instruction (fetch) and operating instruction
execution (execute).
Figure 3.3 The basic instruction cycle
Fetch cycle - Execution
Fetch cycle - Execution grouped into four categories, namely:
1. CPU - memory, data transfer from the CPU to the memory and vice versa.
2. CPU -I / O, data transfer from the CPU to I / O module and vice versa.
3. Data Processing, CPU formed a number of arithmetic and logic operations on data.
4. Control, an instruction for controlling the function or job. Eg conversion instruction execution
affairs.
Details operating cycle, namely:
1. Instruction addess Calculation (IAC), which calculates or determines the address of the next
instruction to be executed.
2. Instruction Fetch (IF), which is read or getter instructions from the CPU to the memory
location.
3. Instruction Operation Decoding (IOD), which analyzes the instruction to determine the type of
operation to be set up and operands to be used.
4. Operand Address Calculation (OAC), which determines the operand address, this is done if it
involves reference operand on memory.
5. Operand Fetch (OF), is taking operand from memory or I / O module.
6. Data Operation (DO), which form the operation instructed in the instruction.
7. Operand store (OS), which store the execution results into memory.
Figure 3.4 Diagram instruction cycle
Interrupt Function
Interrupt function is the mechanism of termination or transfer of processing instructions in the
CPU to the interrupt routine. Almost all modules (memory and I / O) has a mechanism that can
interrupt the CPU.
General purpose interrupt routine instructions for executing management in order to effectively
and efficiently between CPU and module - I / O module and a memory.
Kind of - kind of interrupt signal class:
1. The program, which interrupts generated by some of the conditions that occur in the result of
program execution. Examples: arithmetic overflow, division of zero, operashun illegal.
2. Timer, is generated interrupt timing in the processor. This signal allows the operating system
to run certain functions on a regular basis.
3. I / O, interrupt signal generated by the module I / O connection notification of error conditions
and the completion of an operation.
4. Hardware failure, is an interrupt generated by a power failure or memory parity error.
With the mechanism of interruptions, the processor can be used to execute the instruction - the
instruction of others. Once a module has finished performing his duties and is ready to receive
the next task then the module will send an interrupt request to the processor. Then the processor
will stop the execution being operated to handle routine interruptions.
Once the program is completed, the processor interrupts will continue program execution back.
When a processor interrupt signal is received, there are two possible courses of action, namely
interruptions accepted / rejected suspended and interruptions.
If the interruption is suspended, the processor will do - it below:
1. Processor suspend the execution of a program run and storing its context.
This action is to store the address of the next instruction to be executed and other relevant data.
2. Processor set the program counter (PC) to the address of the interrupt handler routine early.
Figure 3.5 Cycle execution instruction with interrupt
MEMORY
Understanding Memory
Memory is part of the computer that serves as a repository of information that must be set and
maintained as well as possible.
The computer has a memory hierarchy consisting of three levels, namely:
• Physical registers in CPU, are at the highest level.
The information is in the register can be accessed in one CPU clock cycle.
• Primary Memory (executable memory), is in the middle level. For example, the RAM. Primary
Memory is measured with one byte at a time, can be accessed relatively quickly, and is volatile
(the information can be lost when the computer is turned off). CPU access this memory with a
single load and store instructions in a clock cycle.
• Secondary Memory, located at a lower level.
For example, disk or tape. Secondary Memory measured as a collection of bytes (block of bytes),
access time is slow, and non-volatile (the information is retained when the computer is turned
off). This memory is implemented in the storage device, so access to include action by the driver
and the device.
Memory Type
1. Internal Memory
• ROM (Read Only Memory)
Is a type of memory contents are not lost when without electricity and at first it can only be read.
ROM on a computer provided by the vendor computer and containing programs or data. On the
PC, the ROM is commonly called the BIOS (Basic Input / Output System) or ROM-BIOS.
• CMOS (Compmentary Meta-Oxyde Semiconductor)
Is a type of chip that requires electrical power from the battery. This chip contains a 64-byte
memory whose contents can be replaced. At this CMOS various basic computer settings done,
for example, devices that are used to load the operating system and including the date and time
of the system. CMOS is a part of the ROM.
• RAM (Random-Access Memory)
Is a type of memory whose contents can be changed as long as the computer is turned on and is
volatile. Additionally, RAM has properties that can store and retrieve data very quickly.
• DRAM (Dynamic RAM)
Is a type of RAM that periodically be refreshed by the CPU so that the data contained in them is
not lost. DRAM is a type of RAM that is contained in the PC.
• SDRAM (Sychronous Dynamic RAM)
Is a type of RAM that is a continuation of the DRAM but has disnkronisasi by the system clock
and has a higher speed than the DRAM. Suitable for systems with bus speeds up to 100 MHz.
• DIMM (dual in-line memory module)
With a capacity of 168 pins, both active memory modules, each surface is 84 pin. This is
different than the SIMM that only works on one side of the module only. Penghantaran support
the 64-bit data. SDRAM (synchronous DRAM) using DIMM. A substitute of DRAM, FPM (fast
page memory) and EDO. SDRAM regulator (synchronizes) so that the same memory with the
CPU clock for faster data transfer. There are two speeds are 100MHz (PC100) and 133MHz
(PC133). DIMM 168 PIN. DIMM is a type of RAM that is available in the market.
• Cache Memory
Limited-capacity memory, this memory is high-speed and more expensive than main memory.
Located between main memory and the processor registers, to work so that processors do not
directly refer to the main memory but in cache memory access speed is higher, methods of using
the cache memory will improve system performance. Cache memory is the fastest type of RAM,
and is used by the CPU, hard drive, and several other components.
External Memory
An additional memory function to store data or program.Contoh: Hard drive, Floppy Disk etc.
The relationship between Chace Memory, Main Memory and the basic concept is the external
memory: Storing data is fixed (non-volatile), either when the computer is on or not. External
memory is commonly referred to as external memory which is the hardware to perform the
operation of writing, reading and storage of data, beyond the main memory.
External memory has two main objectives, namely as a permanent data storage to RAM and the
help function to get a cheap high-capacity memory for long-term use.
Types of External Memory
By Type Access Data
DASD (Direct Access Storage Device) in which it has direct access to the data.
Examples:
Magnetic (floppy disk, hard disk)
removeable hard disk (Zip disk, flash disk)
Optical Disk
SASD (Sequential Access Storage Device)
Indirect data access (in sequence), such as magnetic tape.
Based on Material Characteristics
Punched Card or perforated card
A small card containing holes depicting various instructions or data.
This card is read via puch card reader that are not used anymore since 1979.
Magnetic disk
Magnetic Disk is a disk made of material that is magnetic, Example: floppy and hard disk.
DATA STORAGE EQUIPMENT
Kinds of Data Storage Equipment
• Magnetic Disk
• Floppy Disk
• IDE Disk
• SCSI Disk
• RAID
• Optical Disk
• CDROM
• CD-R
• CD-RW
• DVD
Magnetic Disk (Magnetic Tape)
Disk is a round disc made of a certain material (metal or plastic) with a surface material that can
be coated in magnetization.
Mechanism of read / write heads read or write using the so-called head, is komparan conductive
(conducting coil).
Physical design, the head is stationary while spinning disk platters appropriate controls
Two methods of layout data on the disk, ie constant angular velocity and multiple zoned
recording
Disk organized in the form of a ring - concentric rings called tracks
Each track on the disc are separated by a gap (gap: prevent or reduce the reading or writing
errors caused by slipping of the head or because of interference magnetic fields)
The same number of bits that will occupy the track - track available.
Getting into the disk density (density) disk will increase.
This data is sent to a memory in the form of a block, the block is generally smaller than the track
capacity.
Blocks - blocks of data are stored in disk-sized blocks, called sectors.
Track usually filled several sectors, generally 10 to 100 sectors each tracknya.
Layout and Readings
Read and write
Head should be able to identify a start or position - the position of the sector as well as track
The data will be stored additional data to inform header sector and track the location of a data
Additional data header is only used by the disk drive without any system can be accessed by
penggunaFormat data on the disk tracks Field ID is the header data used disk drive locate and
tracknya sector.
Synch byte is a bit pattern that signifies the beginning of the data field.
Characteristics Magnetic Disk:
• Contact (floppy)
• Fixed gap
• Aerodynamic gap (Winchester)
Mechanism head:
• Single-platter
• Multiple-platter
Platters:
• Single-sided
• Double-sided
Sides:
• nonremovable disk
• Removable disk
Portability disk:
• Fixed head (one per track)
• Movable head (one per surface)
Head movement
Various characteristics of Head Movement
At the head fixed each track has its own head head, while the head moves, the head of the head is
used for some of the tracks in the face of the disc.
In the moving head is a head arm to move toward the desired tracks on orders from the disk
drive.
Portability disk
• Disk is fixed (non-removable disks)
• The disc can be moved (removable disk).
Sides / Side and Platters / disc
Sides:
• one side of the disc (single sides)
• Two front disc (double sides)
Platters:
• One disc (single platter)
• Many discs (multiple platter).
Mechanism head
Head touches the disk (contact) as the floppy disk, which has a crack head north remain or not
remain dependent magnetic field.
Gap or distance depending on the density of the disk head to the data, the more solid data is
needed within the head is getting closer, but it is getting close to the head, the greater the risk
factor, namely the occurrence of read errors.
Winchester technology from IBM anticipate problems head gap above the head aerodynamic
models. Head shaped tin sheets on the surface if the disc does not move, as the velocity of the
disk, the disk will lift headnya.
IBM introduced the term Winchester model 3340 its disk. This model is a removable disk pack
with head wrapped in a pack. Winchester term now used by any disk drive that is wrapped pack
and wear head aerodinamisDisk disc design many (multiple disk platters) Floppy Disk
Characteristics diskette is head touches the surface of the disk when reading or writing.
UNIT INPUT AND OUTPUT
Unit Input and Output (I / O Devices) is a hardware interface (interface) to the system bus or
central switch and controls one or more peripheral devices.
I / O module has two main functions, namely:
• As a tool interface to the CPU and memory via the system bus.
• As a tool the interface with other peripheral equipment by using a specific data link.
Function Module I / O
Function to perform tasks for I / O modules can be divided into several categories, namely:
1. Control and timing
Berfungi to synchronize the operation of each component of the computer
2. Communication CPU
Functions of communication between the CPU and I / O module includes processes - the
following processes:
• Command Decoding, ie I / O module receives a command - a command from the CPU that is
sent as a signal to the control bus. For example, a module I / O to disk can receive commands:
Read sectors, Scan record ID, Format disk.
• Data, the exchange of data between the CPU and I / O modules via a data bus.
• Status Reporting, which is reporting the status module I / O and peripheral devices, generally in
the form of conditions Busy or Ready status. Also the status of wide - range fault condition
(error).
• Address Recognition, that equipment or components of a computer could be contacted or
summoned it must have a unique address, as well as the peripheral device, so that each module I
/ O must know the address of the peripherals it controls.
3. Communication external devices
On the side I / O modules to peripheral devices also include communication includes data
communication, control and status
4. Data Buffer
Function to get the data adjustment in respect of differences in data transfer rates of peripheral
devices with the processing speed of the CPU
5. Detection of errors
If the peripheral device there is a problem so that the process can not be executed, then the I / O
module will report the error
Structure Module I / O
The interface module I / O to the CPU via the computer system bus, there are three channels,
namely data channel, the channel address and control lines. The most important part is the logic
block I / O associated with all peripheral equipment interfaces, there is a regulatory function and
switching on this block.
Mechanical Input / Output
There are three techniques in the I / O operations, namely: I / O programmed, interrupt - driven I
/ O, and DMA (Direct Memory Access).
External Devices
In general, external devices are classified into 3 categories:
1. Human Readable, ie devices that are related to humans as computer users. For example: a
monitor, keyboard, mouse, printer, joystick, disk drives.
2. Machine readable, namely device-related equipment. Usually a sensor and transducer module
for monitoring and control of an equipment or system.
3. Communication, yatu device associated with long-distance communication. For example: NIC
and modem.
BUS SYSTEM
Understanding System Bus
Bus is a communication pathway shared users a single set of wires used to connect the various
subsystems.
The bus system is the hub for the entire computer components in performing their duties.
Bus Slots
How it Works System Bus
1. At a more advanced computer systems, computer architecture would be more complex, so as
to improve performance, use multiple buses. Each bus is a data path between several different
devices. In this way the RAM, processor, GPU (VGA AGP) connected by a high-speed main
bus, better known by the name of the FSB (Front Side Bus). While other devices are slower
connected by a lower-speed bus that is connected to the other bus faster to the main bus. For
communication between the bus is used a bridge.
Type - Type Bus
Based on the type of bus, the bus can be divided into:
• Dedicated Bus: special bus channel specific data, such as data packets only, or address alone.
• Multiplexed Bus: bus traversed different information of data, address, and control signals with
the data multiplex method.
Disadvantages are multiplexed bus requires only a little channel that saves space but the data
transfer speed decreases and the complex mechanisms need to parse the data that have been
multiplexed. As for the dedicated bus is the inverse of multipexed bus.
Bus Structure
A bus system consists of 50 to 100 separate channels. Each channel is marked with a special
meaning and function. Although there are a number of different bus designs, bus line functions
can be classified into three groups, namely data channel, the channel address and control lines. In
addition, there are also distribution lines that provide power requirements for the connected
modules.
Interconnection Bus
1. Data Channel
Data channels provide the path for the transfer of data between the two systems modules. These
channels are collectively called the data bus. Generally the data bus consists of 8, 16, 32
channels, the number of channels diakitakan denang data bus width. Because at a certain time
each channel can only carry one bit, the number of channels determines the number of bits that
can be transferred at one time. Data bus width is an important factor in determining overall
system performance. For example, if the data bus width is 8 bits, and each instruction length is
16 bits, then the CPU must be twice to access the memory modules in each cycle instructions.
2. Channel Address
Channel address is used to indicate the source or destination of data on the data bus. For
example, if the CPU will read a word of data from memory, the CPU will put the word address is
on the address line. Address bus width determines maximum memory capacity of the system. In
addition, generally channel address is also used to put address port-port input / outoput.
Typically, the bits of order higher is used to select the memory location or I / O ports on the
module.
3. Channel Control
Mengntrol control channel is used for access to the channel address and the use of data and the
channel address. Because the data and address channel shared by all components, then there must
be a tool to control their use. Control signals to transmit both commands and timing information
between modules of the system. Timing signals indicate the validity of the data and address
information. Signals specifying command operations will be established. Generally the control
channels include: memory write, memory read, I / O write, I / O read, ACK transfer, the bus
request, bus grant, interrupt request, ACK interrupt, clock, reset.
Example - Sample Bus
• ISA Bus: other personal computer industry responds to these developments by adopting its own
standards, bus ISA (Industry Standard Architecture), which is basically a bus PC / AT that
operates at 8.33 MHz. The advantage is that this approach still maintaining compatibility with
machines and existing cards.
• Bus PCI: Peripheral Component Interconect (PCI) is a bus that does not depend on the
processor and serves as a mezzanine bus or peripheral bus. PCI standard is 64 channels of data at
a speed of 33MHz, the data transfer rate of 263 MB per second or 2.112 Gbps. PCI excellence
not only on speed alone but cheap with a little chip.
• USB Bus: All peripheral devices are not effective when mounted on a high speed PCI bus,
while much of the equipment that have low speed such as keyboard, mouse, and printer. As a
solution seven vendor computer (Compaq, DEC, IBM, Intel, Microsoft, NEC, and Northen
Telecom) together meranccang bus for I / O speed is low. Dihasilakan standard called Universal
Standard Bus (USB).
• Bus SCSI: Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) is an external peripheral device that depot
[ulerkan by macintosh in 1984. SCSI is a standard interface for CD-ROM drives, audio
equipment, hard disk, and external storage devices of size large. SCSI uses a parallel interface
with 8,16, or 32 channel data.
• Bus P1394 / Fire Wire: The more rapid the needs of bus I / O high-speed processors and faster
rate, currently at 1 GHz, it needs to be balanced with high-speed bus as well. SCSI and PCI bus
can not meet current needs. Thus developed a high performance bus known as FireWire (IEEE
P1393). P1394 has advantages compared with I / O interfaces, namely, very fast, inexpensive,
and easy to implement. The fact P1394 is not only popular in the computer system, but also in
electronic equipment such as digital cameras, VCRs, and televisions.
Another advantage is the use of serial transmission that does not require a lot of wires.
Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC)
The development of computer innovation since 1960 to add a list of very interesting discoveries
and most important, namely the Reduced Instruction Set Architecture computers (RISC).
Although RISC systems have been specified and designed in various ways by the community, an
important element that is used most commonly draft are:
1. Set a limited and simple instruction
2. Register numerous general purpose or use of compiler technology to optimize register usage.
3. Emphasis on optimizing the instruction pipeline.
Instruction Execution Characteristics
To understand the need to pay attention to the characteristics of RISC instruction execution.
The computational aspects are:
• Operations performed
• operands-operand used
• Ordering the execution ,.
1. Operation
Several studies have analyzed the behavior of the program HLL (High Level Language).
Assignment very prominent statement stating that displacement is a simple one important thing.
Results of this study are important for designers set of machine instructions that indicate the type
of instruction which is often the case because it must be supported optimally.
2. operands
Research Paterson have noticed [PATT82a] dynamic frequency occurrence of classes of
variables. Results were consistent between Pascal and C program showed a majority of reference
points to the scalar variable. This study has tested the dynamic behavior of HLL program that
does not depend on the particular architecture.
Research [LUND77] test instruction DEC-10 and dynamically discover each instruction average
of 0.5 references in memory operand and an average of 1.4 references the register. Of course this
figure depends on the architecture and compiler, but is sufficient to explain the frequency of
accessing operands that express the importance of an architecture.
3. Procedure Calls
In HLL procedure call and return is an important aspect because it is an operation that requires a
lot of time in the program dikompalasi so much useful to consider how the implementation of
this opperasi efficiently. The important aspect is the number of parameters and variables related
to the procedure and the depth pensarangan (nesting).
4. Implications
In general, research suggests there are three elements that determine the character of RISC
architectures:
Characteristics of Reduced Instruction Set Architecture Computers (RISC)
RISC architecture has several characteristics including:
1. The machine cycle is determined by the time it used to take two operands from registers,
perform ALU operations, and store the results of its operations into register, thus RISC machine
instructions should not be more complex and must be able to execute as soon as mikroinstruksi
on CISC machines. By using a simple instruction or instruction one cycle only takes one
microcoded or not at all, can be dihardwired machine instructions. Such instructions will be
executed more quickly than those on the other because they do not need to access penyimapanan
mikroprogram control current instruction execution took place.
2. Operation form of register-to-register which only consists of the operation load and store
memory accesses. This design features simplified set of instructions that also simplifies the
control unit.
The other advantage that enables optimization of the use of registers that are frequently accessed
operand will remain in storage berkecepatantinggi. Emphasis on the register to register operation
is unique for RISC design.
3. Using simple addressing modes, similar to the instruction using register addressing. Some
additional modes such as shifting and relative pe can be included in addition to the many
complex mode can be synthesized on the software than the simple, but can simplify instruction
cell and control unit.
4. Using a simple instruction formats, fixed and adjustable length instruction word lengths. This
feature has several advantages for using a fixed field opcode decoding and accessing operand
register can do together
Characteristics of RISC
• Instruction single size
• The size of the public is 4 bytes
• The amount of data addressing bit, usually less than 5 pieces.
• There is no indirect addressing that requires doing a memory access in order to obtain the other
operand address in memory
• There is no operation that combines the operating load / store with arithmetic operations, such
as addition to the memory and the addition of memory.
• There is more than one addressable memory operand per instruction
• Do not support any alignment for the data to the operating load / store
• The maximum amount of memory usage management for a data address is an instruction.
• The number of bits for integer registers spesifier equal to 5 or more, meaning that at least 32
pieces at the same integer registers can be referenced explicitly.
• The number of bit floating point registers spesifier equal to 4 or more, meaning that at least 16
floating point registers can be referenced at the same time explicitly.
Advantages and Disadvantages RISC Technology
Excess RISC
 In connection with the simplification of the compiler, which the maker task compiler to
generate a series of machine instructions for all HLL statement. Complex machine instructions
are often difficult to use because the compiler must find cases that fit the concept. Work to
optimize the generated code to minimize code size, reducing the count of instruction execution,
and improve pipelining is much easier when using RISC over CISC use.
underlying RISC PowerPC architecture has a tendency to put more emphasis on the register
compared to reference memory references, and reference registers require fewer bits so that it
has access faster instruction execution.
Trends register to register operation will further simplify and streamline instruction set control
unit as well as optimizing the register will cause the operand-operand frequently accessed will
remain dipenyimpan high speed.
Use addressing modes and instruction format is much simpler.
RISC shortage
Program generated in symbolic language will be longer (more instructions) .2. Larger
programs that require more memory, is certainly less save resources.
larger program would cause b. The reduced performance, ie more instructions would mean
more bytes of instructions that must be taken.
On paging environment will lead to the possibility of a larger page fault.
PARALLEL COMPUTERS
Parallel Computing appear when the computer carry more than one task simultaneously
(concurrently). This technique can allow the computer to work faster than doing it all at once,
just as a person with two hands can accomplish more work than people who use only one hand.
Basically, a computer program designed by using a method which does not enable parallel
computing, namely by completing each step in a single time. For programs that perform the
process in this way (parallel computing), then the program is designed to be able to divide the
task into the task-smaller task that can be done individually.
The main advantage of parallel computing is a program to execute more quickly. If the computer
hardware that executes a program that menggnakan parallel computing has the architecture, such
as the Processor (CPU / Central Pecessing Unit), parallel computing can be an efficient
technique.
As an analogy, if one were to carry one box and that person is the processor, which executes
programs in a sequence can only carry one box at a time. When executing in parallel, the same
program can be divided into two different task, and if there are two processors available, it can
carry two boxes in the same time. By doing this, the person can carry the box and finish the job
more quickly.
CONTROL UNIT
Understanding Control Unit
Control Unit is part of the computer which generates the signal and controls the operation of the
computer.
Functional Requirements:
Defining basic element processors
describe the micro operation should be done processors
Determine the function of the Control Unit to be done processors
Basic Element Processor:
ALU
Register
Internal Data Path
External Data Path
Control Unit
Micro Operation Type:
Defining basic element processors
describe the micro operation should be done processors
Determine the function of the Control Unit to be done processors
Function Control Unit
• Sequencing (sort operations)
• Execute
Type Control Unit
1. Control Unit microprogrammed
Control Vertical
Control Horizontal
2. Control Unit Conventional / Hard-Wired
Key components of the Control Unit microprogrammed:
1. Instruction Register
2. Control Store contains microprogrammed
3. Address Computing circuiting
4. microprogrammed Counter
5. Microinstruction Buffer
6. Microinstruction Decoder
Interconnection NETWORK
Understanding the Internet
Internet (Interconnected Network) is a global network that connects computers to each other
around the world. With the Internet, computers can connect to each other to communicate, share
and get information.
The information in the Internet is generally disseminated through a web page created with the
programming language format HTML (Hypertext Markup Language).
History of the Internet
Internet was originally formed from the military environment, under the auspices of the US
Defense Department project called the Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA). Computer
network was first formed in 1969. At that time, the computer network only consists of several
computers connected by cables and hereinafter referred to as the ARPAnet. ARPAnet itself was
built with the aim of making the spread of computer networks so that information is not focused
on a single point that is expected to be easily destroyed in the event of war. If one part of the
network is disconnected, the path through the network automatically transferred to other lines.
In 1977, more than 100 mini and mainframe computers are mostly located in the university is
connected to ARPAnet. Relations computer is used by teachers and students to share
information. In the early 1980s, ARPAnet was divided into two networks, namely the ARPAnet
and MILNET. Milnet a military networks, but both have a relationship that can be interconnected.
This interconnection network called the DARPA Internet, but later simply called the Internet. At
first the Internet can only be accessed by mini and mainframe computers. After opening the
service Usenet and BITNET, the Internet can be accessed by Personal Computer (PC). Now,
with the development of technology perangkatmobile like "phone", PDA, Tablet PC and
Smartphone, even television and assorted other telecommunication devices, we can very easily
connect to the Internet with a system called WAP (Wireless Application Protocol).
Services or facilities in the Internet
Existing services on the Internet include:
1. E-mail (Electronic Mail) is an Internet facility to send and receive mail that is transmitted
electronically
2. Mailing List, namely the development of the e-mail in the form of subscription of news or
information sent via e-mail.
3. News Group or Network News or BBS (Bulletin Board Service), namely Internet applications
such as Electronic Bulletin Board or facilities that allow us joined with the group and discuss
each other according certain topics.
4. File Transfer Protocol (FTP), this service allows Internet users to upload (save / upload) or file
transfer activity from a single web server computer and download (take / download) or activity
retrieve files from a web server and or transfer files from computer to another.
5. Remote login is Telnet, is a facility for accessing another computer remotely. With this
facility, for example, we are located in the city can control a computer located in the city of
Bandung.
6. Information Browsing ie Gopher, is the facility to find information on the Internet in the form
of text menus. Gopher weakness can only display the menus limited in written form.
7. Advanced Browsing ie WWW (World Wide Web), a collection of documents stored on a web
server in the form of HTML. Users can easily find information on the Internet is not only in
writing, but the graphics, sound and video are interlinked using so-called hypermedia link.
8. Automatic Title Search, which Archie and Veronica, is the search information on the Internet
by typing the tittle (title) topic.
9. Automatic Content Search, the WAIS (Wide Area Information System), is the automated
information search by examining the contents of documents found.
10. Two-way communication services, namely chat: can send and receive messages with text,
audio communication: can send and receive messages in the form of voice, video call: can send
and receive messages in the form of images and sounds in realtime and teleconference: two-way
communication multimedia enabling us as if doing a meeting or a meeting directly within a room
without being limited distance.
How it Works Internet
The workings of the Internet is set in a series of rules and standards called protocols.
A server will manage access and transmit data from and into the Internet requested by some
client, so the client computer can access the various facilities available on the Internet such as
web, chat, email, and so forth.
Figure 1: Chart How it Works Internet On When Data Transmission Between Two Fruit Node
Bodies or Institutions Regulatory Internet
International Internet Society (ISOC)
Is a professional body with membership open to anyone whether private, companies,
universities, and government. ISOC is the body that facilitates the Internet, support, and promote
the use of and access to the Internet.
Internet Architecture Board (IAB)
Is a coordinating body and the technical advisor of the ISOC. The agency acts as a technical
review and editorial end all Internet standards. IAB has the authority to issue a document known
as an Internet standard RFC (Request For Comment) created by the IETF, IEEE and other
institutions are entitled to make proposals. Another task of the IAB is to arrange numbers and
constants used in Internet protocol (TCP port numbers, IP protocol codes, etc.).
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
Is a unit that is under the IAB is comprised of people who concentrate on developing
applications and future Internet architecture. The agency is tasked to establish Internet standards.
One of his duties was published RFC (Request For Comment) on a protocol or standard
proposed by someone for comment by the public with the consent of the IAB. Website is
www.ietf.org. The IETF is divided into nine working groups (eg applications, routing and
addressing, computer security).
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Enginering (IEEE)
IEEE stands for the beginning is the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Enginering (in
Indonesian means the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers) is the actual length is no
longer used, the official name of the agency currently only IEEE alone. The goal of the IEEE is
developing technology to enhance the dignity of humanity.
Internet Research Task Force (IRTF)
IRTF is the agency that has a research orientation in the short term and long term on Internet
protocols, applications, architecture and Internet technology. IRTF is below the IAB unit.
Website is www.irtf.org
Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)
IANA charge of taking care of the problem-setting Internet protocol parameters, such as IP
address space and the Domain Name System (DNS). IANA also acts as the ultimate authority to
set the DNS root set DNS information center database, also determine the IP address of
autonomous systems in the Internet network. IANA operates under ISOC and is also part of the
IAB, funded by the US government. Due to the increasing use of the Internet IANA will be
replaced by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) which is an
international non-profit agencies.
In addition to the above bodies there are also W3C (World Wide Web Consortium), which is the
body responsible for managing and developing standards for the World Wide Web (WWW).
W3C is currently led by Tim Berners-Lee, creator of the World Wide Web.
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