Gladiatorial Games
Ave, Caesar. Nos morituri te salutamus.
Munera Tomb Relief
Like chariot racing, contests of gladiators probably originated as funeral games. The
first recorded gladiatorial combat in Rome occurred when three pairs of gladiators
fought to the death during the funeral of Junius Brutus in 264 BCE, though others
may have been held earlier. Gladiatorial games, called munera since they were
originally “duties” paid to dead ancestors, served the purpose of keeping alive the
memory of an important individual after death. Munera gradually lost their exclusive
connection with the funerals of individuals and became an important part of the public
spectacles staged by politicians and emperors. Gladiatorial fights were not
incorporated into public games until the late first century.
Amphitheaters
Gladiatorial contests, like chariot races, were originally
held in large open spaces with temporary seating; there
is evidence that some munera were held in the Roman
Forum, for example. As the games became more
frequent and popular, there was need for a larger and
more permanent structure. Although the Circus Maximus
was often pressed into service because of its huge
seating capacity, the Romans eventually designed a
building specifically for this type of spectacle called an
amphitheatrum because the seating extended all the
way around the oval or elliptical performance area. Early
amphitheaters, both in Rome and elsewhere, were built
of wood, but stone amphitheaters proved to be much
more durable. Like Roman theaters, amphitheaters
were freestanding; because they did not require natural
hills, as Greek theaters did, they could be built
anywhere.
Site of the Colosseum
Subsequent to the great fire of 64 BC, Nero had seized for his own
estate a huge parcel of choice land in the middle of Rome on which he
built his palatial complex called the Domus Aurea or “Golden House."
After Nero's death, Vespasian restored this land to the people of Rome
and built an amphitheater, later to be known as the Colosseum, which
could be enjoyed by Romans of all classes on the site of Nero's
artificial lake. Vespasian also removed the head of the colossal statue
of Nero and replaced it with that of the sun god.
(Nero’s head and hand are seen above in the Capitoline Museum.)
Flavian Amphitheater
The grandest of all Roman
amphitheaters was
known in antiquity as the
Flavian Amphitheater
because it was built by
the Flavian emperors:
Vespasian, Titus, and
Domitian. It was later
called the Colosseum,
either because of its size
of because of the colossal
statue of Nero (120’)
which stood in the
vicinity. The inaugural
games were held by Titus
in AD 80.
Vespasian
Titus
Domitian
Colosseum Recreation
The exterior walls were four stories high, and the first three stories were adorned with
half-columns illustrating the three classic architectural styles: Doric, Ionic, Corinthian.
Velarium: Awning
The top story of the Colosseum was equipped with posts to which were attached a
huge awning, or velarium, that would shield the spectators from the hot sun. This
roof sloped down towards the hole in the center to catch the wind and provide a
breeze for the audience. Specially trained sailors manipulated the ropes to this
ingenious cooling system.
Colosseum Now
Only a small part of the full structure survives, not because it collapsed, though it was
damaged by several earthquakes, but because later Italians used the building as a
quarry for centuries, stealing the stones to build St. Peter's and many palaces. What
remains of the Colosseum today gives no idea of this amphitheater’s lavish decorations,
such as colorfully painted statues, decorative marble, and painted stucco.
Structure
The Colosseum was designed to
hold 50,000 spectators, and it had
approximately eighty entrances so
crowds could arrive and leave easily
and quickly.
 The plan is a vast ellipse,
measuring externally 188 m x 156
m (615 ft x 510 ft), with the base of
the building covering about 6 acres.
Vaults span between eighty radial
walls to support tiers of seating and
for passageways and stairs.
 The facade of three tiers of arches
and an attic story is about 48.5 m
(158 ft) tall — roughly equivalent to
a 12-15 story building.

Entrances: Vomitoria
The Colosseum had 80 vomitoria - passageways that
opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. The
vomitoria of the Colosseum in Rome were designed so
that the immense venue could fill in 15 minutes, and be
evacuated in 5 minutes. Each entrance and exit was
numbered, as was each staircase. (There were 80
entrances at ground level, 76 for ordinary spectators and
4 for the imperial family.) The vomitoria quickly
dispersed people into their seats and upon conclusion of
the event disgorged them with abruptness into the
surrounding streets - giving rise, presumably, to the
name. Spectators were given tickets, called tesserae,
made of materials such as bone, ivory or wood. The
tesserae were stamped with the entrance, row, and seat
numbers for ease of entrance and exit.
Colosseum Interior
This view of the area below the floor of the Colosseum would not have been seen by the
spectators. Prisoners, gladiators, and animals waited here before their performances
above. The floor of the Colosseum was wooden and could be removed. On top of the
floor sand or harena was sprinkled to soak up the blood of the spectacles. From the
word harena comes the word arena, now a word for a sports venue.
Capua Amphitheater
This view of amphitheater at Capua illustrates what the floor of the Colosseum would have
looked like without the wooden coverings and layer of sand. We can clearly see the rims
which held the wooden trapdoors through which animals and men would “magically” appear
and which could be used to produce other special effects. When the trapdoors were closed,
this subterranean area must have been very dark and frightening, echoing with the roaring of
caged animals and the cries of prisoners awaiting execution in the arena
Seating Reconstruction
The amphitheater was a microcosm of Roman society. The seating arrangements
reflected the stratification of Roman society with the different class orders on the tiers
in order by rank. The higher you sat, the lower you were in Roman social class.
Imperial Box
The emperor had a special box on a large podium, and senators sat on marble seating
divided into fourteen sections. Some remains of the imperial box can be seen today.
Interior Tiers of Seating
Next came the members of the equestrian order, who sat in the lowest tier (ima cavea)
of the amphitheater, consisting of twelve rows of marble seating divided into sixteen
sections. Roman citizens affluent enough to afford to wear a toga occupied nineteen
rows of marble seats in sixteen sections in middle of the seating area (media
cavea). Soldiers were separated from civilians, married men from bachelors; boys and
their tutors sat together, etc. Above them in the summa cavea sat poorer citizens clad in
dark garments (the pullati), slaves, freedmen, and foreigners residing in Rome. Women
from these groups probably also sat among the men. This tier consisted of seven rows
of limestone seating divided into sixteen sections. Finally, at the very top of the
amphitheater was an gallery with wooden seats on which sat wives of senators and
equestrians protected from sun and rain by a colonnade
The Start of the Games
Gladiatorial games began with an elaborate procession around the
arena that included the combatants and was led by the sponsor of the
games, the editor. In Rome during the imperial period, this usually
was the emperor, and in the provinces it was a high-ranking
magistrate. The parade and subsequent events were often
accompanied by music. (Mosaic above depicts musicians.)
Editor Datorum:
Giver of the Games
Modern screen version of the editor datorum sitting in his imperial box.
Gladiators March into Circus
BBC recreation of gladiators marching into a Circus to the applause of the spectators.
Morituri Te Salutant
Although it is popularly believed
that these bouts began with the
gladiators saying, “Those who are
about to die salute you,” the only
evidence for this phrase is only
found in the description of a
naumachia staged by the emperor
Claudius using condemned
criminals, where the men
supposedly said, “Ave, imperator;
morituri te salutant”. This was
something the condemned
criminals would have spoken
rather than professional
gladiators.
Gladiators
Gladiators were usually recruited from criminals, slaves
especially captured fugitives, and prisoners of war.
Criminals, having lost their citizen rights and slaves and
prisoners of war having none, had no choice about
becoming a gladiator, if they had the physical and
emotional make-up necessary for the profession. Some
free-born men, however, although they had not lost
their citizen rights, voluntarily chose the profession and
bound themselves body and soul to the owner of a
gladiatorial troupe (lanista) by swearing an oath "to
endure branding, chains, flogging or death by the
sword" and to do whatever the master ordered
(Petronius Sat. 117.5). It has been estimated that by the
end of the Republic, about half of the gladiators were
volunteers (auctorati), who took on the status of a slave
for an agreed-upon period of time.
Gladiator

Gladiators were named after the Roman
sword called the gladius.

The torso of the gladiator usually was bare,
a demonstration of the gladiator's
willingness to die.

Gladiators were trained to fight against
those who were right-handed, and it was
the right-hand side that was protected. It
must have been disconcerting, therefore, to
confront an opponent who was left handed,
who would have the advantage. Indeed, in
one graffito, a gladiator is specifically
described as being left handed, scaeva.
The emperor Commodus, who fought as a
secutor, boasted of being left handed.

The gladiators were known by their
distinctive clothing and weapons.
Gladiators in Training
Spartacus, aka Kirk Douglas, trains to fight with a retiarius.
Lanistae: Gladiator Trainers

Gladiators often belonged to a
troupe (familia) that traveled from
town to town. A trainer of
gladiators or the manager of a
team of gladiators was known as
a lanista. The troupe's owner
rented gladiators to whomever
wanted to stage games.

Gladiators could be also the
property of a wealthy individual
who would hire lanistae to train
them. Several senators and
emperors had their own favorites.

The lanista was a reviled figure in
Roman literature, compared by
the poet Martial with libellous
informers and liars. The lanista
was infamis and regarded as both
a butcher (lanius) and a pimp
(leno), because he traded in
humans for profit.
Ludus Magnus: Training School
There were four gladiator training schools in Rome itself, the largest of which
was called the Ludus Magnus. The Ludus Magnus was connected to the
Colosseum by an underground tunnel.
Ludus Magnus--then
Ludus Magnus--remains
Gladiatorial Training
More recent version of gladiators in training.
Gladiator Names
Thracian," along with "Gaul" and "Samnite," originally
referred to prisoners of war from Thrace, Gaul, and
Samnium (in southern Italy), who in the republican
period were forced to fight as gladiators and naturally
used the weapons and equipment characteristic of their
people. In time these terms ceased to indicate the
actual ethnicity of the fighter, but simply designated a
particular type of gladiator using particular armor and
fighting equipment. "Thracian" remained as category
until late antiquity, while "Gaul" and "Samnite"
disappeared, but the former may have been the model
for the later secutor and murmillo.
Samnite
The Samnite wore an elaborate
helmet (galea) wide leather
belt (balteus) reinforced with
bands of metal, a large oblong
shield (scutum), a sword
(gladius), and probably a
greave (ocrea) on the left leg.
The Samnites (a tribe from
Campania which the Romans
had fought in the fourth and
third centuries BC) were the
prototype for Rome's
professional gladiators, and it
was their equipment that first
was used and later adopted for
the arena.
Thracian
The Thracian had a widebrimmed crested helmet with
visor, high greaves on both
legs, arm protector (manica)
on his right arm, very small
shield (parmula), and short,
curved sword (sica). He often
fought with the Murmillo, but
the fighters could be
differentiated by their shields
because the Murmillo had a
long curved shield.
Leg Greave: Ocrea
The extravagant
decoration of the leg
greave shown here was
consistent with the
theatrical nature of the
gladiatorial show. It
offered effective
protection, and the short
stabbing swords and
daggers of the gladiator
presumably would have
been directed to the
exposed parts of the
body, not to the armor,
itself.
Thracian Helmet
The helmet of the Thraex or
Thracian was decorated with a
tall solid crest terminating in
the head of a griffin, the
companion of Nemesis,
goddess of vengeance and
retribution. It was decorated
with feathers worn in sockets
on the sides, and a removable
plume (crista) also could be
affixed to the crest. The palm
tree likely refers to the palm
branch awarded the victor. A
shield and crossed lances
decorate each cheek piece.
Murmillo
Another gladiatorial type was
the murmillo, whose name was
derived from a Greek word for
a kind of fish, probably
because the high crest of the
murmillo's helmet resembled a
fish (see right). In fact, the
secutor was likely an off-shoot
of the murmillo. Both the
murmillo and the secutor had
a curved, oblong shield and
the helmet of the latter just
made the suggestion of a fish
more obvious. The murmillo
normally fought the secutor or
the hoplomachus.
Distinctive fish-like helmet
Murmillo and Secutor
Except for the helmet, the
equipment of the
murmillo and secutor was
the same. Both wore a
loincloth and belt, the
right arm protected by a
manica of tied linen and
the left leg by a short
greave. The curved
rectangular shield and
straight sword that both
carried were similar to
those used by the Roman
soldier.
Murmillo’s Galea (Helmet)
Retiarius: Net Fighter
The retiarius, or net and trident fighter, was
easy to identify because he was the only
gladiator with no helmet or shield. Another
identifying factor was the high metal shoulder
guard (galerus), which was unique to the
retiarius. Finally, the protective sleeve called a
manica (heavy linen quilting held on by straps)
protected his left arm, while all other
categories of gladiator wore the sleeve on the
right arm. The retiarius was also special
because his gear was not inspired by the
military. In essence, he was a fisherman, as
his net and trident imply. Since he wore
practically no defensive armor, the retiarius
was more mobile than most gladiators but was
also more vulnerable to serious wounds.
Retiarius vs Secutor
Retiarius’ Galerus: Shoulder Guard
The tall shoulder-guard
(galerus) was the only
protection offered the
retiarius. Made of bronze,
it covered the shoulder
and upper arm, where it
was fixed to the manica
or arm-guard. By putting
his left shoulder forward,
the retiarius was able to
offer some protection to
his head behind the
curved piece of metal.
Secutor
The secutor, or chaser, wore
an egg-shaped helmet with
round eye-holes, greave on
one leg, arm protector,
legionary-style shield and
sword (scutum and gladius).
The secutor was called a
“chaser,” probably because he
was frequently paired with the
retiarius, who used running as
one of his tactics.
Secutor’s Helmet
Smooth and without decoration,
the better not to catch the prongs
of the trident or the entangling
net, the helmet worn by the
secutor completed enveloped the
head. The fin-like crest was plain,
as well, and the eye-holes small to
minimize their vulnerability, which
gave the helmet a vaguely fishlike look that would have been
appreciated by the retiarius. The
helmet was thicker than those of
other gladiators and must have
been claustrophobic to wear.
Hearing would have been difficult,
and the field of view limited.
Breathing, too, soon would have
become labored, as the secutor
was forced to pursue his less
encumbered adversary.
Hoplomachus: Lance Fighter
The hoplomachus was outfitted in
virtually the same way as the Thracian,
except that the crest of his helmet
lacked the griffin protome (the head of
an animal or human used as a
decorative element). The principal
weapons of the hoplomachus were a
lance (hasta) and a short sword or
dagger that was held in the left hand,
together with a small round shield. This
bronze shield is reminiscent of the one
used by the Greek hoplite, as is the
lance, which may explain why the
hoplomachus and the Thracian were
matched against the murmillo, who
carried the sword and shield of the
Roman legionary.
Thracian, Murmillo, Hoplomachus
In this scene, one can discern the tall greaves and leggings and rectangular shield of
the Thraex, as well as the feathers that decorate his helmet. The murmillo, the crest
of his helmet equally elaborate, thrusts his sword over the smaller curved shield of
his opponent. The other scene depicts a hoplomachus, who can be identified by his
lance, small round shield, and dagger. He stands aside, awaiting the verdict, as the
murmillo, who has laid down his shield and is bleeding, raises his finger (ad digitum)
in admission of defeat to the referee.
Essedarius
The Essedarius was a
gladiator who drove a
horse-drawn chariot in
the fashion of the British
Celts and probably was
introduced by Julius
Caesar after his
invasion of that island
Exotic Fighters: Dimachaerius,
Andabatus, and Laquerius
The Dimachaerius
fought with two swords
and wore little body
armor.
The Andabatus wore a
helmet with no eyeholes.
He essentially fought
blindfold and groped his way
around the arena to
find his opponent.
The Laquerius was
similar to a retiarius but
with a lasso instead of a
net.
Unevenly Matched Pairs
It was important that these different types of gladiators
be appropriately paired, the advantage of one being
compensated for by the strength of the other. There
could be no valor (virtus) in defeating a weaker
opponent. Gladiators were to be evenly matched but not
identically so. The retiarii were lightly armed but mobile,
the secutores and murmillones protected but weighted
down by their armor. It was this asymmetry that was
considered so intriguing. Each type had its own
particular weapons, strategies, and skills, and only by
comparison could they be demonstrated. Gladiators who
were similarly armed, therefore, rarely competed against
one another. Most contests, in fact, seem to have been
between the Thracian or retiarius and their more heavily
armed adversaries, between, that is, what the public
favored as parmularii or scutarii (small-shield and bigshield men).
Female Gladiators: Gladiatrices
At times women fought as
gladiators, although rarely. It
has been recorded that
aristocratic women and men
fought as an entertainment for
Nero in 63 AD. The emperor
Domitian had women fight by
torchlight and on another
occasion had women fight with
dwarves, the novelty a real
crowd pleaser.
The banning of female
gladiators by Septimius
Severus (late second, early 3rd
cent. AD) suggests that
women were taking up this
occupation in alarming
numbers.
An Amazon is seen fighting here.
Emperors as Gladiators
It should also be noted that some
emperors were swept away by
gladiator mania, such as Caligula and
Commodus (late second century AD).
Both of these emperors actually
appeared in the arena as gladiators, no
doubt with opponents who were
careful to inflict no harm. Both of these
emperors were mentally unstable and
apparently felt no inhibitions in
indulging their gladiatorial fantasies.
Gladiator mania affected not only the
mentally unbalanced. At least seven
other emperors of sound mind,
including Titus and Hadrian, either
practiced as gladiators or fought in
gladiatorial contests.
Hadrian
Titus
Emperor Commodus
The emperor Commodus (AD 180192) enthusiastically participated
as a gladiator. Boasting of victory
in a thousand matches, sparring
with his hapless opponents (slicing
off in the process, say Cassius Dio,
"the noses of some, the ears of
others, and sundry features of still
others"), and slaughtering exotic
animals brought from as far away
as India and Africa, he had rooms
at one of the schools and intended
to march from there, dressed as a
gladiator, to assume the
consulship. This prospect was
considered so outrageous by those
closest to him that, fearing for
their own lives, they had him
assassinated the day before he
was to take office.
Bestiarius: Animal Fighter
Bestiarius: This was a special type of gladiator trained to
handle and fight all sorts of animals. The bestiarii were the
lowest ranking gladiators; they did not become as popular or
individually well known as other types of gladiators.
Bestarius et Bestiae
Venatio: Beast Hunt
Wild animals, especially the
large cats, or Africanae, began
to be imported from North
Africa soon after the defeat of
Carthage in the First (264-246
BC) and Second (218-202 BC)
Punic Wars. Exotic curiosities,
they originally were exhibited
as part of triumphal and votive
games. In 169 BC, animals
were included for the first time
as part of the Circus games
(ludi circenses), when sixtythree African panthers and
forty bears and elephants were
killed. Although not
mandatory, the venatio
eventually became an integral
part of Roman spectacle.
Beast Cages
Measures were taken to protect
spectators in the amphitheater from
dangerous wild animals. In the
Colosseum, these beasts were kept in
cages underneath the arena, which
were raised by ropes and pulleys to
gaited openings in the podium. The
animals were then released into the
arena. Rollers at the top of the arena
wall covered with polished marble
prevented animals from climbing up
into the crowd. Nets were also
employed to keep animals away from
the walls as an extra protection and
also to make sure that they were
visible from all parts of the
auditorium. Along the arena wall were
a number of small balconies holding
archers as a last defense.
Venatio
The popularity of these cruel spectacles
was such that, by the time they were
abolished in AD 523, tens of thousands
of animals had died, and entire species
were no longer to be found in their
native habitat, all having been captured
or driven away. There were no more
hippopotamuses in Nubia or elephants
in northern Africa; the lions which once
had been represented in Assyrian reliefs
were gone. Either five thousand or ten
thousand animals were reported to
have died in the dedication of the
Colosseum; eleven thousand died in the
celebration of Trajan's conquest of
Dacia; and Augustus boasted that, in
the twenty-six venationes presented in
his reign, thirty-five hundred animals
had been killed. When Pompey
presented elephants and the first
rhinoceros at the Circus Maximus, he
did so in part to demonstrate his power
over even the strongest of beasts.
Damnatio Ad Bestias
Capital punishment was often carried
out in the amphitheater as part of the
morning venatio by requiring criminals
to face wild animals without the
benefit of weapons and armor and at
noon when condemned criminals,
unprotected by any kind of
armor, fought each other with swords
to the death. The former punishment
was called ad bestias --"to the beasts"
and was ranked alongside crucifixion
as the most disgraceful of all penalties.
Because of its shamefulness, it was
deemed appropriate for slaves and
lower class citizens; convicted upper
class citizens were usually beheaded.
Christians were singled out for
condemnation ad bestias because their
refusal to acknowledge the gods of the
state put them completely outside the
pale of society.
Naumachia
NAUMACHIA was the name given to the representation of a sea-fight among the
Romans. These fights were sometimes exhibited in the Circus or Amphitheatre sufficient
water being introduced to float ships, but more generally in buildings especially devoted
to this purpose. The combatants in these sea-fights, called Naumachiarii, were usually
captives or criminals condemned to death, who fought as in gladiatorial combats, until
one party was killed, unless preserved by the clemency of the emperor. These sea-fights
were exhibited with the same magnificence and lavish expenditure of human life as
characterized the gladiatorial combats and other public games of the Romans.
Women Loved Them

The gladiator was often the object of
female adoration. This is clear in the
following graffiti from Pompeii:

“Celadus the Thracian, three times
victor and three times crowned,
adored by young girls.”

“Crescens the nocturnal netter
(retiarius) of young girls.”

Apparently aristocratic matrons also
found gladiators especially attractive.
Juvenal tells us of a senator’s wife
named Eppia, who ran off with her
gladiator lover to Egypt. Of course, the
free man would have to weigh these
advantages with the risk of an early,
violent death and the status of a slave
Retiarius gives female fan a hug outside Colosseum.
Symbols of Victory
The winner received from the editor a
palm branch and a sum of money. A
laurel crown was awarded for an
especially outstanding performance. The
victor then ran around the perimeter of
the amphitheater, waving the palm. The
ultimate prize awarded to gladiators was
permanent discharge from the obligation
to fight in the arena, most certainly in
recognition of a brilliant career rather
than of just one performance. As a
symbol of this award, the editor gave the
gladiator a wooden sword (rudis),
perhaps to suggest that he no longer had
to fight with real weapons at the risk of
his life.
Conceding Defeat: Ad Digitum
When a gladiator had
been wounded and
wished to concede
defeat, he would hold
up an index finger to
indicate submission
and request mercy as
seen on this vase.
Pollice Verso: Downturned Thumb
In this famous image, a defeated gladiator, who has thrown his shield to the ground,
gives a signal of submission to the referee with the forefinger of his left hand. The
victorious fighter stands proudly, still holding his shield.
Turned Thumb: Pollice Verso
As literary sources make clear, the
spectators expressed their judgment
with some gesture involving the
thumb (pollice verso, "turned
thumb"). What is not clear is
whether the Romans used thumb
gestures in the same way as we do:
up for yes (life), down for no
(death). More likely, thumb-up
meant death for the defeated
gladiator (representing the death
blow with the point of a sword into
the neck) and thumb down,
salvation. Unfortunately, there is no
visual evidence that can confirm or
contradict this interpretation.
Modern Cartoon Versions
Habet, Hoc habet; Mitte; Lugula
When a gladiator went down, the
crowd cried out, “Habet, hoc
habet,” or “He’s had it!” Those
who urged mercy for the defeated
gladiator called out, “Mitte“ or
“Release him" and waved the hem
of their garment. Those who
wanted him dead yelled, “Lugula,”
or “Kill him!” The final decision lay
with the editor, the giver of the
games, who most often under the
empire was the emperor
himself. If the decision was
death, there was a ritual to be
performed, which would bring
honor in death for the loser. With
one knee on the ground, the loser
grasped the thigh of the victor,
who, while holding the helmet or
head of his opponent, plunged his
sword into his neck. This was the
moment of truth, which fascinated
the Roman audience.
Final Blow
If the gladiator was to be killed, he was expected to accept the final blow in a ritualized
fashion, without crying out or flinching. Some scholars believe there was also a ritual
for removing the bodies of dead gladiators, with a man dressed as Charon, the
ferryman of Hades, testing the body to make sure he was really dead and then a slave
dragging the body with a hook through a gate called the Porta Libitinensis (Libitina was
a death goddess). (Scene above is a recent recreation of a gladiatorial battle.)
Famous Gladiator: Spartacus
One of the most famous gladiators of
all times was Spartacus. A Thracian by
birth who had been sold as a slave to a
gladiatorial school in Capua, Spartacus
was one of seventy-eight men who
escaped and took refuge in the caldera
of Mt. Vesuvius. He would eventually
lead an army of over 70,000 men that
freed thousands of slaves throughout
Italy. The legend of Spartacus has
been immortalized in historical tales of
his prowess and in movies.
Immortalized slave, gladiator,and hero
Famous Movie Gladiators
The fact that people are still fascinated by
gladiators is attested to by the popularity of
movies involving gladiatorial combat.
Kirk Douglas is seen here as Spartacus
in the Hollywood movie that depicted
the cruelty of slavery and the gladiatorial
games.
In the following slides there are scenes
from Spartacus movies and from the movie
“Gladiator” depicting various events
in the life of those most famous gladiators.
Gladiator Training School
Gladiators in training were forced to fight against each other, sometimes to death.
It has been said that Spartacus led the slave rebellion because he was forced to kill a
friend in the arena.
Spartacus’ Army on the March
As other fugitive slaves and freedmen joined, Spartacus’ men grew to an army of
seventy thousand. Defeating the legions sent against them, Spartacus and his men
fought their way to Cisapline Gaul, from where they intended to disperse to their
homelands. But then, inexplicitly, they marched south again for more plunder. The
Senate, which had dismissed the threat as no more than the brigandage of gladiators
and slaves, appointed Crassus to put down what was regarded as an insurrection that
now had lasted for three years.
Defeat of Spartacus
Almost trapped on the toe of
Italy, Spartacus and his men
finally were defeated as they
made their way to Brundisium.
Another five thousand fugitives
were chanced upon and killed
by Pompey, who wrote the
Senate, claiming that, although
Crassus had conquered in
battle, he himself had ended
the war. Pompey was awarded
a triumph, while Crassus was
decreed an ovation. Appian
relates that six thousand
prisoners were crucified along
the Via Appia, all the way from
Capua to Rome.
Maximus in the Ring
Russell Crowe is seen above as Maximus, hero of the recent film “Gladiator.”
“Gladiator” Combat
Gladiators mix it up in the Circus. Note the different types of warriors.
Gladiator Games as Warfare
Attending gladiatorial contests in the amphitheater was
an essential part of being a Roman. Rome was a warrior
state that had achieved its large empire by military
violence. War was a high-stakes proposition, both for the
Romans and their opponents In such a cultural climate it
is not surprising that gladiatorial games were immensely
popular and a characteristic symbol of Roman culture for
almost seven centuries. It may be no accident that the
most dramatic increase in the popularity of gladiatorial
games occurred during the first two centuries AD, when
the Augustan peace throughout the empire provided
little opportunity for citizens to participate in real
warfare. If there were not enough real warfare to satisfy
Roman tastes, then counterfeit warfare would have to
do. Today we have our Super Bowls, World Cups,
wrestling, boxing, etc. that have replaced the gladiatorial
matches. They may not be as violent, but the human
race still seems to enjoy the spectacle on a large scale of
the “thrill of victory and the agony of defeat.”