AP English Language
Grammar Intensive
Parts of Speech Review
1. Nouns
Person, place, thing or idea
 Can be:

◦ Proper/common
◦ Concrete/abstract
◦ collective
1. Functions of nouns

Subject
◦ The baby cried.
◦ Dogs and cats make excellent pets.

Predicate Nominative –with a linking verb
◦ My grandfather is a farmer.

Direct Object
◦ The children ate all the cookies.
1. Functions of Nouns

Object complements – directly modifying
the direct object.
◦ My aunt calls my uncle sweetheart.
◦ America recently elected Barack Obama
president.

Indirect Objects
◦ The salesman sold the company new
computers.

Object of Preposition
◦ Mike bought flowers for Andrea.
1. Functions of Nouns

Appositives
◦ The musician Stevie Nicks is a singer in
Fleetwood Mac.
◦ The teacher, my uncle, assigns a lot of
homework.
1. Functions of Nouns

Adjectives – noun phrase modifiers
◦ The child actor won an award.

Adjectives - Possessive modifiers
◦ The librarians' report was informative.

Adverbs
◦ We decided to go home.
◦ Today the children woke up early.
2. Pronouns
Use in place of one or more nouns
 Can serve all of the same functions as
nouns, including ADJECTIVES!!
 The word that the pronoun replaces or
refers to is called an antecedent
 There are seven types of pronouns!

2. Pronoun Types
Personal and Personal Possessive
I, me, my, mine
He, him, his
She, her, hers
We, us, our, ours
They, them, their, theirs
You, your, yours
it, its
Note: Possessive Pronouns function as
ADJECTIVES!

2. Pronoun Types

Reflexive and Intensive
◦ Can be used to REFLECT on a noun or
◦ Can be used to INTENSIFY for emphasis
myself
ourselves yourself
yourselves
himself herself
itself
themselves
Ex. Miranda explained herself.
Ex. Miranda herself made the explanation.
2. Pronoun Types

Relative Pronouns
◦ Used to introduce subordinate clauses
that
who
whose
which
whom
Ex. The college [that I chose] was in Texas.
Ex. Do you know the woman [whose writing
was mentioned?]
2. Pronoun Types

Interrogative Pronouns
◦ Used in questions
who
which
whom
what
whose
Ex. Who borrowed my pen?
Ex. Which do you prefer?
2. Pronoun Types

Who vs. Whom
Who is always referring to a subject of a
verb in a clause
 Whom is always referring to an object of
a verb in a clause

2. Pronoun Types

Examples of correct “who” usage:
◦ Who went to the circus?
◦ We all know who won the game for the team.
◦ Corie knows who made the cake.
◦ Whoever said that you couldn't dance?
2. Pronoun Types

Examples of correct “whom” usage
◦ For whom did you vote?
◦ With whom do you sail?
◦ Whom should I ask about the discount?
◦ You may go with whomever you choose.
2. Pronoun Types
Who vs. Whom – The he/him test
 Try restating your clause as statement or
answer. If you can substitute “he,” use
who. If you substitute “him,” use whom.

Who went to the circus? He went to the circus
 Corie knows who made the cake. He made the
cake.
 For whom did you vote? I voted for him.
 You may go with whomever you choose. I
choose him.

2. Pronoun Types

Demonstrative Pronouns
◦ Used to point out persons or things
This
that
these
Ex. That is an excellent answer.
Ex. This is the correct answer.
those
2. Pronoun Types

Indefinite Pronouns
◦ Pronouns that do not usually refer to a
specific antecedent
all
everybody
no one
another
everyone
one
any
few
other
anybody
many
several
anyone
most
some
both
neither
somebody
each
nobody
someone
either
none
such
3. Adjectives
A word used to modify a noun or
pronoun
 Answers the questions:

◦
◦
◦
◦
Which one?
What kind?
How many?
How much?
3. Adjective Placement

Before the nouns they modify
◦ The green apples smelled good.
◦ I placed the arduous task in the hands of a
capable student.

Predicate Adjective – with a linking verb
◦ Deborah is practical.
◦ His stew tasted delicious.

After the nouns they modify
◦ The hikers, tired and hungry, straglled into
camp
4.Verbs
A word that expresses action or state of
being
 Three types

◦ Action – transitive or intransitive
◦ Linking – describing state or condition
◦ Helping – used with a main verb to form a
verb phrase
4.Verbs

Action Transitive – takes a direct object
◦ The rain pelted the windows.
◦ My cousin bought a car.

Action Intransitive – no object necessary
◦ The rain fell.
◦ My cousin drove.

Some are one, some are both
◦ The chorus sang patriotic songs. (trans)
◦ The chorus sang. (intrans)
4.Verbs
Linking Verbs – describe state of being
 Link the subject to a noun, pronoun or
adjective that describes or identifies the
subject
 Links a subject to a subject complement
is
were
appear
look
am
be
become
remain
are
being
feel
seem
was
been
grow
sound
stay
taste

4.Verbs

Linking verb examples
◦ This is she
◦ She looks serious
◦ My uncle was a doctor.

Some words can be linking OR action,
based on usage
◦ The singer appeared nervous (linking)
◦ The singer appeared on television (action)
4.Verbs
Helping verbs – combine with other verbs
to form verb phrases
Am
has
can/may have
Are
had
could/would/should have
Is
can
could/would/should be
Was
may
will/shall/have been
Were
will/shall be
might have
Do
will/shall have
might have been
Did
has/had been
must
Have
can/may be
must have
must have been

4.Verbs

Examples of Helping Verbs – they can be
separated and still function as one
◦ Did you see Lorraine Hansberry’s play?
◦ We have not seen it yet.
5. Adverbs
A word used to modify a verb, adjective
or other adverb
 Answers the questions

◦
◦
◦
◦
Where?
When?
In what way?
To what extent?
5. Adverbs

Modify a verb
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
She reads quickly. (in what way)
She reads early and late. (when)
She reads everywhere. (where)
She reads thoroughly. (to what extent)
She reads frequently. (how often)
5. Adverbs

Modify an adjective
◦ She is an awfully intense competitor

Modify another adverb
◦ She skated very well.

Used chiefly for emphasis
really actually
truly
◦ She can actually fly over the ice
◦ She is a really good skater.
indeed
5. Adverbs

Nouns as adverbs
◦ My parents left yesterday.
◦ They will return Saturday.
6. Preposition
A word used to show the relation of a noun or pronoun to
some other word in a sentence
 Used as part of a prepositional phrase

About
Above
Across
After
Against
Along
Amid
Among
Around
At
Before
Behind
Below
Beneath
beside
besides
between
beyond
by
concerning
down
during
except
for
from
in
into
like
of
off
on
over
past
since
through
throughout
to
toward
under
underneath
until
unto
up
upon
with
within
without
6. Preposition
Examples of prepositions/phrases
 The first speaker [on the program] is my
mother.
 Her cousin will teach [in San Diego] next
year.
 The two [of us] edited the article [for the
magazine].

7. Conjunctions
Joins words or groups of words
 Coordinating, Correlative, or
Subordinating

7. Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions
◦ Connect items of equal importance
and
but
for
or
so
nor
yet
Ex. The bear turned and lumbered off into
the woods.
Ex. We can use a pickup truck or a jeep.
7. Conjunctions

Correlative Conjunctions
◦ Must be used as a pair… shows correlation
Either… or
neither… nor
Both… and
not only… but (also)
Whether… or
Ex. She helped both Carrie and me with our
applications
7. Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions
 Used to begin subordinate clauses
(usually adverb clauses)

After
before
provided
Although
how
since
As
if
than
As much as
inasmuch as
that
Because
in order that
though
Unless
until
when
Where
while
Note: many of these words can also be used as
prepositions, adverbs or relative pronouns
7. Conjunctions

Examples of subordinating conjunctions
◦ This computer is even better [than we had
anticipated].
◦ The sun had already set [when we reached
the Grand Canyon].
◦ [If the price is right], I will buy your bicycle.
◦ [Since you can’t help me], I will do it myself
8. Interjections

A word that expresses emotion and has
no grammatical relation to any other
word in the sentence.
Oh!
My goodness!
Yikes!
Yeah,
Hooray!
Sure,
Awww,
Adverbials






The Adverb Clause
Recognize an adverb clause when you see
one.
An adverb clause will meet three requirements:
First, it will contain a subject and verb.
You will also find a subordinate conjunction that
keeps the clause from expressing a complete
thought.
Finally, you will notice that the clause answers one
of these three adverb questions: How? When? or
Why?







Read these examples:
Tommy scrubbed the bathroom tile until his arms ached.
How did Tommy scrub? Until his arms ached, an adverb
clause.
Josephine's three cats bolted from the driveway once they
saw her car turn the corner.
When did the cats bolt? Once they saw her car turn the
corner, an adverb clause.
After her appointment at the orthodontist, Danielle cooked
eggs for dinner because she could easily chew an omelet.
Why did Danielle cook eggs? Because she could easily chew
an omelet, an adverb clause.
Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

What Is Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement?
 A pronoun is a word (he, she, it, they) that takes the place of a noun. An antecedent is
the word the pronoun refers to or replaces. In a sentence, the antecedent comes
before the pronoun. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in person, number,
and gender.


Common Rules To Follow For Agreement:
 1.
Two singular objects connected by and require a plural pronoun.



Ex: Julie and Mike have chosen their costumes for the party.


2.
Words such as both, several, and many are plural and require plural pronouns.



Ex: Both of my cats ate their food.
3. The following words, when used as subjects, are
always singular and must have singular pronouns:
each everybody
nobody
every everything
somebody
everyone
anybody
neither
nothing
either
someone
Ex: Either of the boys will loan you his book.
Ex: Each of the girls brought her sleeping bag.
Gerund Recognition Practice




Definition: A verbal is a verb form used as another part of
speech.
There are 3 types of verbals: Gerunds, Participles, and
Infinitives. We are going to take each of these separately in these
worksheets. We are also going to have sheets for both recognizing
the verbal by itself and then as a verbal phrase. This worksheet is
just on recognizing gerunds.
Gerund: a verb form ending in -ing (present participle) used as a
noun. Thus it can be in the position of subject, direct object, object
of the preposition, or predicate noun.
Examples:
Subject - Reading is my favorite activity.
Direct Object - I enjoy reading.
Object of the Preposition - Rainy days are good days for reading.
Predicate Noun - My favorite subject is reading.






Remember this: A word ending in -ing can be either a verb, a
participle or a gerund. To determine which one it is, you must
determine how it is used in the sentence. Do these steps:
Find the simple subject and simple predicate.
If the -ing form of the verb is not part of the simple predicate
(verb), then determine how it is used in the sentence. Is it in a
noun position? Then it is a gerund. If it is used as an adjective, then
it will be a participle.
Example:
Bill and Tony are running.
Are running is the verb in this sentence.
Bill and Tony enjoy running.
Running is a gerund, a direct object of the action verb, enjoy.
The running water overflowed.
Running is a participle (adjective) modifying the noun, water.
I. loose sentence and periodic
sentence
I. loose sentence and periodic sentence
 1. A loose sentence puts the main idea before all
supplementary information; in other words, it
puts first things first, and lets the reader know
what it is mainly about when he has read the first
few words. The reverse arrangement makes a
periodic sentence: the main idea is expressed at
or near the end of it, and it is not grammatically
complete until the end is reached. The reader
does not know what it is mainly about until he
finishes reading it.( A Handbook of Writing Ding
Wangdao)

Loose or periodic?
a.
b.
She decided to study English though she
was interested in music.
Although she was interested in music,
she finally decided to study English.
. The definition offered in the
Webster’s New World Dictionary:
Loose sentence (p.798): a sentence in
which the essential elements, in the main
clause, come first, followed by subordinate
parts, modifiers, etc., as in a compound
sentence.
 Periodic sentence (p.1005): a sentence
in which the essential elements, in the
main clause, are withheld until the end or
separated as by modifiers or subordinate
clauses.

. The rhetoric function of loose
sentence and periodic sentence
1. loose sentence


(1) loose sentence gives prominence to
emphases and comes straight to the
point:
She was offered a professional contract
after winning the Olympic gold medal
for figure skating, according to the
newspaper reports.
2. periodic sentence
◦

causes anticipation and suspense in readers
because the important information readers
are eager to know is postposed at the end
of the sentence.
Though Jim Thorpe had brought great
glory to his nation, though thousands of
people cheered him upon his return to
the United Stages and attended
banquets and a New York parade in his
honor, he was not a citizen
Active – Passive Voice

Because passive voice sentences
necessarily add words and change the
normal doer-action-receiver of action
direction, they may make the reader work
harder to understand the intended
meaning.
The passive voice does exist for a reason,
however, and its presence is not always to be
despised. The passive is particularly useful
(even recommended) in two situations:
 When it is more important to draw our
attention to the person or thing acted upon: The
unidentified victim was apparently struck
during the early morning hours.
 When the actor in the situation is not
important: The aurora borealis can be
observed in the early morning hours.
