Theories of Practice:
The Political Frame
MPA 8002
The Structure and Theory of Human
Organization
Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.
A POLITICAL SCENARIO
Managers and leaders have to recognize
political reality and know how to deal
with it. Inside and outside any
organization, there are always a variety of
different interest groups, each with its own
agenda. There are not enough resources to
give everyone what he or she wants, and
there is always going to be conflict.
MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP
IN A POLITICAL SCENARIO
The job of managers and leaders is to recognize the major
constituencies, to develop ties to their leadership, and to manage
conflict as productively as possible. Above all, they need to build
power bases and use power carefully. They cannot give every
group everything it wants, although they can try to create arenas
for negotiating differences and coming up with reasonable
compromises. Managers and leaders also have to work hard at
articulating what everyone in their organizations possesses in
common. Managers and leaders must tell the people that it is a
waste of time to fight each other when there are plenty of enemies
outside that they can all fight together. Groups that fail to work
well together internally tend to get trounced by outsiders who
have their own agendas.
Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 361)
the political frame
Primary
Metaphor for
Organization:
 Jungle
Central
Concepts:






Self-Interest
Power
Conflicts
Competition
Politics
Intrigue
Managerial
And
Leadership
Image:
 Advocate
 Referee
 Mediator
Fundamental
Challenge:
 Develop
agenda
 Form
coalitions and
build power
base
 Acquire good
intelligence
 Dispense
information
wisely
The snakepit of workplace
politics...
Organizations are comprised of human
beings...
…who come to organizations
possessing diverse beliefs, values,
and interests.
Interdependence, power relations, and
the scarcity of necessary resources...
… impinge upon people and influence
their decision-making processes.
For managers and leaders, the
question is not whether
organizations will have politics...
...but the kind of politics they will have.
Not about how managers and leaders
avoid politics...
…but about how they deal with
politics.
Not whether managers and leaders will
use their current position as a
steppingstone towards “greener
pastures”…
…but how they will manage and lead
workplace politics towards positive
and productive ends.
Politics...
the matters of the people
(in Greek, polis)
 each of whom possesses:

antecedents
cultural milieu
theoretical knowledge
craft knowledge
self knowledge
critical knowledge

these antecedents influence and shape
each individual’s fundamental...
...beliefs
...assumptions
...values
All of these matters are antecedent to an
individual’s theories of practice.
…and in human organizations...

many people bring...
diverse beliefs
diverse values
diverse interests
resulting in
C
O
N
F
L I
C
T
Managing and leading human organizations
involves dealing with conflict...
 that
is…
…how to engage in battle...
…without becoming embattled
1. understand the nature of conflict in the
organization
Conflict...

permeates human organizations
vertical
types of
organizational
conflict
horizontal
cultural

since conflict is natural and
inevitable in human organizations...
…conflict is not a problem or an issue
per se...
…but requires managers and leaders
who understand and are capable of
dealing directly and effectively with
conflict
Understanding conflict...
conflict challenges the status quo
 conflict can stimulate personal and
social change, interest, creativity,
and innovation

Effective managers and leaders focus not
on eliminating conflict but on strategies
and tactics that channel conflict toward
positive and productive ends.
2. deal with conflict
Managing and leading conflict...

the goal is to mobilize people to
achieve shared goals and to
overcome obstacles by relating with
allies and opponents alike...
Effective managers and leaders view
adversaries not as difficult people to
deal with but as interesting people
they compete with.
Tactics for dealing with conflict...
1) to establish boundaries in conflict situations
bounded conflicts
arenas
characterized by fair
competition
vs.
unbounded conflicts
streetfights ending
in obliteration of the
opponent
arenas
conflict is an ongoing interplay
of competing interests and
agendas among different
individuals and groups
vs.
streetfights
people are independent agents
who possess and will use
whatever tools necessary to
achieve their self-interest,
irrespective of others
arenas
everything is defined:
the game, field, rules,
interests, and preferences to
be pursued
vs.
streetfights
nothing is defined:
individuals and groups
legislate their own rules
and behavior ad hoc
arenas
multiple opportunities for formal
and informal communication,
including meetings,
committees, and task forces
vs.
streetfights
communication
transpires somewhere
“beneath the surface””
arenas
the objective is to avoid
mutually assured destruction
vs.
streetfights
the objective is to “take
no prisoners”
Tactics...
2) to define the agenda
purpose
strategy
vs.
self-interest
conflict

agenda setting requires…
 interpersonal
sensitivity
 discrete arm twisting
 planting seeds
 moving elephants
Tactics...
3) to map the political terrain to identify where
the players’ self-interests collide and how the
players view one another (Pichault, 1993)




determine the channels of informal communication
identify the principal agents wielding political
influence
analyze the possibilities for both internal and external
mobilization
anticipate the strategies that other individuals and
groups are likely to employ
Mapping the political terrain.
A scenario…but, who’s view?
p
high
top
management
o
w
middle
management
e
r
support staff
low
pro-change
anti-change
interests
Who’s view?
p
high
top
management
o
w
middle
management
e
r
support staff
low
pro-change
anti-change
interests
Tactics...
4) to build coalitions among and network
players through influence building
a coalition is:

a group of individuals possessing diverse objectives
and resources

attempting to negotiate and bargain with other
players both overtly and covertly

to influence goals, tactics, and projects

the collision of self-interests (what people
want) and the scarcity of resources (what
people need) requires intense bargaining and
negotiating...
…thus, the critical question for managers and
leaders is:
How do the groups articulate their
preferences and mobilize power to get
both what they want and need?
...a four-step process of mapping political
influence (Kotter, 1985)

identify relevant relationships, that is, who needs to
be managed or led
 assess who is likely to resist, why, and how strongly,
that is, figure out ahead of time where the likely
challenges are
 develop, wherever possible, relationships with
potential opponents to facilitate communication,
education, and negotiation
...in the event these steps fail, then carefully
select and implement more subtle or more
forceful methods...

identify whose help you need
 develop relations with them through “pre-selling” and
“cheerleading”
 engage in “horse-trading,” that is, promise rewards in
exchange for resources and support which will
secure the blessing of scarce resources
Tactics...
5) to engage the players in bargaining and
negotiating
creating value
claiming value
finding better solutions
(vs. the best solution)
for contending players
players endeavor to
maximize their individual
gain at minimal cost
win-win
win-lose


Change generates conflict and creates winners
and losers. Effective managers and leaders
avoid smoothing over those issues which drive
conflict underground.
Managing and leading change effectively
requires creating arenas where organizational
problems issues can be bargained and
negotiated.
3. create and claim value

creating value...

the conscious insertion of principles into the
decision-making process

the art of using bargaining and negotiating as a
forum for building consensus about shared
values
the “moral” aspect of management/leadership
(Barnard, 1938/1968)

Tactics...
1. separate the players from the problem by
focusing on the merits of the argument
2. insist on objective criteria in substance and
procedures by avoiding anecdotal data and
feelings
3. focus on interests not positions
4. invent options for mutual gain

claiming value...

acting upon the pragmatic recognition that
bargaining and negotiating is a mixed-motive
game...
…wherein both players want an agreement but
have different interests and preferences
which influence the process
Tactics...
1. focus players on the interdependence of decisions
as well as the series of decisions to be made
…what each player does affects the other
…each player wants, as much as possible, to be
able to predict what the other will do while
limiting the other’s ability to do likewise
…the implicit goal is for player A to control player
B’s level of uncertainty so as to exercise greater
power in bargaining and negotiating
2. use judicious threats rather than sanctions
…threats are potent only to the degree that the
opponent believes the threat will be carried out
… noncredible threats weaken one’s position
and confuses the process
… the players may then threaten to use force, go
on strike, or break off negotiations
…but, in most cases, they cannot bear the costs
of carrying out the threat
3. calculate the appropriate level of threat
…“underthreatening” only weakens one’s position
…“overthreatening” is perceived as bluffing and
may lead another party to disbelieve, to break
off bargaining and negotiating, or to force an
escalation in threats

all of this claiming value increases
the probability that managers and
leaders will be perceived as
functioning as manipulators...
…who breed self-interest, mistrust,
and hostility in their followers

effective managers and leaders...
…create value and claim value
…as they engage in conditional
openness
…and follow the “Golden Rule”
4. deal with and use power effectively
POWER
...in Greek, atia, “to rule”
…not, in and of itself, a
negative concept

to rule...
…to make a judgment
…in Greek, isis, that is, “crisis”
To “rule” means to render a judgment in a
crisis, a judgment evidencing the virtuous
character (or lack of virtue) of the individual
making the judgment.
Examples of power...
influencing behavior
 changing the course of events
 overcoming resistance
 getting people to do the things they
would not otherwise do
 making one’s will prevail and
attaining one’s goal

…unfortunately, negative Machiavellian
connotations distort thoughtful
discourse about power and its
exercise...

the difference between the positive
use of power and the negative use of
power...
…is found in the person using power...
…and the principles upon which that
individual justifies the use of power
Sources of power
(Frensch & Raven, 1959)...
position
information/expertise
control of rewards
coercive power
alliances/networks
access to and control of
agendas and minutes
control of meaning and
symbols
personal power
attending to zones of
indifference
Power in the organizational
system...
overbounded
underbounded
highly concentrated
tightly regulates everything
diffuse throughout
system loosely controlled
drives politics underground
lots of politics and power games
bounded power
vs.
unbounded power
an arena
a streetfight
the lowerarchy and the
hierarchy cooperate so that
there are no surprises
parochial animus endures
and keeps returning
Assumptions of the political
theories of practice...

organizations are coalitions of individuals
and interest groups
 there are enduring differences among
coalition members in values beliefs,
information, interests, and perceptions of
reality
 the most important decisions involve the
allocation of scarce resources, that is,
who gets what

scarce resources and enduring
differences give conflict a central role in
organizational dynamics and make power
the most valuable resource
 goals and decisions emerge from
bargaining, negotiating, and jockeying for
position among different stakeholders
Political tasks for managers and
leaders...
1. to achieve a “delicate balance” in
allocating scarce resources
across different divisions or
functions
2. to get support from bosses
3. to get support from staff and
other constituents
Some practical advice for
managers and leaders...
1. steadfastly refuse to be drawn into
brawls
2. avoid confrontations but do confront
conflict and do engage in arguments
3. be patient, persistent, and use
conflict to practice advancing one’s
agenda
4. “let go” of difficult adversaries
To “let go” of difficult
adversaries...
… set the standard by upholding the
organizational purpose
a) state the organizational vision
b) state your best understanding of their
position
c) identify your contribution to the problem
d) tell them what you will do without making
demands of them
… then allow the difficult adversary to
make a judgment about the next
move
Managing and leading organizational
politics, confronting conflict, applying
ethics when decision making, and using
power effectively are critical elements
for thinking about management and
leadership as a challenging, creative, and
necessary endeavor.

successful managers and leaders deal
with organizational politics, confront
conflict, apply ethics when decision
making, and use power...
…they experience mental anguish
…as they ask themselves: How will I?

unsuccessful managers and leaders
deal with organizational politics,
confront conflict, apply ethics when
decision making, and use power...
…they experience personal anguish
…as they ask themselves: How can I?
Using political theory...
effective managers and leaders are
…advocates
…savvy
…coalition-building
whose primary concerns are
…negotiating gray
areas
Abusing political theory...
ineffective managers and leaders are
…con-artists
…hustlers
whose primary concerns are
…fraud
…deception
Strengths of the political theory
of practice...
…realistic
…practical
…addresses the reality of
conflict and power struggles
…highlights the need for
principled reflection
Limitations of the political theory
of practice...
…impersonal
…cynical
…assumes conflict and power
struggles
Integrating reflective practice, conceptual
pluralism, and organizational analysis...
Reflecting upon organizational behavior through four
frames inculcates the conceptual pluralism managers and
leaders need to diagnose the issues underlying the
problems manifesting themselves in human organizations.
the structural frame
the human resources frame
the political frame
the symbolic frame
This module has focused on...
the political science theories that
managers and leaders can utilize in
practice episodes...
...as these theories of practice provide
managers a frame of reference to
inform decision making...
the political frame
...offers managers and leaders guidance
about the strengths and limits of
political science theory
A POLITICAL SCENARIO
Managers and leaders have to recognize
political reality and know how to deal
with it. Inside and outside any
organization, there are always a variety of
different interest groups, each with its own
agenda. There are not enough resources to
give everyone what he or she wants, and
there is always going to be conflict.
MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP
IN A POLITICAL SCENARIO
The job of managers and leaders is to recognize the major
constituencies, to develop ties to their leadership, and to manage
conflict as productively as possible. Above all, they need to build
power bases and use power carefully. They cannot give every
group everything it wants, although they can try to create arenas
for negotiating differences and coming up with reasonable
compromises. Managers and leaders also have to work hard at
articulating what everyone in their organizations possesses in
common. Managers and leaders must tell the people that it is a
waste of time to fight each other when there are plenty of enemies
outside that they can all fight together. Groups that fail to work
well together internally tend to get trounced by outsiders who
have their own agendas.
Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 361)
the political frame
Primary
Metaphor for
Organization:
 Jungle
Central
Concepts:






Self-Interest
Power
Conflicts
Competition
Politics
Intrigue
Managerial
And
Leadership
Image:
 Advocate
 Referee
 Mediator
Fundamental
Challenge:
 Develop
agenda
 Form
coalitions and
build power
base
 Acquire good
intelligence
 Dispense
information
wisely
The next module will focus on...
the symbolic frame
...and the cultural theories that managers
and leaders can utilize in practice
episodes.
A SYMBOLIC SCENARIO
Symbolic managers and leaders are also
sensitive to an organization’s history and
culture. They seek to use the best in their
organization’s traditions and values as a base
for building a culture that provides
cohesiveness and meaning. They articulate a
vision that communicates the organization’s
unique capabilities and mission.
(Bolman & Deal, 1991, p. 364)
MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP
IN A SYMBOLIC SCENARIO
Symbolic managers and leaders believe that the most
important part of their job is inspiration—giving people
something that they can believe in. People will give their
loyalty to an organization that has a unique identity and
makes them feel that what they do is really important.
Effective symbolic managers and leaders are passionate
about making their organizations the best of their kind and
communicate that passion to others. They use dramatic,
visible symbols that give people a sense of the
organizational mission. They are visible and energetic.
They create slogans, tell stories, hold rallies, give awards,
appear where they are least expected, and manage by
wandering around.
the symbolic frame
Primary
Metaphor for
Organization:
 Carnival
 Cathedral or
Temple
 Opera and
Theatre
Central
Concepts:







Culture
Meaning
Metaphor
Ritual
Ceremony
Stories
Heroes and
heroines
 Common
good
Managerial
And
Leadership
Image:
 High priests
and priestesses
 Tribal Chieftans
 Clan Chieftans
Fundamental
Challenge:




Inspire
Create faith
Define beauty
Identify
meaning
References






Barnard, C. I. (1938/1968). The functions of the executive.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (1997). Reframing organizations:
Artistry, choice and leadership (2nd edition). San Francisco: JosseyBass.
Frensch, J. R. P., & Raven, B. H. (1959). “The bases of social
power.” In D. Cartwright (Ed.), Studies in social power. Ann Arbor,
MI: Institute for Social Research.
Kotter, J. P. (1982). The general managers. New York: Free
Press.
Kotter, J. P. (1985). Power and influence: Beyond formal
authority. New York: Free Press.
Kotter, J. P. (1988). The leadership factor. New York: Free Press.

Pichault, F. (1993). Resources humaines et changement
stratégique: Vers un management politique (Human
resources and strategic change: Toward a political model of
management). Brussels, Belgium, DeBoeck.
 Porter, E. (1989, December). “Notes for the Looking at
Leadership Conference.” Paper presented at the Looking for
Leadership Conference, Graduate School of Education,
Harvard University.
 Sergiovanni, T. J. (1989). Informing professional practice in
educational administration. Journal of Educational
Administration, 27(2), p. 186.