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Published by MCSER - Mediterranean Center of Social and Educational Research African Association for Teaching and Learning African Society for the Scientific Research Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Special Issue Vol. 3, No. 13, November 2012 Guest Editors Jacinta A. Opara,PhD Gerhard Berchtold,PhD Addison M. Wokocha,PhD Austin N. Nosike,PhD Shobana Nelasco,PhD Rome, Italy 2012 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Editor in Chief Dr. Andrea Carteny Executive Director, MCSER Prof. Antonello Biagini Scientific Coordinator Prof. Giovanna Motta Editing Dr. Antonello Battaglia Graphic Design Dr. Gabriele Natalizia Editorial Assistant Dr. Giuseppe Motta Editorial Managing Dr. Igor Baglioni Copyright 2012 MCSER – Mediterranean Center of Social and Educational Research CEMAS – Sapienza University of Rome, Italy ISSN 2039-9340 (print) ISSN 2039-2117 (online) Index Copernicus Year 2011 Impact Factor 3.77 Doi:10.5901/mjss.2012.v3n13 Special Issue Vol. 3, No. 13, November 2012 Guest Editors Jacinta A. Opara, PhD Gerhard Berchtold, PhD Addison M. Wokocha, PhD Austin N. Nosike, PhD Shobana Nelasco, PhD Publisher MCSER – Mediterranean Center of Social and Educational Research CEMAS – Sapienza University of Rome, Italy Piazzale Aldo Moro, 5, 00186, Rome, Italy Tel/Fax: 039/0692913868 E-mail: mjss@mcser.org Web: http://www.mcser.org This journal is printed by Gruppo Atena.net Srl Via del Lavoro, 22, 36040, Grisignano VI, Italy Tel: 0039/0444613696 Web: http://www.atena.net Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol. 3, No. 13, November 2012 ISSN: 2039-9340 (print) ISSN: 2039-2117 (online) About the Journal Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences (MJSS) is a double blind peer-reviewed journal, published three times a year, by Mediterranean Center of Social and Educational Research, CEMAS and Sapienza University of Rome. The journal publishes research papers in the fields of Mediterranean and World Culture, Sociology, Philosophy, Linguistics, Education, History, History of Religions, Anthropology, Statistics, Politics, Laws, Psychology and Economics. MJSS is open for the academic world and research institutes, academic and departmental libraries, graduate students and PhD candidates, academic and non-academic researchers and research teams. Specifically, MJSS is positioned as a vehicle for academics and practitioners to share field research. In addition to scientific studies, we will also consider letters to the editor, guest editorials, and book reviews. Our goal is to provide original, relevant, and timely information from diverse sources; to write and publish with absolute integrity; and to serve as effectively as possible the needs of those involved in all social areas. If your research will help us achieve these goals, we would like to hear from you. MJSS provides immediate open access to its content on the principle that making research freely available to the public supporting a greater global exchange of knowledge. All manuscripts are subject to a double blind peer review by the members of the editorial board who are noted experts in the appropriate subject area. Editor in Chief, Andrea Carteny Sapienza University of Rome, Italy Indexing/Abstracting/Library Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences is included on the following index/abstracting/library IBSS - International Bibliography of the Social Sciences ProQuest – Social Sciences Index ProQuest Political Sciences Sociological Abstract – ProQuest DOAJ – Directory of Open Access Journals EBSCOhost EBSCO Publishing Index Copernicus International Cabell’s Publishing – Directories of Academic Journals Ulrichsweb – Global Serials Directory Socol@r Index E-Journals.org World Wide Web Virtual Library Genamics JournalSeek Kaohsiung Medical University Library PsycINFO – Bibliographic Database of the American Psychological Association MLA Index – International Bibliography of the Modern Language Association Georgetown University Library Scirus Index Open J. Gate Index Ohio Library and Information Network – OhioLINK Academic Journals Database Indiana University Libraries California State Monterey Bay Library – CSUMB University of Saskatchwean Library San José State University – Electronic Journal Index University of Ottawa Library Birmingham Public Library Exlibris Index, The Bridge of Knowledge Shenzen University Library WZB Library Colorado States University Libraries Berlin State Library University of Washington Libraries University Library of Regensburg Digital Library of Wroclaw University Shenzen University Library Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Editor in chief Dr. Andrea Carteny Sapienza University of Rome, Italy International Editorial Board Vincent Hoffmann-Martinot University of Bordeaux, France Dimitri A. Sotiropoulos University of Athens, Greece Giuseppe Motta Sapienza University of Rome, Italy Sibylle Heilbrunn Ruppin Academic Center, Emek-Hefer, Israel Anne Cross Metropolitan State University, USA Marco Cilento Sapienza University of Rome, Italy Werner J. Patzelt University of Dresden Germany Mohamed Ben Aissa University of Tunis, Tunisia Emanuele Santi African Development Bank, Tunis, Tunisia Arda Arikan Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey Alessandro Vagnini Sapienza University of Rome, Italy Godfrey Baldacchino University of Malta, Malta Kamaruzaman Jusoff Universiti Putra Malaysia Daniel Pommier Vincelli Sapienza University of Rome, Italy Hossein Vahid Dastjerdi University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran Gabriele Natalizia Sapienza University of Rome, Italy Francisco J. Ramos Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Spain Igor Baglioni Sapienza University of Rome, Italy Tarau Virgiliu Leon Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania José Sánchez-Santamaría University of Castilla-La Mancha, Spain Dorina Orzac Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Marian Zlotea Sapienza University of Rome / Government Agency, Romania Petar Jordanoski Sapienza University / University of Skopje Slavko Burzanovic University of Montenegro, Montenegro Martina Bitunjac Humboldt University of Berlin, Germany Aranit Shkurti CIRPS Sapienza University / CIT University, Albania Francesco Randazzo University of Perugia, Italy Gulap Shahzada University of Science and Tecnology, Pakistan Nanjunda D C Universiy of Mysore, Karnataka, India Nkasiobi S.Oguzor Federal College of Education (Technical), Omoku- Nigeria Shobana Nelasco Fatima College, Madurai-India Jacinta A. Opara Universidad Azteca, Mexico Fernando A. Ferreira Polytechnic Institute of Santarem, Portugal Hassan Danial Aslam Human Resource Management Research Society, Pakistan Asoluka C. Njoku Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education, Owerri-Nigeria Alice Kagoda Makerere University, Kampala-Uganda B.V. Toshev University of Sofia, Bulgaria Benedicta Egbo University of Windsor, Ontario-Canada Adriana Vizental University Aurel Vlaicu, Romania Florica Bodistean University Aurel Vlaicu, Romania Bassey Ubong Federal College of Education (Technical), Omoku-Nigeria Tutku Akter Girne American University, Northern Cyprus A. C. Nwokocha Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike-Umuahia, Nigeria Murthy CSHN Tezpur University Napaam Assam India Femi Quadri Federal College of Education (Technical), Omoku-Nigeria Abraham I. Oba Niger Delta Development Commission, Nigeria Fouzia Naeem Khan Shaheed Zulfikar Ali Bhutto Institute of Science and Technology, Pakistan Marcel Pikhart University Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic Sodienye A. Abere Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Port Harcourt, Nigeria Luiela-Magdalena Csorba University Aurel Vlaicu, Romania Joan Garcia Garriga Institut de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social (IPHES) / Universitat Oberta de Catalunya (UOC), Spain Georgios A. Antonopoulos Teesside University Middlesbrough, UK Vennila Gopal Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, India Eddie Blass Swinburne University of Technology, Australia Hanna David Tel Aviv University, Jerusalem-Israel Raphael C. Njoku University of Louisville, USA Ali Simek Anadolu University, Turkey Austin N. Nosike The Granada Management Institute, Spain Gerhard Berchtold Universidad Azteca, Mexico Samir Mohamed Alredaisy University of Khartoum, Sudan Lawrence Ogbo Ugwuanyi University of Abuja, Abuja-Nigeria Oby C. Okonkwor Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka-Nigeria Ridvan Peshkopia American Unievrsity of Tirana, Albania George Aspridis Technological Educational Institute of Larissa, Greece Talat Islam University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan Sokol Paçukaj Aleksander Moisiu University, Albania Federico Niglia Libera Università Internazionale degli Studi Sociali (LUISS) “Guido Carli”, Italy Isara Tongsamsi Songkhla Rajabhat University, Thailand S.E. Onuebunwa Federal College of Education (Technical), Omoku-Nigeria Introduction It has been a great opportunity cooperating with Mediterranean Centre of Social and Educational Research, Rome-Italy. This partnership metamorphosed into this Special Issue of the MJSS. The editors and reviewers provided detailed evaluation of the essays which improved the work. The respect for their knowledge and experience is immeasurable. Professor M.P. Pagar, Professor Grace Fayombo, Professor Ivan Siqueria, Professor M.O.N. Obagah, Professor Addison Wokocha, Professor Shobana Nelasco, Professor Oby Okonkwor, Professor Kinikanwo Anele, Professor Peter Akanwa and Professor Hanna David were very resourceful and gave keen advice on editorial organisation. The entire editorial team of MCSER was highly pertinent reflected in their commitment. Sokol Pacukaj and Lisa Licata of the editorial office provided talent and professionalism which made MCSER a joy to work with. In all, this publication is a reference that every development specialist, educator and social scientist. Unusually accessible and engaging, these essays make this special edition of MJSS a contribution to scholarship Jacinta A. Opara,PhD Visiting Associate Professor,Universidad Azteca,Chalco-Mexico and President, African Association for Teaching and Learning ~7~ ~8~ Table of Contents 1. Refocusing Physics Education in Nigeria: Issues and Challenges in Teacher Education …………………………………........................................…… Okon Akpakpan Udoh 2. Climatic Changes and Global Fisheries: The Nigerian Experience………………… Ekpo Imoh Ekpo 3. Global Mindset and Sustainable Development in Africa- A Synergy……………… Victor Etim Ndum Onukwugha, Chinwe Gilean 4. Investment in Education: A Panacea for National Economic Vibrancy…….…… Ezekiel O. Akpan, Allen Anthony Ozuruoke 5. Problems and Prospects Towards Implementing Ubiquitous Computing…….… Mohammed Abubakar, Arthur U. Ume 6. Strategies for implementation of Agricultural Science Curriculum in Imo State School System: Imperatives for Occupational Skills Acquisition by Students….………………………………………………………….. Ugochukwu P.N Amadi 7. The Role of Information and Communication Technology in Vocational and Technical Education in Nigeria………………………………………… Elijah Tsado 8. An Analysis of Job Performance Among Academic Staff of Federal Polytechnic Offa, Kwara State………………..…………………………………… Sikirat Abiodun Raji 9. Efficacy, Agency and Behavioural Change: Evaluation of a Local/Global Sustainability Education Program…………………………….…… John Buchanan 10. Real-Time E-Learning System: “A Tool for Students Population Decongestion in Nigeria Public Higher Institutions of Learning” (A Case Study of Yaba College of Technology, Nigeria)…………………………… M.K. Ladipo, I.K. Oyeyinka, N.A. Yekini 11. Nutritional Status of Children Less Than Five Year Old Suffering Anemia and Night Blindness in Khartoum State, Sudan…………………… Samir Mohamed Ali Hassan Alredaisy, Haram Omer El Hag Saeed 12. E-Learning: A Veritable Tool to Step Up Accessibility in the Nigerian Educational Sector…………………………………………………………… Florence Imaobong Archibong, Chima Sabastine Ugwulashi ~9~ 13. School Workshop Safety Practices and Students’ Skill Acquisition in Electrical Installation Works in Technical Colleges in Akwa Ibom State…… Ofonmbuk Isaac Michael, Ekereobong Sunday Udoudo 14. The Influence of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) on Parents/ Adolescents Relationship ………………………………… Ahiauzu, Levi Uche and Odili, Samuel Otunuya 15. Entrepreneurship Business Education Capabilities in Emerging Poverty Alleviation Programme In Nigeria………………………………….… Pac Ordu and Naboth-Odums, A. 16. Innovative Methods and Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning……………………………………………………………………….… M.N Modebelu and A.N. Duvie 17. Evaluation of School Health Services in Nomadic Primary Schools in Southwestern Nigeria………………………………………………………………..….. A. Ibhafidon A. and A.U. Ejifugha 18. Challenges of Eco-Sustainability Campaign and Environmentalism in Nigeria: The Way Forward…………………………………………………………… Nche George Christian 19. Searching For Excellence in Science Education: The African Experience…. Daso Peter Ojimba 20. Improving Teachers for Public Examination Administration In Nigeria for 2020 Challenges………………………………………………………. M. O. N. Obagah ~ 10 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Refocusing Physics Education in Nigeria: Issues and Challenges in Teacher Education Okon Akpakpan Udoh Directorate of Continuing Education, Akwa Ibom State College of Education, Afaha Nsit, Etinan, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria Doi:10.5901/mjss.2012.v3n13p11 Abstract This paper spotlights a number of daunting challenges that fraught teachers education in Nigeria. It adjudges senior secondary education as being stuck in limbo, using senior secondary physics as illustrated examples. It advocates a repositioning of basic elements of teacher education inline with the realities of the 21st century. Keywords : Physics Education, Nigeria, Teacher education Introduction According to Omatseye (2000), “the school is a social institution established by members of the society for the purpose of transmitting their culture from one generation to anther”. It improves the culture by producing generations of people who are more refined and enlightened than their parents or forefathers. Naturally, the teacher and the education system in which he (the teacher) operates cannot stand aloof from the society. They are part and parcel of it and are both an embodiment and a reflection of culture, traditions, yearnings and aspirations of the people. This fact though irrefutable at a global level, will at the national level, raise a couple of crucial issues, encapsulated in the question; what are the purposes (goals) of education in the Nigerian social context? Turning to the national policy on education for answer, the Federal Republic of Nigeria (1981 and 2004) stipulated the following major national educational goals. * The training of the mind in the understanding of the world around. * The acquisition of appropriates skill and the development of mental, physical and social abilities and competences as equipment for the individual to live in and continue in the development of the society. * The inculcation of the right type of values and attitudes for the survival of the individual and the Nigerian society. To achieve the national goals “Government shall establish efficient inspectorate services at federal, state and local government levels for monitoring and maintaining minimum standards at all levels of education below the tertiary level” (FRB, 1981 and 2004). Unfortunately (Udofat, 2006), There are shouts of falling standards of education not only in Akwa Ibom State but in school nationwide. The school products are no longer making a living in the society in which they live. Also, the quality of education the children receives in school does not endow them with the means to lead more satisfying life and enjoy the humanistic ~ 11 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 aspect of education as an end in itself. Employers of labour, parents and indeed the general Nigeria public now tend to wonder whether the schooling system in which they have made huge investments is still making dividend. They tend to wonder whether the system has lost it’s focus. This apprehension presupposes the existence of a number of daunting challenges that bedeviled our formal education system, calling for refocusing or repositioning of basic elements, in line with the demands of the 21st century. To address any imperfection in formal education, we must first identify the goals of teacher education. This is why; No education system may rise above the quality of teachers (FRN, 2004). Goals of Teachers Education A good teacher education programme has as its goals (FRBN, 2004) the: Production of highly motivated, conscientious and efficient classroom teacher for all levels of our education system. * Encouragement of further spirit of enquiry and creativity in teachers. * Helping of teachers to fit in the social life of the community and the society at large and enhance their commitment to national goals. * Provision of teachers with the intellectual and professional background adequate for their assignment and makes them adaptable to changing situations. * Enhancement of teachers’ commitment to the teaching profession. These goals, as stipulated by the Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN, 2004), is to provide a focus on teacher education programmes. Therefore, the apprehension from the general public as to whether the school has lost its focus is predicated on the deep conviction that the school is not realizing its goals. In that vien, five fundamental questions will arise to agitate the mind on the issues involved. (i) Does teacher education in Nigeria produce highly motivated, conscientious and efficient classroom teachers? (ii) Does teacher education in Nigeria encourage further spirit of enquiry and creativity in teachers? (iii) Does teacher education in Nigeria help teachers to fit in the social life of the community and the society at large and enhance their commitment to national goals? (iv) Does teacher education in Nigeria provide teachers with intellectual and professional background adequate for their assignment, making them adequate to changing situation? (v) Does teacher education in Nigeria enhance teachers commitment to the teaching profession? Let us reflect on each of these issues as we turn to the sorry revelation from school programme evaluation, in conjunction with research findings. * Issue 1 Does teacher education in Nigeria produce highly motivated, conscientious and efficient classroom? Among other things, the school programme evaluation assesses the success of the school in the actual accomplishment of its educational purposes, measured in terms of the observed out-of- ~ 12 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 school life of its products in the community (Edem, 1987). But what revelation is available from the school programme evaluation? Monitoring and evaluation of our school products in the “labour market”, over the years, reveal a nightmare scenario; our labour force is populated with teeming school products that are indeed products of a huge foundation for a life of immortality and crime, including the fraudulent foundation of examination malpractice. The “labour force” in question encompasses very many political leaders, bankers, accountants, engineers, medical doctors, university lecturers, civil servants and clergy men. The list is by no means exhaustive. The fraudulent labour force (the poor quality school products) is the reason for the chronic embezzlement of public funds, many cases of failed banks, several incidents of deaths resulting from minor surgical operations, including incessant cases of collapsed storey buildings (with attendant devastation of lives of occupants) due to lack professional know-how of the contractors. This crisis-laden scenario presupposes that teacher education, from which all professionals stem, has tended to lose focus. It represents the failure of teacher education. It is the hall mark of illmotivated, non-conscientious, inefficient classroom delivery system in which teachers can neither interpret learning theories nor engage learners in a reciprocal exchange of knowledge that can generate enduring success. Issue 2 Does teacher education in Nigeria encourage further spirit of enquiry and creativity in teachers? Teachers in Nigeria teachers’ institution preach the use of innovative methods (such as inquiryoriented methods which encourage the spirit of enquiry and creativity) but they themselves do not practice what they preach (Ufofot, 2006). As observed by udofot (1987) The popular teaching methods in Nigeria teachers’ education institutions are the lecture and notes dictation methods. These are the kinds of methods which tend to isolate the teacher- trainees from the teaching-learning process and have no significant bearing with any skills acquisition or development techniques acceptable to teaching. Issue 3 Does teachers education in Nigeria help teachers to fit into the social life of community and the society at large and enhance their commitment to the national goals? It is a common knowledge that education is expected to achieve certain objectives, one of which is to produce good citizens – that is, men and women of character. This is very crucial because any education which fails to equip its products with the enduring value of society, such as honesty, integrity, transparency, discipline, justice, sense of fairness, etcetera, is a danger to the society. Thus, a fundamental question is; Has Nigerian education equipped its products with these enduring values? For the answer, lets reflect on this classroom drama: a random sample of ten science students were lined infront of a science class of forty students, and were, individually, asked a simple question; why are you in school? The first nine answer oscillated between: “because I want to be a medical doctor” and “because I want to be an engineer”. The class nodded impressively. The nine students bloated with pride and prestige. Then came the tenth answer: “Because I want to be honest and upright”. The class giggled and burst into laughter. The tenth student was flushed with ~ 13 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 shame and embarrassment. Now, if one may ask, have honesty and uprightness become qualities to be ridiculed and cast to the wind? Given that the teachers duty is not only to impact knowledge but to build character, where does the teacher stand in this drama of moral mockery? Ajayi (2011) provides an insight. Whether we like it or not, education has, in contemporary times, lost one of its important tenets; that is character building. For example, gone were the days when teachers were paragon of virtues and objects of respect … It is pertinent to soberly reflect on one critical issue in our education system. That is, the menace of examination malpractice. They are now a serious cankerworm at all levels of education to such an extent that teachers are easy accomplices, aiding and abetting the misdemeanor. Remarking on the above misdemeanor, Onwioduokit (2006) regretted that, “this matter has became worse and is getting worst because the products of examination malpractice are now, unfortunately employed as teachers and lecturers”. The teacher in the ‘business’ of examination malpractice can best be described as the most dangerous criminal in the society. Now, to the extent the image of the teacher is so dainted, it will be difficult to admit that teacher education has helped the teacher to fit into the social life of the community and that of the society at large, and to be committed to the national goals. Issue 4 Does teacher education in Nigeria provide teachers with adequate intellectual and professionals backgrounds necessary for their assignment, making them adaptable to changing situations? Our teacher education has the challenge of training highly and imaginative teachers well equipped with knowledge and skills to cope with the emerging scientific and technological knowledge, including Information and Communication Technology (ICT) skills in the society (Udofot, 2006). Admittedly, Ajayi (2011) Averred that “the quality of graduates coming out of the chunk of the system lack the necessary technical and professional competence; thus many do not often suit the modern work places”. Research studies lend credence to the afore going challenge. For instance, using a random sample of 92 physics teachers in Ikot Ekpene Senatorial District of Akwa Ibom State of Nigeria, Udoh’s (2010) research report revealed that; none of the physics teachers attended some form of ICT courses on power point, data logging, flash animation, excel and software CDs, which impact significantly on physics curriculum delivery. In summary, the representative sample under investigation was ICT incompetent and hence not ready to apply ICT in the teaching of senior secondary physics. This is lagging behind the reality of the 21st century in which educational system are increasingly obliged to use ICT in providing knowledge for learners in order to extend their abilities and skills. Thus, at best, it could be adjudged that teacher education in Nigeria is still grappling to provide teachers with intellectual and professional background adequate for their assignment in order to make them adaptable to changing situation. ~ 14 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Issue 5 Does teacher education in Nigeria enhance teachers’ commitment to the teaching profession? As already indicated, there is increasing concern about the quality of education and the goals achieved. Parents are not only questioning and criticizing education, raising several issues and waiting for explanation from the ministry of education, Okon (2006) admitted among other issues. * Inefficiency within the schools and the educational system, measured in terms of high drop out rates and illiterate graduates. * Mismatch between what the schools are producing and what employers and parents need. Ajayi (2011) explains that teachers and school administrators are no longer committed to work; many of our certificates are now worthless; we experience mass failure in schools at all levels. Thus, it cannot be safely argued that teacher education in Nigeria enhances teachers’ commitment to the teaching profession. Emerging Challenges The fore-going issues arising from the stipulated goals of teacher education are interwoven with a serious challenge, viz; the actualization of the goals will have to be vigorously pursued with a vision which seeks to transform the country into a prosperous, highly-educated, technology-driven, united and pace-setting country. In an attempt to square-up to the changes, the Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004) posited that (i) All teachers in educational institutions shall be professionally trained. (ii) Teacher education shall continue to take cognizance of changes in methodology and in curriculum. (iii) Teachers shall be regularly exposed to innovations in their profession and (iv) The success of any system of education is hinged on adequate financing. Now, follow-up questions would arise to keep the issues involved in perspective (i) Are all teachers in Nigerian educational institutions professionally trained? (ii) Has teacher education taken cognizance of changes in methodology and curriculum continuously? (iii) Are teachers regularly exposed to innovations in the profession? (iv) Has government ensured financing of schools? Now, let’s rely on the review of literature as we consider these issues. According to Nwanekezi and Ifionu (2010). Teaching is one occupation that has the greatest number of quarks despite its position as the “key” for development of human intellect. From pre-nursery level, it is common to find people who do not have educational qualifications still parade themselves as professional teachers. It is no doubt that even the teacher education institutions which are expected to turn out teachers who are intellectually, socially and professionally competence end-up producing half-baked. Teacher education is expected to furnish acceptable level of achievement in professional abilities such as integrating content knowledge with effective teaching methodology, making the students ~ 15 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 the center of learning. It is expected to produce professionals who can combine conventional teaching strategies with the global phenomenon of unfolding ICT, in the generation and impartation of knowledge, attitude and skills. Thus in this new global world of information and knowledge explosion, effective education can be achieved through active teaching and learning with adequate, relevant and effective instructional materials like the ICT facilities (Akudolu, 2002). In support of this, Jajua (2006) opined that one of the recent drives of the society towards making education relevant is making ICT common features of the education process. “Despite these recognized roles of ICTs in improving not only quality and quantity of education, ICTs remain a low policy or financial priority in our education ”(Jongur, Mohammed & Abba, 2008). Underfunding has contributed to the decline in teacher education. The way in which education is financial largely determines who will be educated and in what fashion (Obi, 2010). Accordingly, “the majority of Nigerian teacher are computer illiterate in a globalised world where ICT is as prevalent as the water we drink” (Alas & Adelaba, 2006). Staff development ptrogrammes are being paid lips services (Nwanekesi & Ifionu, 2010). The training programmes in the colleges of Education have been criticized as theoretical with very little application for skills development (Igbo, 2010). It thus appears that: (i) Teachers are seldom exposed to innovations in their professions (ii) Teacher education programmes are excessively academic and remote from the real challenges confronting classrooms. Summary of Major findings from Literature Review Critical review of literature on issues involved in teacher education furnishes two aspects of findings. The first aspect reveals that teacher education in Nigeria tends to: (i) Produce ill-motivated, non-conscientious and inefficient classroom teachers. (ii) Discourage the spirit of enquiry and creativity in teachers (iii) Fail in its promise to help teachers fit into the social life of the community and society at large and is ineffective in enhancing teachers commitment to the national goals. (iv) Fail in its bit to provide teachers with adequate intellectual and professional backgrounds necessary for their assignment and adaptation for changing situations. (v) Be found wanting in terms of enhancing teachers’ commitment to the teaching profession. The second aspect of findings from literature review reveals that the teacher is the pivot of education life, the success of all fields of study revolving round teacher education. This finding/revelation is reminiscent of the universal law of planetary motion. Now, if the education system (comprising basically the teacher education and the different fields of study) can be likened to the solar system (comprising basically the sun and nine planets), then the teacher’s position in the education enterprise fits exactly that of the sun which is the center of the solar system and around which the nine planets revolve, shining only by the reflected light of the sun. Should the sun be spent (which of course would spell doom for the entire system), other members of the solar system will (individually) wallow in eternal darkness. Expectedly, if teacher education is spent (as shown by review of literature), the respective fields of study will tend to be in limbo, needing urgent refocusing. This expectation, probably, underlies Ajay’s (2011) apprehension that the Nigerian education system is in a state of limbo, needing urgent revival”, particularly for those fields of study that are a bedrock of sustainable development of the nation. Consider senior secondary physics education as an illustrative example. ~ 16 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Physics is a very crucial subject for technological development and as such its teaching and learning must be a matter of national concern. Based on this concern and on the analysis of the situation, the following general objectives are to be satisfied by the senior secondary physics curriculum (Ladipo, 1985; Obioma, 2009). * To provide basic literacy in physics for fundamental living in the society. * To acquired essential scientific skills and attitudes as a preparation for the technological application of physics. * To stimulate and enhance creativity. Unfortunately, despite the fore-mentioned national concern, there is an increasing low enrolment in physics in schools and in tertiary institutions in Nigeria (Ladipo, 1985) and students performance has continued to witness a downward trend (Udoh, 2012). The ever-increasing decline in physics enrolment and achievement (Ezeife, 1996) points to the fact that there are increasing conditions for underachievement and slow learning, portraying possible failure of previous efforts of science educators in improving the learning situation (Nkwo, Akinbobola & Edinyang, 2008). Several researchers (Ali, 1998; Oguleye, 1999; Okebukola, 2002) listed problem areas of senior secondary physics education to include; dearth of instructional materials and laboratory equipments, lip-service attitude of government, inadequate funding and paucity of professionals trained physics teachers. On his part, Ikwa (1997) attributed the problems of underachievement in, and slow learning of, physics to ineffective grasp of physics concepts by students and teachers alike. Obioma (2009) capped it all; Physics is crucial for effective living in the modern age of science and technology. Given its application in industry and many other professions, it is necessary that every student is given an opportunity to acquire some of its concepts, principles and skills. Unfortunately, the teaching and learning of physics has been fraught with challenges which prevent many students from performing well in external examinations. The philosophy, objectives and concepts of physics curriculum have been adjudged by professionals in the field to be satisfactory; but its implementation has fallen short of expectation because of lack of sufficient number of qualified teachers, inadequate equipment to ensure the performance of related-students activities which are aimed at enhancing meaningful learning. From the afore-going, rather than achieve the general objectives of senior secondary physics curriculum, physics education at the senior secondary level is in coma, needing urgent revival or refocusing. Refocusing Physics Education The hidden message conveyed in the acknowledgement that physics education is fraught with a host of challenges which have resulted in abysmal students performance at all levels of education, over the years, with attendant production of half-baked graduate by Nigerian Universities centre on the need to refocus (revamp, restrategise, recreate and stabilize) the practice and delivery of education in Nigeria for sustainable development. Based on the analysis of the situation, the following strategies are advocated for teacher education in general, and physics education in particular. ~ 17 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 * * * * * * Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 The quality of the existing teaching force must be improved primarily through extensive in-service training programme, incentive package being built into the programme. Better quality of teachers must be ensured through pre-service education of teachers by careful selection and training, effective induction, professional encouragement and adequate remuneration. Admission of candidates into physics education programme should be based on merit and interest, oral/written examination and interviews. Government should ensure that unqualified teachers who are already in the teaching field are sponsored to obtain the required qualification for proper functioning of teachinglearning process. Lecturers need to switch from the prevalence of lecture, the predominant method of instruction in the traditional classroom setting, to inquiry-based, constructivist methods (such as the guided discovery method), including online teaching, learning and research. Government should provide ICT training programme for teacher educators with incentive package. Unless teacher educators model effective use of technology, it will be impossible to produce a new generation of teachers to effectively deploy the new tool in the classroom. Thus, unless teacher education programme is redesigned to incorporate, in real terms, modern technologies of teaching/ learning, our education system stands the risk of churning out learners who are neither critical thinkers nor problems solvers, including those who cannot meet the challenge of rapidly technological society of the 21st century. References Ajayi, S. A (2011). The Contemporary Challenges of Education in Nigeria. A lead paper presented at the 7th annual National Conference of the Association for Encouraging Qualitative Education in Nigeria (ASSEQEN) at the Federal government College of Education (FCE) Abeokuta, May10. Akudolu, L. R. (2002). Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Centered Education. A Necessity for National Development. In Abinbade, A (2002). Nigeria Journal of Computer Literacy (NJCL), 3 (1). Alao, K. and Adelabu, M. (2006). Planning, Programming and Strategizing for Changes and Innovations in Education in the Educational Systems of Developing Countries. A paper presented at the 3d vittachi. International Conference on Rethinking Educational Changes, held in Ifrane, Morocco, 1st – 5th July. Ali, A. (1998). Strategies, Issues and Trends in Science Education in Africa. Onitsha: Cape Publisher International Limited. Anekwe, J. U. and Obi, R. O. (2009). Restructuring Secondary School Curriculum through the Integration of Information and Communication Technology Best Practices. Journal of Curriculum Organisation of Nigeria, 16 (1). Edem, D. A. (1987). Introduction to Educational Administration in Nigeria. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited. Ezeife, A. N. (1996). Physics Methods: The methodology of Physics Teaching. Enugu: University Trust Publishers. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education. Lagos: NERC Press. Igbo, R. O. (2010). Teacher Continuing Professional Development (CPD) in Nigeria. Issues in the 21st Century. In E. C. illoputaife, B. U. Maduewesi and R. O. Igbo, (Eds.). Issues and Challenges in Nigerian Education in the 21st Century. Onitsha: West and Solomon publishing Company Limited. Ikwa, E.O. (1997). Areas of Difficulties in JSS Integrated Science Curriculum as Perceived by Serving Teachers in Cross Rivers State. Akamkpa Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 1(1&2). Jajua, M.A. (2006). Strategies in Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Application in Education. A Paper Presented at the ICT Workshop for Teachers by Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria (TRCN), Jalingo, Taraba State, 12th-18th November. Jongur, I. U; Mohammed, A and Abba, A.H. (2008). Learning Strategies in Teaching Science through Information and Communication Technology (ICT). Journal of Science Teachers Association of Nigeria, 43(1&2). ~ 18 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Ladipo, O.A. (1985). National Curriculum for Senior Secondary Schools, Volume 3: Science. Lagos: Federal Ministry of education. Nkwo, N.I; Akinbobola, A.O; Edinyang, S.D. (2008). Effects of Prior Knowledge of Instructional Objectives on Students Achievement in Selected Difficult Concepts in Senior Secondary School Physics. Journal of Science Teachers Association of Nigeria, 43(1&2). Nwankezi, A.U. and Ifionu, E.P. (2010). Challenges of Nigeria Teachers Education in the 21st Century. In E.C Iloputaife, B.U. maduewesi, and R,O. Igbo (Eds.). Issues and Challenges in Nigerian Education in the 21st Century. Onitsha: West and Solomon Publishing Co. Limited. Nwosu, A.A. (1991). Acquisition of Science Process Skill by Students of Different Cognitive Levels. The Effects of a Teacher Sensitization Programme. Review of Education, 13 (1). Obi, R.O. (2010). Challengres Facing Teacher Education in Nigeria. In E.C. Iloputaife, B.U. Maduewesi and R.O. Igbo (Eds). Issues and Challenges in Nigerian Education in the 21st Century. Onitsha: West and Solomon Publishing Co. Ltd. Obioma, G. (2009). Federal Ministry of Education Senior Secondary School Curriculum: Physics for Senior Secondary Schools. Abuja: Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council. Ogunleye, A.O. (1999). Science Education in Nigeria: Historical Development, Curriculum Reforms and Research. Lagos: Sunshine International Publications (Nig) Ltd. Okebukola, P. A.O. and Ogunniyi, M.B. (1984). Cooperatives, Competitive and Individualistic Laboratry Interaction Patterns: Effects on Students Achievement and Acquisition of Pracical Skills in Science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 2 (9) Okebukola, P. (2002). Beyond the Stereotype of New Trajectories in Science Teaching. Text of special Lecture presented at the 43d Science Teachers Association of Nigeria, 19th – 23rd August. Okoli, J. N. (1998). Effects of Cooperative and Competitive Science Laboratory Interaction Patterns on Students Achievement and Acquisition of Science practical Skills in integrated Science. Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences, 2 (1). Okon, D. (2006). The Responsibilities and Challenges of Educational Development and Management in Akwa Ibom State. A Keynote Address presented at the first Akwa Ibom State Education summit, uyo, 28 th – 30th march. Omatseye, J. N. (2000). NCE/DLS Course Book on Education, Cyclc 1, Modules 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, Kaduna: National Teachers Institute. Onwioduokit, F. A. (2006). Quality Control: Issues and Challenges in Akwa Ibom State Education System. A lead Paper Presented in Akwa Ibom State Education Summit, at Ibom Hall, Uyo, 14th – 16th March. Udofot, M. A. (1987). Priorities in Nigerian Teacher Education. Journal of Education and Development, Vi & Vii Udofot, M. A. (2006). Challenges of Teachers Education and Professionalism in Akwa Ibom State. A Paper Presented at Akwa Ibom State Education Summit Held at Ibom Hall, IBB Way, Uyo, 14th – 16th March. Udoh, O. A. (2010). Influence of Teacher Competence and Availability of Resources on the Application of ICT to the Teaching of Physics in SSS. Multidisciplinary journal of Research Development, 15 (4). Udoh, O. A. (2012). Reflections on the Nigerian Education System: Implementing Continuous Assessment in the Curriculum Delivery of Senior Secondary Physics. Journal of Assertiveness, 1 (1). ~ 19 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Climatic Changes and Global Fisheries: The Nigerian Experience Ekpo Imoh Ekpo School of Maritime Studies, Maritime Academy of Nigeria, Oron,Akwa Ibom State- Nigeria Doi:10.5901/mjss.2012.v3n13p20 Abstract Climatic change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. Millions of people around the world depend on fish for income and livelihood. Linked to the strong increase in fish production, employment in capture fisheries and aquaculture has grown substantially in the last three decades, with an average rate of 3.6 percent. Climatic changes affects spawning sites of fisheries resulting in the reduction of fish biomass, destruction of coral reeves, distortion of food web and food chain, and the reduction of caught fisheries. Shifts in ocean salinity are occurring, with near-surface waters in the more evaporative regions of most of the world’s ocean increasing in salinity, while marine areas in high latitudes are showing decreasing salinity due to greater precipitation, higher runoff, melting ice and other atmospheric processes. Importantly, increase in salinity affects fish spawning site which in turn influences fish population. This will translate to less income for fishers as they record less catch. In an attempt to meet up other social responsibilities, fishers may resort to other more dangerous methods of catching fish like toxic chemicals, explosives and dynamite. Serious sanctions must be put in place to restrain fishers from adopting these dangerous methods of catching fishes while effort must also be intensified to improve aqua culture production. Keywords: Climate changes, Fisheries, Nigeria Introduction The fish sector is a source of income and livelihood for millions of people around the world. Linked to the strong increase in fish production, employment in capture fisheries and aquaculture has grown substantially in the last three decades, with an average rate of 3.6 percent per year since 1980 according to the most recent estimate (Westlund, 2009). In 2008, 44.9 million people were directly engaged, full time or, more frequently, part time, in capture fisheries or in aqua culture. This number represents a 167 percent increase compared with the 16.7 million people in 1980. Employment in the fisheries sector has grown faster than the world’s population and employment in traditional agriculture as observed by the United Nation’s Food and Agricultural Organization (UN FAO) report, 2010. Majority of fisheries and aqua culturists are in developing countries, mainly in Asia 85.5%, Africa, 9.3%, Latin America, 2.9%, Europe 1.4%, North America 0.7%, and Oceania 0.1%. Studies have shown the relationship between fish production and total world population. China is the country with the largest number of fishers, representing nearly one third of the total. In 2008. 133 million people were employed as fishers and fish farmers in China. Since 1990, fish farmers have experienced the greatest increase in their numbers, with most of the growth occurring in Asia where the number of farmers increased by 189% in the period 1990-2008. The global fishing fleet is made up of about 4.3 million vessels. About 59% of these vessels are powered by engines. The remaining 41% are traditional craft of various types, operated by sails and oars, ~ 20 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 concentrated in Asia and Africa. Fig.1 shows the total fish production against world population. . Over concentration in aqua culture without commensurate attention on wild fishes also creates a problem. The aqua culture fish at certain age depends on wild fish fingerlings for food. This will create an imbalance as wild fish stock will not be allowed to grow to maturity. This will mean poor catch for fishers and will frustrate the effort of regional governments in protecting the capture of under aged fishes. Leading countries in wild and aqua culture fishing are as shown in the table. Fig 2. Leading countries in capture/aqua fisheries Source: UNFAO fFAO ~ 21 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Current Challenges Relating International, Regional and National Fisheries The countries in Southern Africa have been mobilizing in the fight against illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing. In September 2007, a forum for national heads of operations of monitoring, control and surveillance (MCS) hosted by Mozambique, considered that illegal fishing should be raised at the highest level with Southern African development community (SADC). Subsequently a ministerial conference was held on 4th July, 2008 in Namibia where fisheries ministers from coastal states considered and signed a statement of commitment to stop illegal fishing. Among several resolutions, the ministers committed to close their ports to illegal vessels (Tietenberg, 2006:28). Also at the conference, the ministers of fisheries and marine resources of Namibia, Dr Abraham Iyambo the Namibian minister placed the issue in regional context. “It is not an exaggeration to state that the plague of illegal fishing is one of the largest environmental crimes of our time. We may well be the last generation of decision makers with an opportunity to prevent this scandal and bring to an end the troubling destruction of our oceans and the hardship it brings to people” (FAO report, 2005). As a result of this, countries took actions with vessel arrest, revocation of agreements, enforcing measures on vessels flying their flags and fishing outside of their exclusive economic zones. Regional cooperation in monitoring and surveillance increased efficiently with joint training at sea and operations between member countries. This resulted for the first time in patrols along the coast of Southern and East Africa and illegal fishing vessels were apprehended and prosecuted owners and vessels confiscated (Grotius, 1916). In early 2009, Mozambique hosted a second regional forum of heads of operations of MCS, where action plans against illegal fishing were identified. Several working groups were set up at the National, regional and international for negotiation on a global port state measure. The action plan was approved in Zimbabwe on 16th July, 2010. Regional and international organizations and partners that have contributed to the Southern African effort led by SADC include: the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission, INFOSA, The IOC, The NEPAD, and The Norwegian Agency for development cooperation, The Pews foundation, The South East Atlantic Fisheries organization, the south West Indian Ocean fisheries commission, stop illegal fishing, and the Swedish international development cooperation agency. Following a year of intense negotiations, the FAO conference in November 2009 approved the agreement on the port state measures to prevent, deter and eliminate illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing. The Agreement as an Article xiv instrument under the FAO constitution. Management and Conservation of Inland Fishery Resources in Nigeria Foreign observers frequently comment that fishing in African lakes, rivers and their associated wetlands is usually haphazard. This is due to the fact that there are no laws and regulations controlling the exploitation of the fisheries of most African inland waters. Even where such exist, they are not often enforced. In Nigeria, the management of inland waters is regarded as the exclusive responsibility of the state to which the water belongs. Whereas there is a sea fisheries decree act 1971 as well as the regulations on the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) decree of 1978. The justification for comprehensive inland fisheries legislation had been advanced by the Federal department of fisheries based on the need to harmonize the administration, management, protection and improvement of the fisheries resources in inland waters including rivers, reservoirs ~ 22 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 lakes and their associated wetlands. Fish do not respect state boundaries (Adeniji, 1990:136). Migratory fish often enters channels which pass through more than one state. Consequently, actions or lack of actions by one state can have a profound effect on the fisheries resources in another state. Migrant fishermen often cross state boundaries using unlawful methods to capture fish and dumping poisonous products in another state, can lead to mass destruction of valuable fishery resources downstream in another state (Ita, 2008:233). This justifies the need for central legislation. Actions for the promulgation of such laws and regulations are yet to materialize. For fish stock to be protected in Nigerian waters, certain factors must be taken into consideration in the fisheries edict and well enforced. The edict reads; 1. A catch of the fresh water fish species not below the size specified, 2. Fix stationary fishing structures across the river for purpose of cultivating, culturing or propagating fish, 3. No person shall take from or destroy any fish within the water bodies by any of the following means; A, the use of any explosive or electricity B. the use of any poisonous or noxious matter C. the use of gillnet or drawn net less than 3in or 7.62cm D. the use of clap net, cast net or any webbing traps of less than 2 inches Or 5.1cm E. lifts net of not less than 5.1inches. Indicators of climatic changes Mayor indicators of climatic change includes, 1 Global warming 2 Too much rain in an area which have been prone to experience normal down pour 3 Scanty rains in areas of normal heavy down pour 4 Unexpected rise of abnormal winds and possible effect on aquatic habitat. 5 Rise in global ocean temperature 6 Increase in carbon dioxide level 7 Expansion of sea level and over flooding 8 Increase in natural disasters, storms, cyclons, tsunamis, flood, and volcanic eruptions. The International Legal Regimes for Fisheries Management The traditional legal framework for the management of the fisheries resources of the oceans was based on the principles of free access to the living resources. The doctrine associated with this approach was the freedom of the high seas which was proclaimed by Hugo Grotius. Grotius sought to establish the inclusive interest of the whole community of the oceans, in opposition to the claims of some states for exclusive rights to area of the ocean. Interest in the ocean at that time was more for navigation and trade. Three nautical miles was widely accepted as the breadth of a state territorial sea, (Grotius, 1916). Freedom of fishing had two implications for the management of fisheries. First, coastal states did not have any right to fisheries resources of the oceans beyond the narrow limits of their territorial seas. Second and more importantly, the system did not promote effective conservation of the living resources of the oceans. The international response to the growing depletion of the world fisheries stock and the degradation of the habitats has been through adoption of four classes of instruments. Firstly, ~ 23 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 globally binding fisheries treaties were adopted to address the conservation and management of fish stocks: second, international framework for the management of tuna and tuna like species was strengthened. Global environmental treaties were adopted that provide useful tools and principles towards sustainable fisheries management. Major challenges facing the sustainable use of marine living resources include; 1. Overfishing with the related issues of resource collapse and endangered species 2. over capacity, with the related issues of subsidies 3. Environmental impacts of fishing 4. Illegal, unregulated and unreported fishing (IUU fishing) 5. Poor selectivity and discarding 6. Absence of ecosystem-based fisheries management. The four classes of responses do not meet the challenges facing fisheries today. Collectively they provide a very comprehensive framework which requires more effective implementation of the instruments through better coordination between national, regional and global institutions. (Birnie and Boyle, 1999: 436). Several attempts have been made to address these problems through series of conventions. These include; 1. The Geneva Convention on the conservation of the living resources on the high seas 1958. The convention affirmed that “all states have the rights for their nationals to engage in fishing on the high seas,” subject to their treaty obligations, the rights and interest of coastal states, and an obligation to co-operate for the purposes of conservation. 2. Laws of the sea convention. This created a comprehensive and multilateral treaty to regulate the use of the sea, one of the fundamental results of the United Nations Conference on the Laws of the Sea (UNCLOS) 111 negotiations and the state practice generated by it, has been the new international law of marine fisheries. The treaty sources for this customary law regime are to be found in part v of the law of the sea convention setting out the exclusive economic zone concept and part V11, section 2 entitled “conservation and management of the living resources of the high seas.”(LOS, 1982). Fisheries Management in the EEZ The Exclusive Economic Zone EEZ is defined as “an area beyond and adjacent to the territorial sea” which “shall extend beyond 200 nautical miles from the baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured”. Article 56 of the LOS convention governs the jurisdictional competence of the coastal states in the EEZ. This is defined in terms of sovereign rights as opposed to sovereignty. The EEZ has been defined as an inheritance by the coastal states from the rest of the world. Under the new regime of the seas, the world community has willed to the coastal states the bulk of living resources in waters of their shores. With this in mind, the LOS convention outlines details how individual coastal states are to go about fulfilling the expectations placed on them by the world community. The expectations are couched in terms of two obligations (1) conservation; and (2) optimum utilization (Fleischer, 1984: 253) High Seas Fisheries Management under the LOS Convention The Las of the Sea convention as contained in part vii, section 2. Article 116 proclaims that all states have the right for their nationals to engage in fishing on the high seas. This right is subject to states treaty obligations with regards to cooperation to conserve straddling stock and highly migratory ~ 24 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 species. Following the adoption of the LOS convention, problems of international fisheries came to the fore. Some of the problems can be attributed to the design implementation of the LOS convention especially, a) The discretionary nature of conservation requirement in the EEZ in particular, the policy flexibility given to coastal states in determining the allowable catch. b) The use of maximum sustainable yield (MSY) as the default biological reference point. c) The emphasis placed on the promotion of the optimum utilization. d) The lack of clear guidelines on the framework for international cooperation to manage and conserve highly migratory species and straddling stock. Problems also arose because too much freedom of high seas fishing was left intact by LOS convention. These include registration and re-registration of fishing vessels under flags of convenience and the non participation in fisheries management regimes or opting out of fishing regulations by flag state. Chapter 17 of agenda 21 identified these problems as follows; 1) Inadequate monitoring and enforcement of effective conservation measures, 2) Unregulated fishing 3) Over capitalization 4) Excessive fleet size 5) Vessels reflagging to escape controls 6) Insufficient selective gear 7) Unreliable data bases 8) Lack of sufficient cooperation between states. (FAO, 1993). Global Effects on Sustainability of Fisheries Resources Sustainability of fisheries combines theoretical disciplines such as the population, dynamics of fisheries with practical strategies such as, avoiding overfishing through techniques like quotas, destructive and illegal fishing practices by lobbying for appropriate law and policy, setting up protective areas, restoring collapsed fisheries, incorporating all externalities involved in harvesting marine ecosystem into fishery economics, educating stake holders and the wide public and developing independent certification programs, (Tietenberg, 2006:28). The primary concern around sustainability is that heavy fishing pressure such as over exploitation and growth will result in the loss of significant potential yield. That stock structure will erode to the point where it loses diversity and resilience to environmental fluctuations. That ecosystem and their economic infrastructures will circle between collapse and recovery; with each cycle less productive than its predecessor and the changes will occur in the tropic balance (Hilborn, 2007:8). ~ 25 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Fig .3 shows fish production against protein consumption Global world fisheries are believed to have peaked and began to decline with valuable habitat such as estuaries and coral reefs in critical condition. Current aqua culture or farming of piscivorous fish, such as salmon, does not solve the problem because farmed piscivorous are fed from wild fish such as forage fish. Salmon farming also has major negative impacts on wild salmon. (Juda, 2006:276) The world wide decline of ocean fisheries stocks has provided impetus for rapid growth in fish and shell fish farming. Between 1987 and 1997, global production of farmed fish and shell fish more than doubled in weight and volume. As human population continues to expand beyond 6 billion, its reliance on farmed fish production as an important source of protein would also increase. Fish are a major source of food protein for billions of people and their domestic animals. Growth in aqua culture production is a mixed blessing. Some aqua culture activities like shrimps and salmon farming creates potential damage to oceans and coastal resources through habitat destruction, waste disposal, exotic species and pathogen invasions, large fish meal and fish oil requirements may further deplete wild fisheries stock. Conclusion Sustainable management of fisheries cannot be achieved without an acceptance that the long term goals of fisheries management are the same as those of environmental conservation. Fisheries have rarely been “sustainable”. Rather, fishing has induced several depletions, long marked improved technology, geographic expansion and exploitation of previously spurned species lower in the food web with global catches declining since late 1980’s. Continuation of present trend will lead to supply short fall for which aqua-culture cannot compensate. (Gulland, 2001). As aqua culture ~ 26 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 continues to increase and intensify, both its reliance and its impact on ocean fisheries are likely to expand even further. The balance between farmed and wild caught fish, as well as the total supply of fish available for human consumption will depend on future aqua culture practices. Technological, management and policy options will sustain production. Temperature and other variations resulting from climatic change will have a strong impact on fisheries and aquaculture, with significant food security consequences for certain populations, Wild capture fisheries are fundamentally different from other food production systems in their linkages and responses to climatic change and in the food security outcomes. Unlike most terrestrial animals, aquatic animal species used for human consumption are poikilothermic, meaning their body temperatures vary according to ambient temperatures. Any changes in habitat temperatures significantly influence their metabolism, growth rate, productivity, seasonal reproduction, and susceptibility to diseases and toxins. In marine waters, climate processes and extreme weather events will increase in frequency and intensity – the most well known of these is the El Niño phenomenon. The ongoing warming of the world’s oceans is likely to continue, but with geographical differences and some decadal variability. Warming is more intense in surface waters but is not exclusive to these, with the Atlantic showing particularly clear signs of deep warming. The oceans are becoming more acidic, with probable negative consequences to many coral reef and calcium-bearing organisms. For communities who heavily rely on fisheries, any decreases in the local availability or quality of fish for food or increases in their livelihoods’ instability will pose even more serious problems. Fishing communities located in the high latitudes and those that rely on climate change-susceptible systems, such as upwelling or coral reef systems, will have the greatest exposure to climate-related impacts. In addition, fisheries communities located in deltas will be particularly vulnerable to sea level rise and associated risks of flooding, saline intrusion and coastal erosion. At both the local and global levels, fisheries and aquaculture play important roles in providing food and generating income. Some 44.9 million people work directly in the sector, the great majority in developing countries. Adding those who work in associated processing, marketing, distribution and supply industries, and the sector supports several hundred million livelihoods. Aquatic foods have high nutritional quality, contributing 20 percent or more of average per capita animal protein intake for more than 2.8 billion people, again mostly in developing countries. Fish is also the world’s most widely traded foodstuff and a key source of export earnings for many poorer countries. The sector has particular significance for small island states. Recommendations In the light of the foregoing write up, we recommended as follows 1 Investment in the sector, especially in infrastructure, will need to consider climatic change which will require developing better information on the costs and benefits of protection. 2 Transfer or spread of sector-related risk – from individuals and communities to the state through contingency plans – will be based on specific fiscal provisions but also may be tied to innovations in resource management through which the insured accept responsibilities in exchange for protection. 3 Funding agencies can “climate proof” their approaches and, at the same time, take advantage of new opportunities in the fisheries and aquaculture sector by jointly promoting food security, reducing negative impacts of climatic variability and change, and improving resource management. ~ 27 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 4 Well defined sectoral performance criteria need to be set out to bring climatic change threat, risks within normal management practices, public and private sector linkages and partnerships will be essential in developing efficient and effective responses. 5 climatic changes have been known to be primarily caused by energy consumption through fuel, raw material use and production. To this extent, government should device means of increasing taxes of industries that pollutes above the acceptable limit. 6 Government should sponsor research into alternative use of fuel and lubricants to generate energy example, an increase use of bio fuel. 7 Diverse stake holders including consumers, industries and government should be more conscious of the scientific, social, economic and developmental issues related to aquatic value chain. There is a critical need for dialogue and collaboration among industry, government and scientist community. 8 the legislative houses should consider building a legal framework that considers and respond to climatic change threats along with other pressure like overfishing and pollution. This requires effective public, private and NGO partnership. References Adeniyi, H.A. and Mbagwu, I. G. (1990). Study of Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Some heavy metals in Jankara Reservoir, Kano State, Nigeria, NIFFR Annual report, p.136-140. Birnie, Patricia, and Alan Boyle, (1999). International Law and the Environment led, New York: Oxford University Press. Coats, D. (2002). Inland Capture Fishery statistics of South East Asia : Current status and Information needs. RAP publication No. 2002/11. Bankok, Asia Pacific Fisheries Commission and FAO regional office for Asia and Pacific. 114 pp. Fleischer, C. A. (1984). The Exclusive Economic Zone under the convention Regime In state practice: 17 Laws of the Sea Institute Proceedings.vol. 5 FAO, (2009). Report of the twenty eighth session of the committee on Fisheries, Rome,2-6 March 2009. FAO fisheries and aqua culture report no.902 pp. 64. FAO, (2005). Increasing the contribution of small scale fisheries to poverty Alleviation and food security. FAO Technical guidelines for responsible fisheries no. 10. Rome 79pp.FAO Compliance Agreement approved 24th Nov.1993 by resolution 15/93. Grotius, H. (1916). The Freedom of the Sea. New York: Oxford University Press Gulland, J. A. (2001). The fish resources of the Ocean. West Byfleet UK. Fishing News (books) Ltd. Hilborn, R. (2007). Reinterpreting the state of fisheries and their Management ecosystem 10 (8), 1362-1369. Ita, O. E. (2008). An Analysis of fish distribution in Kanji Lake, Nigeria Hydrobiologia 59(3), 233-244. Juda, L. (2006). International Law and Ocean use Management. London:Routledge, 1996 p. 276. Laws of the Sea Convention (1982).Geneva Tietenberg, T. H. (2006). Environment And Natural Resources Economics: A contemporary approach. Pp28.New York. United Nations Department of Economic and social Affairs, Population Division (2010). World urbanization prospects: the 2009 Revision. Westlund, L. (2009). Rescaling the Contribution of Captured Fishes. An Overview with a focus on developing countries. Unpublished report prepared by PROFISH in collaboration with FAO and World fish center. World Bank, FAO, and World Fish Center. (2010). the Hidden Harvest. The Global Contributions to capture fisheries. Washington DC. World Bank press ~ 28 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Global Mindset and Sustainable Development in Africa- A Synergy Victor Etim Ndum Institute of Public Policy and Administration, University of Calabar, Nigeria Onukwugha, Chinwe Gilean Department of Computer Science, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria Doi:10.5901/mjss.2012.v3n13p29 Abstract Global managers and leaders have exceptionally open minds. They most often respect how different countries do things and they have the imagination to appreciate why they do them that way. But, they are also incisive. They sort through the debris of cultural excuses and find opportunities to innovate .There is need to develop the global mindset of leaders/managers, teams, individuals, and the entire African populace to enhance global sustainability. The existing scenario in Africa indicates that it does not have enough leaders within global competencies. It is essential to identify African leadership potentials that help to sustain competitive advantage in a dynamic global/ local environment. This advantage of course is achievable through global mindset development. The concept and idea of sustainable development is widely accepted, and good progress has been made on sustainable development metrics; yet its implementation has been largely unsuccessful especially in Africa. The position of this paper is that global mindset remains a sine qua non for sustainable development anywhere in the world. A synergy between global mindset and sustainable development has therefore been established. It was recommended among others, that African leaders should be more proactive and also see the development of global mindset as a priority. Keywords: Global, Mindset, Sustainability, Development, Synergy Introduction The most important attribute required for effective global leadership and sustainability is not just a new set of skills or experience, but rather a new perspective called global mindset. This requires simultaneously recognizing situations in which demands from both global and local elements are compelling, while combining an openness to and awareness of diversity across cultures and nations with a willingness and ability to synthesize across this diversity. Global mindset means we can scan the world. The achievement of global sustainability objectives is best propelled by a country-wide alignment of global mindset, when each and every employee, leader and entire citizenry knows their part in fulfilling the national and international vision and is prepared to work effectively in the global complex environment. Ensuring compliance with and implementing the principles surrounding sustainable development is better enhanced when leaders of nations, non –governmental organizations and all stakeholders develop in them a global mindset. The business of sustainable development is not something that should be limited to ~ 29 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 domestic strategies only. The notion of global mindset holds that leaders of various countries should be at liberty to consult and partner with other countries freely, especially if those other countries possess what can better facilitate efforts toward the achievement of sustainability. In short, leaders of various countries in the world are the arrow heads in the success and failure of sustainable development. Global leadership mindset is therefore the ability to take a global rather than country specific view of the environment and people, and be able to apply this perspective to a country, taking into account its culture, resources, ideology etc. Leadership matters and cannot be ignored .Leaders work in un-chartered territories, beyond traditional boundaries with state, non-state, business, and auxiliary (universities, trade unions, charities, third sector). They seek to make sense of new situations, personnel, processes, and dynamic policy shifts. Although social agency constrained by the structural, institutional and historical context, leadership capacity is a quality which can alleviate the negative consequences of economic regional development and to reinforce the positive ones. When we use the term global mindset leadership we don‘t refer to the typically strong, charismatic leader with a formal position & power, but all those who, following their inner consciousness and inner values, take responsibility and actions for sustainable development in their own communities, localities and regions and the world. Passion and commitment and the capability to mobilise others are essential in this process . However, we know a great deal about what leaders do, but very little about the inner place, the source from which they operate. Change today requires a shift of the mind, a shift of will and a shift of the heart. Global mindset development can be viewed as a process of reframing a cognitive reference point, shifting a worldview, or developing a new paradigm of meaning or perspective taking (Bartunek, 1988). From a practical perspective, the next generation of leaders and followers must develop meaning making strategies that allow them to transcend cultural boundaries where differences may exist. Such strategies will enable leaders and followers to recognize the nuanced nature of entering new and different cultures, to integrate the information and knowledge into a personal system of meaning, and to use that meaning to guide the development of behavioral repertoires that are consistent with both their self-concept and with the cultural context of interaction. The concept and idea of sustainable development is widely accepted, and good progress has been made on sustainable development metrics; yet the implementation of sustainable development has been largely unsuccessful. The world has made little progress in implementing programs and policies to improve the lives of the poor (Moyo, 2009), and the integration of the three pillars of economic development, social development, and environmental improvements remains a challenge. Sustainable development is not easy and will take considerable time and effort. It emphasizes a holistic, equitable and far-sighted approach to decision making at all levels. It emphasizes not just strong economic performance but intragenerational and intergenerational equity. It rests on integration and a balanced consideration of social, economic and environmental goals and objectives in both public and private decision-making .The concept of sustainable development emerged from anxieties that accompanied the triumphant rise in living standards enjoyed in developed countries during the second half of the 20th century. Encapsulated in the Club of Rome’s 1972 publication of The Limits to Growth, this unease sprang from two painful realities. It had become clear that the life-sustaining role of the biosphere was at risk from open-ended consumption of natural resources. In this paper, effort is devoted in the understanding of relevance of global mindset development in the enhancement of sustainable development in Africa. Leaders in various ~ 30 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 capacities in Africa should strive to build a global mindset that would give them the opportunity to explore all avenues across the world to help realize their goals. Conceptual Underpining Global Mindset Global mindset means we can scan the world .it combines an openness to and awareness of diversity across cultures and markets with ability to synthesize across the diversity. With this ,countries in African would be able to understand what is obtainable elsewhere in the world and the scope of thinking is enlarged. The achievement of global sustainability objectives is best propelled by a country-wide alignment of global mindset, when each and every employee, leader and entire citizenry knows their part in fulfilling the national and international ’s vision and is prepared to work effectively in the global complex environment. Global mindset Helps managers, and leaders see possibilities when opportunities arise and share best practices with the surroundings, Speeds up cross-country sharing of information, Enhances the capability of risk-taking, gets innovations and better ways of doing things on the globe in a shorter time and facilitates the convergence of local adjustments with global standardization With this increasing flattening of the world, is the fact that to effectively engender change in this new world will require a more different kind of leader than ever before. A leader who will not only have to be generally effective in the traditional skills expected but also with additional knowledge, skills and above all mindset to navigate through the complexities brought on by moving beyond one's traditional borders. But, what then exactly is a global mindset and how does it impact the way nations lead? It is the ability to influence individuals, groups, organizations, and systems that have different intellectual, social, and psychological knowledge or intelligence from your own. But, more than the old adage, “think globally and act locally,” it's now “think and act both globally and locally” at the same time. This means not only recognize when it is beneficial to create a consistent global standard, but also deepen the understanding of local and cultural differences, crossing cultures and changing contexts. It requires simultaneously recognizing situations in which demands from both global and local elements are compelling, while combining an openness to and awareness of diversity across cultures and markets with a willingness and ability to synthesize across this diversity.(Cohen, 2010). The concept of global mindset has been suggested by scholars as a way to achieve a better understanding of ways to engage in appropriate levels of cross-cultural functioning, (Bartlett & Ghoshal, 1998). Global mindset has been defined as “the cognitive ability that helps individuals figure out how to best understand and influence individuals, groups, and organizations from diverse socio/cultural systems” (Beechler & Javidan, 2007). In today’s complex and changing environment with its concomitant effects, nations are increasingly looking for ways to develop global mindset among their leaders. To be successful in the global economy, leaders must have the ability to navigate the needs and norms of multiple cultural groups simultaneously. Global mindset provides leaders with the capacity to not only understand the nuances of culture, but to also have a broader understanding of the impact of global trends on local strategies. The mindset is the repository of meaning and global mindset develops as individuals transform into more complex meaning makers (Kegan, 1983), who incorporate multiple cultural ~ 31 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 frameworks into their meaning systems. The construction of meaning is a personal experience, in which we develop constructs to understand what is happening around us . Thus, meaning making is simply the activity of being and we experience our reality as the meaning we make of it ,said kegan .In this era of climate change ,nations need to start thinking deeply on how to make meaning in the direction of sustainability. Global mindset development is a process that can occur throughout the life span. The constructivist/developmental model provided by Kegan allows us to understand how global mindset is not a factor of traits and skills, but rather a process of knowing one’s capacities to make meaning of events and to use this capacity to display appropriate behaviours, in this case, developing behavioural patterns and attitudes that are not at variance with the principles of sustainable development. Additionally, Gupta and Govindarajan ( 2004) described the development of global mindset as a series of S-curves, in which individuals become aware of their current mindsets, find a means to articulate these and become more inquisitive and open to learning about new cultures, which again exposes their current mindset, and thus the process continues . Individuals differ in how they sense and interpret the world around them. So do organizations and nations ,and these differences matter. They matter because it is how we perceive our environment as well as ourselves that determines which of the multitude of opportunities and problems we go after and how we do so. We would define a global mindset as one that combines an openness to and awareness of diversity across cultures and markets with a propensity and ability to synthesize across this diversity. Global mindset leadership in African countries would be proactive in benchmarking and learning from product and process innovations outside their domestic borders. Global mindset should make the countries much more alert to the entry of non-traditional (that is, foreign) competitors in its local environment especially if it has to do with new ways of engendering sustainability. Sustainable Development The term, sustainable development, was popularized in Our Common Future, a report published by the World Commission on Environment and Development in 1987. Also known as the Brundtland report, Our Common Future included the “classic” definition of sustainable development: “development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” Acceptance of the report by the United Nations General Assembly gave the term political salience; and in 1992 leaders set out the principles of sustainable development at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It is generally accepted that sustainable development calls for a convergence between the three pillars of economic development, social equity, and environmental protection. Sustainable development is a visionary development paradigm; and over the past 20 years governments, businesses, and civil society have accepted sustainable development as a guiding principle, made progress on sustainable development metrics, and improved business and NGO participation in the sustainable development process. Yet the concept remains elusive and implementation has proven difficult. Unsustainable trends continue and sustainable development has not found the political entry points to make real progress. As a result, climate change has become the de facto proxy for implementation of the sustainable development agenda; but the framework of the climate change negotiations are not always the appropriate forum for broader strategic discussions of sustainable ~ 32 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 development. While sustainable development is intended to encompass three pillars, over the past 20 years it has often been compartmentalized as an environmental issue (Drexhage, and Murphy, 2010) Added to the above, and potentially more limiting for the sustainable development agenda, is the reigning orientation of development as purely economic growth. This has been the framework used by developed countries in attaining their unprecedented levels of wealth, and major and rapidly developing countries are following the same course. The problem with such an approach is that natural resources are in imminent peril of being exhausted or their quality being compromised to an extent that threatens current biodiversity and natural environments. Addressing this challenge calls for changes at the consumer level in developed countries. Developed countries have the wealth and technical capacity to implement more sustainable policies and measures, yet the required level of political leadership and citizen engagement is still a long way off. The lack of action in developed countries is compounded by economic growth in developing countries that follows the resource-intensive model of developed countries. Without change and real action to address levels of consumerism and resource use in developed countries, one can hardly expect a receptive audience among developing countries when attempts are made to direct attention to their economic development practices. More sustainable development pathways are needed in both developed and developing countries; which require a level of dialogue, cooperation and, most importantly, trust that simply is not reflected in today’s multilateral institutions or regimes. There is a huge gap between the multilateral processes, with their broad goals and policies; and national action, which reflects domestic political and economic realities. A huge constituency around the world cares deeply and talks about sustainable development, but has not taken serious on-the-ground action. Deep structural changes are needed in the ways that societies manage their economic, social, and environmental affairs; and hard choices are needed to move from talk to action. While some would argue that we have failed on sustainable development, 20 years is a relatively short time frame to implement the required changes in such a daunting area. The needed systemic changes will require a revolution in the way the world does business. This will have an impact on lifestyles and consumption patterns— especially so in developed countries, but also for the growing middle class in developing countries. The recent financial crisis and the beginning of the decline of trust in the liberalization and globalization model could mean some renewed receptivity for a new sustainable development paradigm. A new model could chart a development path that truly is concerned with equity, poverty alleviation, reducing resource use, and integrating economic, environmental, and social issues in decision making. The opportunity is ripe to move beyond incrementalism to real systemic change. Since the Brundtland report and the Rio Summit, sustainable development has transitioned from being an interesting yet at times contested ideal, to a concept that enjoys widespread endorsement by international institutions, governments, businesses, and civil society. The nearly universal adoption of sustainable development as a guiding principle is, in part, due to its flexibility. It allows various stakeholders to adapt the concept to their own purposes. This strength, however, is also a liability because various interpretations have led to confusion and compromised implementation Nonetheless, sustainable development has been integrated into the operations and governing mandate of many prominent international organizations. These include the World Bank , which has affirmed a commitment to “sustainable globalization” that “enhances growth with care for the environment”; the International Monetary Fund (IMF, 2010), with a commitment to “sustainable economic growth”; as well as the World Trade Organization which endeavours to contribute to sustainable development through the pursuit of open borders and the removals of ~ 33 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 barriers to trade. Sustainable development is also a prominent component of the MDGs, which have been widely endorsed by national governments and the world’s foremost development organizations since they were adopted at the Millennium Summit in 2000. Sustainable development has also gained currency in the private sector—often in the form of the corporate social responsibility (CSR) agenda. Several voluntary initiatives have been formed over the past 20 years, including the World Business Council on Sustainable Development (WBCSD), Global Compact, Equator Principles, Global Reporting Initiative, and Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative. In addition, various major international NGOs, such as Friends of the Earth, have increased the scale and sophistication of their involvement in sustainability principles. Local NGOs around the world have taken up the cause of sustainable development. Others view sustainable development as a balancing act between the economy and the environment—meaning that the economy is an entity that is separate from the environment, where the latter inevitably loses out (Caccia, 2001). Some critics accuse the business community of using sustainable development as a way to paint environmentally destructive practices green—a rationalization for economic growth without due concern for environmental or social imperatives. Others question if sustainable development should continue to support economic growth at all, given the physical limits of the global ecosystem; while others have suggested that the concept does not give enough attention to the poor and their acute vulnerability to environmental degradation (Adams, 2008). The concept has also become synonymous for some with particular political agendas: in that those most vocal in support of sustainable development often come with political agendas that, at least in North America, are often associated with the left wing of the political spectrum. On the other hand, many developing countries see sustainable development as an ideology developed by developed countries for the purpose of imposing stricter conditions and rules on development aid and international trade. Despite all these detractors, one could argue that sustainable development might be the only paradigm of development left standing. With the recent fiscal and financial crises, and the loss of faith in the pure economic growth model of the Washington Consensus, there is renewed interest in the potential of sustainable development as an effective framework and tool to address these core structural challenges. The Synergy There is a synergy between global mindset and sustainability. Sustainable development in Africa and across the world is often directed and driven by leaders and heads of governments, institutions, Non-Governmental Organizations, the organized private sector , etc as the case may be. To a large extent, subordinates and citizens in general act in consonance with the direction of their leaders .Any leader with a global mindset of sustainability is capable of influencing subjects/citizens and would motivate them towards the enhancement of sustainable development and therefore would mobilize efforts towards the achievement of the predetermined objective. Global mindset leaders are sensitive. Sustainable development issues are so sensitive to comprehend and implement. The more damaging the economic activity, the more perverse are the results. For example, the construction of a new airport has a positive effect on GDP. Climate change, noise pollution, loss of habitat and the increase in inequality (airports benefit richer rather than poorer families) are all excluded from the calculations. Yet GDP is universally regarded as the most important of all economic indicators. ~ 34 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Without global mindset leadership approach, Sustainable development will remain the El Dorado of modern times, a vaguely charted dream of everlasting prosperity which inspires discourse rather than deeds .With the cultivation of global mindset, world leaders would be reminded always that their domestic difficulties have no lasting remedy unless they are aligned with stewardship of our planetary home and provision for all members of the human family. This becomes more urgent when we realize that sustainable development is the imperative of the twenty-first century. Nations driven by leaders with global mindset have the abilities to understand sustainable development issues of their local environments and then compare and contrast such with what is obtainable in other regions of the world. They have the ability for knowledge and innovation transfer. In this era of technology, it is important for nations to get into partnership that can better their situations. A nation's vision and values must show global consistency. However, its workplace practices, which translate policy guidelines into day-to-day procedures, should be locally determined. A need for global consistency would favour policies that accentuate formalization, standardization and global dictates, whereas a need for local responsiveness would favor flexibility, customization and delegation. Global mindset in the context of sustainable development pursues the achievement of an atmosphere of trust especially between developed and developing countries(Africa in particular). Presently, what is seen is the reverse. Developed countries have not met commitments to developing countries, generating an atmosphere of distrust .The international discussions on sustainable development are permeated by a lack of trust between developed and developing countries. This is underpinned by developed countries not meeting their financial and technology transfer commitments to developing countries. An implicit deal of the Rio Summit was that developing countries would pay attention to the sustainable development agenda if developed countries increase development assistance significantly. Developed countries have failed to live up to this bargain. Most developed countries (with the exception of Sweden, Norway, Luxembourg, Denmark, and the Netherlands) have not reached the goal of allocating 0.7 percent of GDP to aid for developing countries. In another wise, Developing countries also question developed countries’ commitment to undertake the required changes to relieve the pressure their societies place on the global environment; and are suspicious of their demands for change in developing countries. An example is a request by some developed countries that the World Bank not fund coal-fired power plants in developing countries, while the construction of such plants continues in some of these developed countries. Developed countries have taken no significant action to change production and consumption patterns; and developing countries are likely to resist significant radical action without developed countries leading the way. All these discrepancies and lack of commitment to agreement would be better resolved when leaders in developed and developing countries build global mindset, because the world would be considered as truly a global village and that whatever anybody does would affect everybody not minding the geographical location. The notion of global mindset and sustainability frowns at issues that magnify Bias, sentiment, favouritism and ethnicity. Sustainable development is part of the international lexicon, but the concept remains too amorphous to be clearly defined, and hence implemented. The effective implementation of sustainable development would be easily achievable through the use of global mindset. Since the Brundtland report and the Rio Summit sustainable development has largely remained an idea and a conceptual framework. There are many acceptable views of sustainable development, and it has ~ 35 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 been taken up as a starting point or perhaps an end goal—but the implementation of sustainable development has lagged. One means that Sustainable Developers have to ensure continuing support of their antihuman programs is through moulding the minds of the next generation. Chapter 25 of the UN Sustainable Development Agenda 21 calls for the need to “enlist and empower children and youth in reaching for sustainability. Again ,what this attempts to tackle is the development of global mindset of the youths because they are the leaders of tomorrow and sustainable development is focused on how to enable future generation to meet up their own needs A global mindset can be the new competitive advantage in the arena of sustainability, so a global strategy needs a high stock of global mindset! Countries across the world must take much more responsibility for their own development. It is critical to remember the quest for a global mindset may never end. The complex and dynamic world in which we live provides unlimited opportunities for exploring the many linkages across our wide world of diversity. Conclusion As nations across the world grapple through efforts toward sustainable development , the acquisition of a true global mindset that will enable leadership effectiveness in a global capacity remains worthwhile. Without acquiring such a mindset, all the global leader experience in the world is not likely to improve one's effectiveness on the global stage. As social, cultural, economic, political, and business complexity increase so does the demand for a global mindset, almost exponentially given the intersect of this complex environment. There is therefore the need for leaders and all stakeholders in the business of sustainability to incorporate the essence of global mindset development into their faculties and systems and frameworks. Recommendations The following recommendations remain worthwhile. There should be continuous awareness creation and capacity building towards global mindset development. This could be achieved through training programs for citizens, to develop mindset and skills to work effectively across cultures .Training programs for Africa’s current and future leaders and stakeholders, to develop competencies to lead in a global context is also advocated. Nations across Africa and the world should understand the synergy between global mindset and sustainable development and therefore ensure that priority attention is placed on achieving global mindset development Since sustainable development is a life-long process ,leaders in Africa and the world should develop more proactive measures in tackling and addressing challenges staring on them. References Adams, William M., (2008). Green Development: Environment and Sustainability in a Developing World (third edition). London: Routledge. Bartlett, C., & Ghoshal, S. (1998). Managing across borders: The transnational solution (2 ed.). Boston, MA:Harvard Business School Press. ~ 36 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Bartunek, J. M. (1988). The dynamics of personal and organizational reframing. In K. S. Cameron (Ed.), Paradox and transformation: Toward a theory of change in organization and management. (pp. 137- 162). Cambridge, MA: Ballinger. Beechler, S., & Javidan, M. (2007). Leading with a global mindset. In M. A. Hitt, R. Steers& M. Javidan (Eds.), The global mindset: Advances in international management (Vol. 19, pp. 131-169). Oxford: Elsevier. Caccia, C. (2001). The Politics of Sustainable Development. Hammond Lecture Series, Guelph University, 1 November Cohen S.L. (2010). Effective global leadership requires a global mindset. Industrial and Commercial Training Volume, 42; Number: 1; pp 3-10 Emerald Group Publishing Limited Drexhage, J. and Murphy, D (2010). Sustainable Development: From Brundtland to Rio 2012.International institute for sustainable Development(IISD), New York, United Nations Headquarters Gupta, A. K., & Govindarajan, V. (2004). Global strategy and organization. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Kegan, R. (1983). The evolving self: Problem and process in human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press Moyo, D. (2009). Dead Aid: Why Aid is Not Working and How there is a Better Way for Africa. New York: Farrar,Straus and Giroux ~ 37 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Investment in Education: A Panacea for National Economic Vibrancy Ezekiel O. Akpan Department of Vocational Education, University of Uyo, Uyo-Nigeria Allen Anthony Ozuruoke School of Business Education, Federal College of Education(Technical), Omoku –Nigeria Doi:10.5901/mjss.2012.v3n13p38 Abstract This paper introduces the issue at stake here by highlighting on the meaning of investment in Education using dictionary definition. It expresses the bodies that ought to be involved and be responsible in investing and financing Education in Nigeria to give it the right boost. The paper further talk about the funding administration and planning of investment in education sectors presented in a table and how this will culminate to economic vibrancy when all the areas that need to be taken care of through such investments are considered appropriately and recommended fore herein. This work is concluded by reiterating that the right fund should be invested through the right process on the right programme level area such as for equipment, facilities, and personnel as to achieve the desired national economic vibrancy. Keywords : Investments, National economy, Education Introduction The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English has investment as “The money that people or organization has put into a accompany or business or bank in order to get a profit or to make a business activity successful.It has been generally accepted that education is a veritable instrument for socio-economic development of nations Amahua (2010). To Okafor (1981) Education is a process of the development of potentialities of the individual and their maximum activation when necessary according to right reason and to achieve thereby his perfect self fulfillment. Investment in education therefore is putting money into the development of potentialities of the individual and their maximum activation to get profit or make them successful. The National Policy on Education in ‘The Road Map to Nigerian Education System 2009’, has it that ‘education in Nigeria is no more a private enterprises, but a huge Government venture that has witnessed a progressive evolution of Government’s complete and dynamic intervention and active participation’. This document further has it that ‘the Federal Government of Nigeria has adopted education as an instrument par excellence for effecting national development. It is only natural then that government should clarify the philosophy and objectives that underlie its current massive investment in education, and spell out in clear unequivocal terms the policies that guide government’s educational efforts’. ~ 38 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 It further stated that it is Government’s wish that any existing contradictions, ambiguities, and lack of uniformity in educational practices in the different parts of the Federation should be removed to ensure an even and orderly development of the country. Government has also stated that for the benefit of all citizens the country’s educational goal in terms of its relevance to the need of the individual as well as in terms of the kind of society desired in relation to the environment and the realities of the modern world and rapid social changes should be clearly set out. In vies of these facts it become imperative that investment in education in Nigeria should be paramount no matter how expensive it might seem.It is government’s intention that the far-reaching recommendations set out in twelve sections of this document should start to transform all aspects of the action’s life without delay. Government has therefore set up a National Education Policy Implementation Committee which translated the policy into a workable blueprint that will guide the bodies whose duty it is to implement educational policy, and will also develop a monitoring system of the progress of the planned educational evolution to ensure that infrastructures are prepared and bottle-necks removed. Since education is a dynamic instrument of change, there is therefore the need the processes, methods and all associated with education to be constantly reviewed to ensure its adequacy and continued relevance to national needs and objectives. The Need for Investment Since a National policy on education is way of achieving part of its national objectives that can be achieved using education as a tool, no policy on investment on education can be formulated without first identifying the overall philosophy and objectives of the Nation. The five main national objectives of Nigeria as stated in the Second National Development Plan, and endorsed as the necessary foundation for the National policy on Education, are the building of: A free and democratic society; A just and egalitarian society; A united, strong and self-reliant nation; A great and dynamic economy; and A land of bright and full opportunities for all citizens Nigeria’s philosophy of education, therefore, is based on the integration of the individual into a sound and effective citizen and equal education opportunities for all citizen of the nation at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels, both inside and outside the formal school system. In consequence, the quality of instructions at all levels have to be oriented towards inculcating values such as:- Respect for the worth and dignity of the individuals; Faith in man’s ability to make decisions; Moral and spiritual values in inter-personal and human relations; Shared responsibility for the common good of society; Promotion of the emotional, physical and psychological health of all. For the philosophy to be in harmony with Nigeria’s objectives, it has to be geared towards selfrealization, better human relationship, individual and a national efficiency, effective citizenship, national consciousness, national unity, as well as towards social, cultural, economic, political, scientific and technological progress. Educational investments in Nigeria should therefore aim at: inculcation of national consciousness and national unity; the right type of values and attitude for the survival of the individual and the Nigeria society; training of the mind in the understanding of the word around; and acquisition of appropriate skills, abilities and competences both mental and physical as equipment for the individuals to live in and contribute to the development of his society ~ 39 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Financing Investment in Nigerian Education Education is an expensive social service and requires adequate financial provision. Investment in education should be taken as a matter of necessity by tier of government; Multinational companies; Financial institutions such as banks and insurance companies; highly financial blessed individuals philanthropists; the large and prosperous Religious bodies and other institutions for a successful implementation of the education programmes at all recognized levels. The ultimate objective should be to make education affordable or free at all levels. The financing of education should be a joint responsibility of the federal state and local government in addition to such other bodies mentioned above. The importance of science, technical and commercial education and the need to relate all educational programmes to industry and societal demand is very necessary. Formulae for collaboration and joint responsibility, such as is already being carried out in schemes like the industrial training fund (ITF) should be designed for sharing cost burden between the public and private sectors. Investment Funding Responsibilities Attention should be given here to the draft special report of the comprehensive education sector situation analysis carried out by the Federal Ministry of Education in 2006 as presented in the National Action Plan to meet the 2015 timeline of Education For All and Nigerian vision 20,2020 education targets. The sector analysis was based on policy, structure/governance, infrastructure, deployment of ICT, academic achievement, monitoring inspection, quality of curriculum, teacher quality and supply, funding and equity issues. The Table here below explains this better: Table:1 Showing funding Situation Analysis of Nigerian Education Sector Education Sectors For Investment Funding A Total Score 50 B Curriculum Quality C Teacher Qulty & Supply D Academic Achieve’t F Monitoring/ Inspect. Funding 1 ECCD 07 1 1 1 1 0 2 PRIMARY 22 5 1 1 1 1 3 NON FORMAL 09 1 1 1 1 1 4 SECONDARY 18 1 3 1 3 1 5 SPECIAL NEED 07 1 3 0 1 0 6 TERTIARY 20 1 3 1 3 1 Adapted from FRN (2006) ~ 40 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 The Nigerian Federal Government and all other bodies herein suggested, should invest adequate fund for basic infrastructure, deployment of ICT, academic achievement, monitoring inspection, quality of curriculum, teacher quality and supply, funding and equity issues. Aim the investment to meet all costs relating to standard maintenance and supervision of facilities and ensure quality service delivery in all the identified sectors of education; Such investment should be to establish and adequately fund a national specialized resource centre to serve as a research and information base for all the various levels of educational system and for manpower regular participation in all level considering also related conferences, workshops seminars etc. The state government should channel investment towards ensuring friendly atmosphere through the provision of related educational infrastructures that will enhance learning and stimulate interests and environmental friendliness for all. The state should also invest on recurrent expenditures relating to operation and maintenance of publicly owned facilities. Considering the provision of at least one meal for the children while in school is also necessaryThe Local government should focus its educational investment on the area of funding the training requirement of Caregivers and teachers at the early educational levels for children, considers investments in the health sectors for these children and provision of crèches, Day Care-Centers as required in the local communities. Other bodies as mentioned earlier should focus investments in education into sources that can support crèche, Day-Care Centers and Nursery schools established to complement government efforts. Other forms of investments could be;-Donation in cash and kind by Civil Society (NGOs CBOs), Religious Organizations, Philanthropists, Local Committee, Organizations, Private Companies Grants and Loans from Internal and International Development Partners. Investment projection of what should be required at each level of education activities based on the needs including the personnel salaries and allowances, infrastructural facilities, playing equipment and materials, training, inspection and supervision. A financial plan specifying the detail requirement and the sources of funds vis-à-vis the integrated strategic investment approach should be drawn up. Administration and Planning of Investment in Education The success of investment on any system of education is hinged on proper planning, efficient administration and adequate financing. Investment planning and administration includes organization and structure, proprietorship and control, inspection and supervision of the educational system ie the schools. School systems, and consequently their management and day-to-day administration should grow out of the life and social ethos of the community which they serve: consequently the administrative machinery for the national education system should be based on some cardinal principles such as: Intimate and direct participation and involvement at the level, of the administration and management of the educational system school. Effective lines of communication should exist between the immediate community and the state and national machinery for policy formulated and implementation. A devotion of functions whereby the management of the educational system should be placed in the hands of zonal school boards management. The coordination, planning, financing, and direction of the total educational effort within the state should be placed in the hands of the State Ministry, Department or Directorate for Education. Again the integration of educational development and policy with national objectives and programmes should be made the responsibility of a Federal Ministry, Department or Directorate of Education. ~ 41 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Global view also has it that conventional wisdom has it that economics growth is the key to a successful poverty reduction strategy. This is well articulated in the 2000-2001 World Development report Societal growth and poverty reduction for economic vibrancy over the various regions in the globe is highly influenced by investment in education. The Figure below attests to this. Fig.3 Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction by Region 1980-2000 12 Europe and Central Asia 8 4 Latin American and the Caribbean 0 Sub-Saharan African -4 South Asia East Asia and Pacific -8 -12 -5 Middle East and North Africa 0 5 10 Average annual growth in per capital GDP (percent) (Source Adapted from World Bank 2001 Fig.3.3) For these functions to be discharged efficiently, a cadre of staff should be provided in adequate numbers and quality at the different operational level in the local, state, and federal as well as in all the private institutions. Financial investment should be adequate to cater for both personnel, equipment and facilities as may be demanded by all the educational sectors, be it science, technical, vocational or commercial. Funding Investment in Nigerian Education Education has been recognized and adopted as a tool par excellence for individual, communal and national development and investment can not be overemphasized. The subscription of education for all, the millennium development goals, the national economic empowerment and development strategy ad mist others are cases in point that will invariably reinstate economic vibrancy Funds for our purpose mean the sum of money available for educational programmes. Educational fund therefore means the sum of money allocated to education sector. The financial problem of any country affects the implementation of any policies since the implementation of policy depends on the financial resources available for implementing them Evidence abound that Nigeria’s educational sector is grossly under funded over the years. This under funding of education adversely affects the status of all other critical success factors impacting or determining the performance of the sector in terms of the quality of the product of education. The issue of funding education has been a recurrent one in the history of Nigeria’s educational system (Amahua 2004). Records shows that Nigeria allocates less than 10 percent of her annual budget to education in spite of the ram shackled state of the Nigerian education system and the ~ 42 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 wealth of the nation. Iganiga and Ogieriakhi (2008) confirmed this unreasonable allocation when they stated that “total federal government allocation to education sector average 8 percent from 1980 to 2008”. This trend of the share of education in total federal expenditure does not suggest any serious effort by the government to shift financial resources allocation to education to improve its lot. The allocation is for below the United Nation (UNO’S) prescription that a minimum of 26 percent of annual budget of the developing countries be allocated to funding of education All this indicate gross under funding of Nigerian’s educational sector by the federal government. Agbem (1997), also affirms the nation’s non compliance to the UNOs recommendation on budgetary allocation to science and technology education Similarly, Maduabum (1992) reports that science and technological education researches are poorly funded and laboratories are inadequate and ill-equipped. Also Olorutegbe (1997) points out cases of abandoned educational projects and innovations due to lack of funds. Furthermore, Ukeje (1978). Abackwueme (1982), Nwogu (1985), Olaitan (1980) in Amahua (2010) all affirmed the shortfall in educational funding. The list is inexhaustible. All these imply that the government of the federation pays lips service to science and technology education and that the nation’s commitment rarely on the documentary/paper provisions. Investment for Economic Vibrancy The positive influence of economic growth through investment in education on poverty reduction is supported by several studies. Ghen and Revallion (2002) shows that economic growth is highly correlated with “absolute poverty” Historically too Europe and the United States, long term economic growth since the beginning of the nineteenth century reduced poverty in 180 years from levels near three-qquarters of the population to under 15 percent in the United States and far less in other countries (Aassanini and Scarpetta, 2001) As economics grow through positive investment, income distribution may change which in turn changes poverty rate over time Fig.3: Average Annual Poverty Reduction with percent increase per Unit of Investment 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0 …….. Investment Levels 0.2 0.4 0.6 (Source: Adopted from World Bank 2001 (fig.3-6 ~ 43 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Economists have established that the quantity and quality of output is determined by the quantity and quality of the input factors. Furthermore, the availability of the input factors depends on the financial resources that are available to the producers. The producer in this case, is the educational institution producing the graduates who are expected to be of the right quality in terms of skills and competencies as graduates. Low quality input is a basic factor for low quality output hence, total quality management (TQM) paradigm demands that quality should be injected and allowed to permeate the entirety of any system that is desirous of excellence. This is particularly with regards to what goes in (investments) and what goes on (process/system) and what goes out of any enterprise (output/products). Therefore to achieve economic vibrancy, education requires the right quantity and quality of personnel and equipment or facilities which attracts investment in the following areas:Investment on Teachers and Supportive Staffs The academic personnel and the non academic staff in the educational institutions must be of the right quality and with well trained and qualified lecturers/teachers who are directly involved in the training process. Currently, most educational institutions lack the right quality of manpower for the education pedagogy. In the spirit of total quality management, the quality of any institutions workforce is the most critical success factor in addition to quality leadership at all levels of the institutions. Investment on Facilities/Equipment Essentially, the aim to master subjects teaching is to achieve mastery of the skill which should be measured by the trainn’s (students/pupils) ability to use the knowledge in solving problems. The teacher demonstrates and allows students to do it, while care is given to the weak ones. The current status of facilities and equipment in educational institutions indicate that relevant facilities, tools and equipment are in acute shortage and in some cases visibly exposed to practical orientation and as a result their acquisition of the expected knowledge and competencies will be hampered. Such students/pupils will lack the quality or competence expected of them when they graduate. The provision of the right type and necessary equipment for business education handled by qualified teacher will obviously call for quality, Agomuo (1993). Uzoagulu (2009) in Amahua (2010) observed that the achievement off the objectives of education has largely been frustrated by lack of facilities and qualified personnel. Investment on Research and Curricular Implementation To ensure that the output of out educational institutions possess the knowledge and competencies that would enable them meet the demand and expectations of economic vibrancy in the modern world of work, certain elements or methods should be injected and maintained in the entire educational process. These include participation in research work, appropriate curriculum and the teaching methods evaluated at reasonable intervals. Along with this are teachers update, projects, seminars, assignment, and counseling services. The application of better teaching methods and full implementation of the curriculum will reduce the number of graduates that will be classified as failures or half baked as a result of defectives educational process. ~ 44 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Investment in this are should also provide for inspection that will ensure that the existing educational programme should be geared towards the need of the immediate socio-economic environment. It is the contention of this paper that the issues examined above are the critical success factors which are the essential prerequisites that should be injected and maintained in the entire education investment process to ensure national economic vibrancy as they will ensure that the expected quality of candidates will only be turned out from a well investment educational system. Conclusion The ultimate goal of the education programme is to equip the graduates with appropriate knowledge, and competencies that will enable them to meet the expectation and demand of the contemporary economic world. Achieving and maintaining economic vibrancy and excellence involves ensuring that only the right quality and quantity of the befitting and necessary factors are invested upon. In the education sector, these include investment on the right quality and quantity of personnel; and related programmes. There is also as recommended herein, the high need for facilities, equipment and infrastructures as well as the provision of adequate incentive for the staff and evaluating and supervising agents. With these, the economic vibrancy of a nation is highly ensured Recommendations 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Measures that will enhance the admission of students that are at least of average academic ability should be adopted. The right caliber of students will obviously cope with the task in education thereby promoting quality of the graduates of the educational system. The government and the suggested bodies herein should seriously improve the funding of investments in education in its budget as funding is the confluence of all other factors determining investment. Something more than that executed through the current Educational Trust Fund (ETF) because education is capital intensive but the bedrock of economic vibrancy. Conducive teaching environment that includes incentives and motivational ingredients for teachers should be ensured at all time and at all levels of education Quality teachers production for all level should be intensified to meet the required manpower in the classroom and for other administrative functions Essential equipment and facilities should be made more than enough for all categories of learning and teaching. References Amahua, S, A. (2004), Enhancing Education Programme in Nigeria Colleges of Education. Expectations, Status and Improvement Strategies. Journal of Business and General Education (3:1) 136-144 Amahua, S. A. (2010) Underfunding Education in Nigeria. The case of Research and Development for quality assurance in Business Education. A Book of Reading Vol.1 No.10 –p184-189 Akuezuilo, E. O. (1993) Research Methodology and Statistic, Awkwa, Nuel Cent. (Nig.) Publisher. Iganiga, B. O. and Ogieriakhi, S. (2000) Democratic Governance and University Education: Nigerian Experience. Unpublished Paper Presented at the National Association of Research Development Conference (FCE(T) Asaba, Delta State. ~ 45 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Federal Republic of Nigeria; National Policy on Education Roadmap for Nigerian Education Sector; March 2009 Federal Ministry of Education; The Development of Education National Report of Nigeria. The Forty-Eight Session of the International Conference on Education (ICE) SWITZERLAND 25-28 November 2008 United Nation Organization (UNO) World Development Report (1995); 11(12).26 Uzoagulu, A. (2009) Skill Development in Voc. & Tech. Edu. A Lead paper presented at the Annual Conference on Skill Development in Science and Technology development Research and Conference Unit F C E (T) Umunze World Bank 2002 World Development Report 2000/2001 Attacking Poverty New York Oxford University Press World Bank 2005 Poverty Reduction and Social Development in the Middle East and North Africa 1960-2000 Washington, DC. World Bank ~ 46 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Problems and Prospects Towards Implementing Ubiquitous Computing Mohammed Abubakar Department of Information Technology, Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola. Nigeria Arthur U. Ume School of Information Technology and Communications, American University of Nigeria, Yola, Nigeria Doi:10.5901/mjss.2012.v3n13p47 Abstract Ubiquitous Computing means network connectivity everywhere, linking devices and systems as tiny as a drawing pin and as large as a worldwide product distribution chain. This paper explores issues arising with implementing Ubiquitous computing, and gives examples of success stories where researchers leveraged Ubiquitous computing effectively. The paper further enumerates certain key issues and factors that affect the implementation of Ubiquitous computing, and finally provides insights towards how to seamlessly achieve the adoption of this new era approach to computing. Keywords : Ubiquitous Computing, Problems, problems Introduction The idea behind Ubiquitous Computing is to surround humans with computers and software that are carefully tuned to offer them unobtrusive assistance as they navigate through their work and personal lives. Ubiquitous Computing according to the founder Mark Weiser is the third generation of computing. This generation will lead to an entirely new way of computing as compared to the previous two generations of computing. This generation of computing will see computers everywhere. That is, the computers will be with humans in their living space, and they would be interacting with the computing devices which will be unseen to their naked eyes. This is because, the devices will be embedded, so natural, so friendly, and so fitting to the extent that people would use them without even noticing. Ubiquitous Computing aims to make human lives simpler through the use of tools that allow individuals to manage information easily. In essence, Ubiquitous Computing is a challenge that affects all Information Technology and Computer Science. The field of ubiquitous computing asks fundamental questions about how to put/implant computers everywhere and make them unseen? This challenge is drawing together researchers together from three (3) distinct perspectives which are: i. The Experience Perspective: This perspective focuses on how people might share a world with Ubiquitous Computing environments. What interacting principle ~ 47 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 underpins the human interaction with them, and how might a Ubiquitous Computing society be shaped from a socio-technical perspective? ii. The Engineering Perspective: This focuses on the architectural and network challenges posed by the large scale, heterogeneous and dynamic nature of Ubiquitous Computing. What engineering principles are needed to allow a vast array of devices to be interconnected in a system and how might we understand and respond to the system’s emergent behavior? iii. Theoretical Perspective: This focuses on concepts and rigorous models that capture the behavior of Ubiquitous systems at varying levels of abstraction. How do humans reason about such a system in order to understand its aggregate behavior in terms of the behavior of its subsystems? Collectively, these researchers constitute a response to a grand challenge whose goals are as follows: a. To develop Ubiquitous Computing methods and techniques that is sensitive both to the needs of individuals and society, and the impact upon them. These will support the realization of human experiences and will include new forms of interaction and new interaction paradigms that make Ubiquitous Computing usable by all. b. To define a set of system design principles that pertain to all aspects of ubiquitous Computing which are agreed among both academic and professional engineers, taught regularly in master’s degree courses, and are instantiated in the design and rigorous documentation of several computational systems with a successful operational history. c. To develop a coherent informatics science whose concepts, models, theories, and tools allow descriptive, explanatory, and predictive analysis of Ubiquitous Computing at many levels of abstraction. And also to employ these analysis to derive al its systems and software including languages, and justify all its constructions by these analytic tools. The above are ideal goals, but there is no argument that place a limit on the extent to which they can be achieved. The grand challenge must be addressed by collaboration across the researchers’ perspectives and usage guidelines together in an iterative manner. The Previous Generations of Computing Despite the fact that Ubiquitous Computing will lead to an entirely new way of computing, this paper thinks that there is need to understand the previous generations of computing. The first era of computing is known as the Mainframe era of computing whereby many people use one computer. This computer was the central system from which entire offices and sometimes companies called their computing infrastructure. The mainframe computers are extremely expensive and very difficult to use for the average employee. Every computing task is done on the mainframe computer. The second era of computing is known as PC – era whereby one computer is allocated to one person. This era saw an explosion in the area of information technology. That is, in this era computers became a mandatory device for use in business applications, and almost as commonplace as a television or telephone in today’s homes. According to Weiser (1996), it is an era with person and machine staring uneasily at each other across the desktop. Therefore, with the above previous generations of computing, one can understand that people interact with computers directly and physically. But Ubiquitous computing will advance the trend of computing devices to be more and more integrated into people’s daily lives. According to Weiser ~ 48 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 (1996), it will become the “Age of Calm Technology” as technology recedes into the background of human lives. The Beginning of Ubiquitous Computing Mark Weiser is considered as the father of Ubiquitous Computing. Weiser envisioned the third era of computing (Ubiquitous Computing) in 1985 when he was working at the XEROX Palo Alto Research Centre (PARC) as Chief Technologist. He describes Ubiquitous as follows: “For thirty years most interface design and most computer design has been headed down the path of the “dramatic” machine. Its highest ideal is to make a computer so exciting, so wonderful, and so interesting that we never want to be without it. A less-traveled path I call the “invisible”, its highest ideal is to make a computer so embedded, so fitting, and so natural that we use it without even thinking about it”. According to the above descriptions, one understands that the idea behind Ubiquitous Computing is to make people interact with the computers in all their endeavors without even noticing the existence of the computing device. That is, computing devices will surround every aspects of human environment without necessarily being seen physically. The research at the PARC headed by Weiser produced three types of wireless computing devices which serve as the first Ubiquitous Computing devices. These devices are affectionately named as tabs, pads, and boards. Tabs were small handheld computing devices similar to today’s palmtop computers. The PARC envisioned Tabs as the entry way for data in the Ubiquitous Computing era. It is useful enough to be used by everyone and small enough to be everywhere. Pads were tablet sized laptop computers similar to today’s tablet Pc’s. It was designed to provide the freedom of portable and wireless tablet computers while still maintaining the power of a workstation. This task was accomplished by separating the computational engine from the display device, thus reducing the power to weight ratio (Ubiquitous Computing movies, 1995). Boards are the yard-size displays that serve a number of purposes such as video screen, bulletin boards, and white boards or flip charts. A board might also serve as an electronic bookcase from which one might download texts to a pad or tab. Therefore, when integrating the tabs and pads with the presentation – sized displays provided by the boards, the researchers at the XEROX PARC paved the way for the third era of computing which is known as Ubiquitous Computing. The paper will go ahead and point to some other examples where Ubiquitous Computing was leveraged positively. Of recent, Ubiquitous learning was promoted by researchers who were examining the excellent attention and immersion which pupils can achieve while working on a computer; researchers are coming up with ubiquitous learning environments in which students engage in pedagogical activities. This area of research and case-studies has already yielded fruitful results such as the Research-based Educational Software called Cooties. “Cooties” is a virus-transfer simulation program designed for Pocket PC handheld computers; it supports socio-kinesthetic learning; i.e. incorporating social interaction with hands-on activity. Teachers determine variables such as incubation time of the simulated virus, individual immunity levels, and the number of initial carriers in the simulation. The program is appropriate for students from Grades 3 and up and can be used in science, anthropological, and mathematics. ~ 49 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Another success story is the Gaia project by Roy Campbell (2012): This researcher used Active Spaces to organize networked computer devices into a distributed system that cooperates and coordinates its activities with its mobile users. The researcher’s work on Active Spaces examined how ubiquitous computing would support different physical human activities, from classroom and office activities to entertainment and communication. His Gaia project combined elements of HDTV, sensor networks, plasma touch panels, tracking cameras, mobile devices, speech recognition and synthesis, and location tracking into a rich tapestry. To enable location aware applications, he utilized various location sensing technologies including RFID, biometrics, Bluetooth, WiFi, and Ubisense. [Note: Ubisense represents a new class of UWB-based sensing devices that are economic to deploy in a building and have an accuracy of 6 inches 95% of the time]. The researcher reported that this ubiquitous arrangement when used in the classroom empowered students’ and teachers’ effective communication in a seamless fashion thereby encouraging larger number of students to participate actively even in large scale class settings. Also, Emmanuel Agu of Worcester Polytechnic Institute (2012) discussed successes with ubiquitous computing in a healthcare setting, as exemplified with a Diabetics Self Aware tool which was successfully integrated with patients’ Cell phone devices. Key Factors Working Against Extensive Implementation of Ubiquitous Computing i. The Environment: If one walks into an environment anywhere in the world, he/she would probably not find any structure suitable for Ubiquitous Computing devices. Instead, one would find an infrastructure suited towards established and well-grounded technologies such as electricity running through the walls, phone lines running into and out of buildings, and conveniences such as indoor plumbing. The individual is not likely to see newly constructed buildings equipped with devices to support Ubiquitous Computing. ii. Impromptu Interoperability: Ubiquitous Computing as its name implies must have devices everywhere. But the problem now is that, who will make all these devices? It surely would not be left to a single company or manufacturer; it has to be a joint venture. Thus this presents one small problem. This is because, many technology-producing companies desire to produce their own proprietary products which will be structured to understand their own proprietary language which will eventually lead to non-interoperability between devices from different companies. iii. No System Administrator: It should be noted that most individuals who operate personal computers have no intimate knowledge on how to administer a single workstation. It would be unrealistic for the manufacturers of Ubiquitous Computing devices to expect their users to administer a complex network consisting of multiple devices. iv. Social Implications of aware technologies: Ubiquitous Computing will have a social impact on society just as the previous two eras of computing did. However, as these devices are constantly bombarded with input from their surroundings, the major effect now is the privacy of the society. That is, how will society turn to a social solution, legal solution, ethical solution, or technological solution to protect their privacy? v. Reliability: Being devices everywhere and bombarded with different input from different angles, any failure in the devices or insecure of software will definitely affect the reliability of Ubiquitous Computing. vi. Presence of Ambiguity: The role of Ubiquitous Computing must completely change the role of computing as offered by the personal computer. The personal computing era saw ~ 50 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 the development and proliferation of desktop computers. The computer did what it was told to do. That is, if one punches a key on the keyboard or clicks the mouse, the computer processed the request, e.g. if a person requests the machine to send an email, it will automatically send it when he/she presses the send command button. But with Ubiquitous Computing where devices are everywhere and ready to accept input from any angle, all the devices would become nuisance with the bombarded input. The devices will be confused on what input belongs to which device. Insights on How to Overcome the Above Factors/Challenges i. Concerning the environmental factor, in order to support and implement the technologies of Ubiquitous computing, the environments of the users must be upgraded. Users should be able to realize the potential of these computing devices and gradually integrate them into their environments (Edwards and Grinter, 2001). ii. For Ubiquitous Computing to be successful, the devices must have impromptu interoperability. That is, they should not just interoperate but should be able to interconnect and communicate with little or no advance planning. However, the Ubiquitous computing devices should be designed or written to understand the software of every other device. iii. The “No system administrator” issue would be addressed through the idea of an already existing infrastructure known as telephone system. The telephone system is unique and possesses a “thin-client” alongside a robust and intelligent network. In this type of system, the telephone company services the network while the customer services the receiver. When users have an intention to use the telephone system, they simply pick up the receiver (thin client) and dial the appropriate number to access the network. As outlined by Edwards and Grinter (2001), to implement Ubiquitous computing successfully, there is need to provide solutions for remote administration, diagnostics, and upgrades to the existing telephone system. iv. For Ubiquitous computing to be implemented, there is need to address the following questions as relate to the society. How will an individual know if they are within a “smart” environment where embedded devices are gathering data? Is it ethical to gather information from individuals without their knowledge? What information may be gathered? How may the information gathered be used, by whom, and under what circumstances? All these questions relate to individuals’ privacy; they need to be answered before Ubiquitous computing can take real hold. v. The Ubiquitous computing devices must be reliable. More so, the designers of today’s computing devices (Ubiquitous devices) must analyze the design issues, interoperability issues, and perception issues that separate today’s reliable and embedded technologies from today’s unreliable personal computing devices. vi. Because of the bombarded input to the Ubiquitous computing and also to avoid ambiguity, ubiquitous computing devices must be able to recognize changes in their environment, infer the action needed, and either complete the action or ask the user if they would like the action to be completed. The designers of these devices should make them very smart in accomplishing tasks, they should be able to make decisions on their own based on an event, they should have substantial model of the human world with which to make decisions. ~ 51 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Conclusion The era of personal computing is coming to a close and the era of Ubiquitous computing is emerging. Both technologically advanced countries and developing economies are about entering a brave new world; a world where computers are everywhere, but rarely seen. Computing machinery will be embedded into devices hidden from view, while other computing will seem so natural that humans will use them without actually believing that they are computers. Ubiquitous computing era will create a new life style for human beings. It will be a life style where computers aid and assist humans in every of their daily lives. This new era of computing is fast moving from the realm of fiction to reality. This paper therefore calls and challenges software engineers and information systems analysts in developing countries like Nigeria to start reckoning with this phenomenon; It is also worth-noting, that this new era of Ubiquitous computing is bound to invade lives and bring discussions around individuals’ privacy in the face of pervasive computing, even more to the forefront. References Edwards, K.W. & Grinter, R.E. (2001). At home with ubiquitous computing: Seven Challenges. From http://www.parc.com/csl/members/grinter/ubicomp.pdf Hightower, j. & Borriello, G. (2001) Location systems for ubiquitous computing. IEEE Compute 57-66 ITU (2005). Ubiquitous Network Societies edition 2005. ITU Roy Campbell: The Gaia project on Pervasive Computing. University of Newcastle upon Tyne. Accessed: 12/10/2012; http://gaia.cs.uiuc.edu/ Weiser, M. (1993). Ubiquitous computing. IEEE computer, p. 71-72 Weiser, M. & Brown, J. S. (1996). The Coming Age of Calm Technology. PowerGrid Journal, vol.1.01. Appear at http://www.ubiq.com/hypertext/weiser/calmtech/calmtech.htm ~ 52 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Strategies for Implementation of Agricultural Science Curriculum in Imo State School System: Imperatives for Occupational Skills Acquisition by Students Ugochukwu P.N. Amadi School of Agriculture and Home Economics Federal College of Education (Technical.), Umunze-Anambra State, Nigeria Doi:10.5901/mjss.2012.v3n13p53 Abstract The inability of secondary school graduates of Agriculture to secure jobs or be self-employed has sustained the perceived generation gap, which has been blamed on the way and manner in which secondary education Agriculture curriculum is implemented. Four objectives were addressed by the study. A total of 200 teachers of Agriculture randomly selected from 298 secondary schools across the three Education Zones of Imo state constituted the study sample. A questionnaire structured on a 4- point rating scale and with stability coefficients of 0.82, 0.76, 0.70 and 0.86 for sections B to E respectively was used in generating data for the study. Findings of the study indicated that some teacher-related factors are necessary for effective implementation of the curriculum among which is teacher’s moral disposition, commitment, and teaching styles were indicated. Use of modular teaching methods, establishment of good school – community relationships and combined use of performance–based test and written test used for the purpose of occupation skills acquisition. Keywords: Agriculture, education, students, Curriculum, school Introduction As provided in the National Curriculum for senior secondary school vol. 2 (FME, 2008), Agricultural Education is designed to lay a solid foundation for vocational agriculture that is proposed to train individuals to acquire relevant occupation skills, that will make them to be productive farmers. The relevance of the current senior secondary vocational agriculture curriculum has raised divergent views from different stakeholders. For instance, Ochu and Umunnagbu (1995) in a study on “Relevance of the Practical Content of the senior secondary vocational agriculture programme” opined that the programmes are suitable for developing the right calibre of middle level manpower for the agricultural subsector of the economy. This finding however indicated an improvement over findings in the earlier reports made by Ivowi (1983) and Zahradeen (1990) who variously reported skilsl content deficiency. Ochu and Umunnaegbu therefore concluded that given the right environment, the existing content will guarantee the acquisition of relevant occupational skills. Granted that the curriculum is suitable and appropriate all that remains would be an enabling environment for full expression of intended objectives (Amadi, Orikpe & Osinem 1997). This observation agrees with the views of Agwubuike (1985) that “the curriculum is adequate but what remained a significant shortcoming are the resources for its implementation. Ajalla(1985) in a study on The Educational resources for effective teaching of vocational agriculture in secondary schools” ~ 53 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 revealed that the nation is witnessing unprecedented high-level youth unemployment even with great number of students that offered agriculture in the school certificate examinations. Nwabuisi (1993) reported dearth of instructional resources for teaching agriculture at vocational level in the secondary schools. Harping on the various limitations of the curriculum, Uwadiae (1993) observes that most schools have been unable to teach for the acquisition of occupational skills rather than knowledge needed to pass prescribed examinations. This has been blamed on absence of enabling environments due to poor infrastructural facilities in school. Speaking on instructional methods for effective occupational skills acquisition, Okorie (1992) recommended ‘guided discovery’ as very potent. In another opinion, Olaitan and Uwadiae (1993) emphasized “learning –by-doing”. They were of the view that: If the primary objective of the secondary level agriculture Curriculum is to equip students with occupational skills … the recommended approach to teaching and learning should be learning- bydoing and nothing more The attainment of the objectives of senior secondary vocational agriculture in schools depends on how well a teacher is able to present the learning experiences to the students. The Nigerian society is dynamic and in the face of these changes, new and better ways of planning and prosecution of learning experiences must be explored. It therefore behoves on the teacher who implements the ‘taught curriculum’ (Akusoba, 1995) to up-date his ideas, methods and experiences and to effectively ensure full integration of worthy “old practices” and experiences into new paradigms in the new world order (Amadi, 2002). The teaching-learning milieu provides the medium with which the teacher assists his pupils to imbibe the learning experiences presented to them. In line with the above, Olaitan (1986) avers that: The acquisition of the desired experiences by the students depends on how effective the teacher is able to present the learning experiences to them. The effectiveness of any teaching depends on the teaching strategies used. Agricultural education has received a new emphasis considering the intent and purpose for its introduction. Some novelties in the new order required that teachers with special skills and competencies be mobilized to be in the vanguard of implementing the curriculum (Okorie, 1997). The 6-3-3-4-education model was conceived to re-orientate and reorganizes our value system in the world or work. Consequently, non-acquisition of requisite occupational skills in identified areas would inadvertently result in the production of ill-equipped labour force. This old underemployed, hence the new wave of emphasis on job oriented education. The introduction of agricultural programme as a pre-vocational core- subject at the junior and as a vocational core- subject in the senior secondary levels respectively (National Policy on Education, 1998) makes a lot of demands teachers as stakeholders. First as a relatively new curriculum signifying a complete departure from the old bookish model inherited from the Colonial masters it requires teachers who posses requisites knowledge, skills, attitudes and competencies. The effectiveness of any teaching is relatively a function of teaching styles, methods and strategies which were employed in the process. Quite regrettably, there is dearth of professionally qualified teachers of agriculture in the school system. Nwabuisi (1992) in a study on resources for teaching and learning agriculture science in Lagos State Junior secondary schools reported a low teacher/student ratio of 1:60. In a later study conducted in Imo State, Amadi (2010) also reported a low teacher/student ratio of 1:158, which is just a marginal improvement on Nwabuisi’s. Though as ~ 54 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 reported by Amadi, (2010) there are more qualified teachers of agriculture these days, the imbalance stems from the population explosion since every student is expected to offer the subject. Amadi’s (2001) study further revealed more importantly that the skill content of the agricultural programme for the senior secondary is too comprehensive to lend itself to meaningful coverage within the time space of three years. Olaitan (1986) maintains that in a bid to cover the prescribed content, the teachers teach at a tremendous speed, which negates proper articulation by students. Further, Olaitan points that it does seem that host communities of some secondary schools as stakeholders do not realize or appreciate the magnitude of their responsibilities towards the teaching and learning of agriculture. Consequent upon the above revelations some vital questions needed to be addressed, namely; Could lack of equipment and facilities be responsible for the poor implementation of the curriculum? Is it possible that teachers are responsible for observed shortcomings due to lack of initiative to mobilize and utilize instructional resources in teaching agricultural skills? Could the problem be rightly situated on the nature of curriculum? It is this problem summarized in the above three questions that prompted this study. Population for the Study The population for this study comprised all teachers of agriculture in all the 289 secondary schools in Imo State offering agriculture science. The population is estimated to be 1,938 (Imo State Secondary Education Management Board ( ISEMB), 2011). Sample for the Study A total of 200 teachers of agriculture chosen by multi-stage sampling based on school location, school type and age as main criteria constituted the sample for the study. Instrumentation A self-designed structured questionnaire made up of forty-two items was used for collecting data for the study. The questionnaire items rated on a 4 –point scale namely; Strongly Agree (40) Agree (3), Disagree (2), and Strongly Disagree (1) were derived from the research questions raised for the study. And for each of the items, respondents rated using the key provided.A draft of the instrument was criticized by five seasoned lecturers in the Department of Agricultural Education of the Federal College of Education (Technical), Umunze, Anambra. Any item that was accepted by at least any three of the five was deemed to be suitable. In essence, the final instrument was made on the basis of the comments and criticisms made by the lecturers.The questionnaire was subjected to a pretest using 10 secondary school teachers of agriculture drawn from Aguata Education Zone of Anambra State. The responses of these teachers to the items were later subjected to a test to ascertain the degree of internal consistency of the instrument. The results of the analysis for section B, C, D and E, indicated stability coefficients (SC) of 0.82, 0.76, 0.70 and 0.86 respectively and a mean SC of 0.76 which were considered high enough for the study. Data Collection ~ 55 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 The instrument was administered to teachers of agriculture in the selected secondary schools in Imo State by personal contacts however, using three research assistants who were fully instructed on what to do. All the 200 copies were completed and returned giving 100% return rate. Data analysis Analysis of the data was carried out using some descriptive statistics, which included frequency distributions, means and standard deviations, in line with the questions raised for the study. Using a 4-point scale the mean decision point was established at 2.50. Thus any item that received mean rating of 2.50 was accepted while any one that received less than 2.50 was not accepted. Presentation of Result The results of the data analysis are as presented in the table below: teacher characteristics (qualities, skills and competencies) required of senior secondary school teachers of vocational agriculture. Research Question 1: What qualities and competencies are required of secondary school teachers of vocational agriculture? Table 1: Mean responses of teachers of Agriculture on qualities and competencies required of teachers of Agriculture. S/N Teacher Characteristics X SD Decision 1 Must possess teaching qualifications of minimum of NCE. Must hold a university degree in agriculture or equivalent qualification. 2.96 0.60 Accepted 2.5 0.52 Accepted 3 Must demonstrate good psycho-production skills 3.40 0.61 Accepted 4 Teachers must be masters of the various areas of agriculture with skill emphases 3.69 0.44 Accepted 5 Should specialize in a particular aspect of agriculture 2.50 0.51 Not.Accepted 6 Ability to carry out practical exercises, in workshops and laboratories Must demonstrate enough interest in students Teacher must be sympathetic, humble, friendly but firm and resolute on matters of discipline Must be of outstanding moral caliber Must be highly resourceful 3.06 0.48 Accepted 3.36 3.68 0.62 0.43 Accepted Accepted 3.40 3.36 0.66 0.41 Accepted Accepted 2 7 8 9 10 Source: field survey, 2012 The table above indicates that all the suggested teacher characteristics got mean response ranging from 2.50 to 3.96 above the 2.50 mean decision point on ways of utilizing instructional resources for effective teaching and learning of Agriculture Occupation skills. Research Question 2: By what means could available resources be utilized to ensure effective acquisition of agricultural occupation skills? ~ 56 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Tables 2: Mean responses of Teachers of Agriculture on means of utilizing resources for teaching and learning of agriculture. S/N Suggested means/strategies 1 2. 3 4 5 6. 7. X Involving Students in supervised realistic farm projects Demonstration teaching Instructional stimulation/games and modeling in teaching entrepreneurship skills Group project farming Individual project farming Use of Audio/visuals SD 3.33 3.02 3.66 3.35 3.68 0.46 0.54 0.41 0.42 0.52 3.00 0.42 Decision Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Source: Field Survey, 2012 All the six items were rated highly above the 2.50 decision mark and therefore accepted as ways of utilizing instructional resources for effective teaching and learning of agricultural occupation skills. Research Question 3: How can resources that abound in the neighbourhood be harnessed for effective teaching and acquisition of agricultural occupation skills? Table 3: Mean Responses of teachers on means of utilizing community-based resources in teaching agriculture. S/N Suggested Strategies X SD Decision 1 Use of successful non-graduate farmers as resource persons 3.20 0.42 Accepted 2 Use of successful graduate farmers only as resource persons/role models 2.58 0.55 Accepted 3 Establishing healthy relationship between teachers, students and the work-world. Regular use of master crafts men (farmers) as resources persons Student should be given assignments and projects bordering on skills on regular basis. Regular use of field trips and excursions. Use of team- teaching based on level of competency in different areas of agriculture. Use of Cooperative Education/work Experience Programme (CEWEP) Organizing pupils’ lectures/speech days on topics of agriculture relevance. Involving students in realistic/live projects. 3.66 0.41 Accepted 3.35 0.42 Accepted 3.68 3.00 0.52 0.42 Accepted Accepted 3.32 0.48 Accepted 2.68 0.56 Accepted 3.42 3.60 0.54 0.34 Accepted Accepted 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Source: Field Survey, 2012 ~ 57 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Research Question 4: How would the content of the secondary agriculture Curriculum be implemented to guarantee effective skills acquisition? Table 4: Mean responses of teachers on ways of implementing agriculture curriculum to ensure acquisition of Agricultural Occupation skills. S/N Suggestions X SD Decision 1 Curriculum should be arranged in modular packages. 3.62 0.36 Accepted 2 Team teaching based on specialization should be adopted. Curriculum should be compartmentalized. 3.33 0.42 Accepted 2.45 0.53 N.A 4 Every practical lesson should be preceded by its theoretical lesson. 2.56 5 Tasks implied in skill lesson must be analyzed preparatory to the actual teaching. Evaluation should be performance based only Evaluation should combine performance based (PBT) and theoretical. 2.56 2.02 0.56 0.62 Accepted N.A 3.66 0.48 Accepted 3 6 7 Source: Field Survey, 2001 NA - Not accepted *moderately accepted Items number 2, 2, and 7 were highly rated as possible ways of improving the implementation and evaluation of the agriculture curriculum so as to ensure skills acquisition. Item 5 was moderately accepted. Major Findings The study came up with the following major findings: On teacher characteristics it was indicated that: 1. Requisite academic and professional qualifications are imperative. 2. Teachers of agriculture must be able to demonstrate mastery of the skills and knowledge of agriculture. 3. Teachers must be humane, sympathetic but firm and resolute in terms of moral discipline. On ways of utilizing instructional resources for effective teaching and learning of agricultural occupation skills the following were indicated. 4. Involving students in supervised live individually or in groups. 5. Use of demonstration, task analysis. On effective ways of harnessing community-bound resources the following were indicated: 6. use of successful farmers as resource persons 7. Establishing healthy school-community relationship 8. Regular use of field trip and excursions. 9. Involving students in homestead farming and live-projects Ways of improving curriculum implementation and evaluation indicated include: ~ 58 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 10. 11. 12. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Modular arrangement o the curriculum Team Teaching Evaluation based on combined use Performance Based tests (PBTs) and essays. Discussions For teachers of agriculture to be effective in the teaching of manipulative skills knowledge, they must possess both academic and professional qualifications. They must be pedagogically competent while possessing special attributes such as humaneness, being sympathetic but firm and resolute. They must be of high mastery of the discipline because in the words of Okorie (1997) “a teacher cannot teach a skill which he has not mastery”. This statement is somewhat in line with Ajala (1987) who opined that the effectiveness of skills acquisition by student depends on the extent available human resources are utilized. It is only the good teacher who can comfortably mobilize resources for effective teaching. It was indicated in the findings that involving students in real projects either individually or in groups, use of field trips and involvement of students in home-stead farming are sure ways by which students could acquire basic agricultural occupation skills and knowledge. By extension, it implies that teachers of agriculture should as much as it is possible teach students by demonstration and by practical hands-on experiences. It was further indicated that effective skill acquisition will be possible if the curriculum is modulated and if evaluation of skills learning programmes is undertaken performance-based. Each module should contain enough skills to be acquired, delivery system as well as methods or techniques of evaluation (Amadi 2001). Recommendation Based on the aforestated findings, the following recommendations are made: 1. Only qualified teachers of agriculture should be engaged. 2. There should be retraining of unqualified teachers of agriculture. 3. Technical assistants should be trained and deployed to schools. 4. Students should be involved in supervised live projects individually or in groups. 5. Successful farmers should be used as resource persons and role models. 6. Students should be involved in regular field trips and homestead farming. 7. Team-teaching should be emphasized. 8. Evaluation should be performance-based. Conclusion This study was a response to the perceived deficiency in the implementation of secondary school agricultural curriculum. Efforts were made to isolated basic issues which if properly addressed would encourage proper teachings that will in turn promote agricultural occupation skills acquisition by secondary school students. References Agwubuike C.C. (1985). The Place of Professional Teachers in Vocational Subjects. Education Today 3 (2). ~ 59 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Alaja, A.A. (1985). Availability of Educational Resources for Effective Teaching of Pre-Vocational Agricultural Sciences in Secondary Schools in Anambra State. A Journal of Research in Learning and Teaching 1. Akuoba, E.U. (1995). Curriculum Decision in Our Education System. Lead Paper Presented at the 9th National Conference of the Technological Writer Association of Nigeria (TEWAN) held at FCE (Technical) Umunze. Amadi, U.P.N. (2001). Availability and Utilization of Instructional Resources in Teaching and Learning Agricultural Occupation Skills in Imo State Secondary Schools Unpublished PhD Thesis Nnamdi Azikwe University , Awka. Amadi, U.P.N. (2011). Availability and Utilization of Instructional Resources in Teaching and Learning of Agriculture in Primary schools in Anambra State of Nigeria. Lead paper presented at Inaugural Workshop/Orientation for primary school teachers held at Awka 12-16 July. Amadi, U.P N Orikpe E A & Osinem E.C. (1997): Introduction to Vocational Technical Education Owerri: The Alphabet Publishers Ltd. Daugherty, L. (1979). Effective Teaching Strategies in Secondary Physical Education Philadelpedia: Press of Saunders Company. Federal Ministry of Education (FME) (1985). National Curriculum for Senior Secondary Schools, Ibadan: Heinemann Educational books (Nig) Ltd. Nwabuisi, G.M. (1993). A Survey of Resources for Teaching and Learning Agricultural Science in Lagos State Junior Secondary Schools. ANDRIAN FORUM 6 (1 & 2). Journal of the St. Andrews College of Education, Oyo. Ochu, A.O. & Umunnagbu, M.I. (1993). An Assessment of the Effectiveness of the Senior Secondary School Agricultural Education Programme in Manpower Development in Nigeria. Journal of Teacher Education V (2). Okorie, J.U. (1997). Instructional Facilities for Growing Vocational and Technical Institutions in Nigeria. Lead Paper Presented at the National Conference on Vocational Education held at federal College of Education (Tech) Umunze 11 – 15th August. Olaitan, S.O. (2009). Strategies for Meeting the Demands for Effective Teaching of Introductory Technology in Junior Secondary Schools of Anambra State. Seminar Paper Presented at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Olaitan, S.O. & Uwadiae, S.A. (1993). Rationale for Re-thinking the Agricultural Science Curriculum for Secondary Schools. In B.G. Nworgu (Ed.) Curriculum Development, Implementation and Evaluation. Nsukka; Association for the Promotion of Quality Education in Nigeria (APQEN). Zahradeen, U.A. (1990). Integrating productive Work into Vocational and Technical Education in Nigeria. Technical Education Today 2 (1). ~ 60 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 The Role of Information and Communication Technology in Vocational and Technical Education in Nigeria Elijah Tsado School of Technical Education, Niger State College of Education, Minna, Nigeria Doi: 10.5901/mjss.2012.v3n13n61 Abstract This paper attempts to examine the roles of Information Communication and Technology (ICT) in Vocational and Technical Education (VTE) in Nigeria. To achieve this, the definitions of ICT and VTE were given. The benefits of ICT and the use of ICT were also discussed. The challenges of VTE were also highlighted before the exposition on the role of ICT in VTE. It was concluded that the emergence of ICT remain at the centre of global socioeconomic transformation. The paper recommended that schools offering VTE should be connected to ICT facilities and the staff should be properly trained to be ICT compliant. Keywords: ICT facilities, Vocational and Technical Education, Nigeria, School system Introduction The concept of Information Communication Technology (ICT) is seen from different perspective by people based on their accessibility and the use of these facilities. ICTs, however are facilities, tools or resources that could be used to process store, preserve, access, retrieve and disseminate information with ease. Mansell and Silverstone (1996) defined ICT to include electronic network-embodying complex hardware and software - linked by a vast array of technical protocol. On the other hand, the United Nation Economic Commission for Africa, UNECA (1999) also stated that ICTs cover internet serve provision, telecommunication equipment and services, information technology equipment services, media and broadcasting library and documentation centers, commercial information provider, network-based information services and other related communication activities. Human being needs information to reduce the ambiguity in their environment, to define and solve problems. ICT have made it possible to access multifarious information sources scattered in every part of the world (Olatokun, 2007). The convergences of information Technology (IT) with communication to form ICTs according to Onilude and Adesanya (2007) brought the resolution on ICTs which has not only altered the way people live, work and play, but has also created a new infrastructure for business, scientific advancement and social interaction. These advances in science and technology and the advent of internet in recent years has led to cultural, Political, geographical and socio-economic transformation on a monumental scale world wide. Vocational and Technical Education (VTE) on the other hand is defined by Ogunyemi (2001) as the kind of training pertaining to a particular art, science or occupation. It is composed of theoretical and practical instructions given to those to be employed in commerce, industry on any ~ 61 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 type of enterprise, using tools, industry or any type of enterprise using tools and machinery for the operation, production and distribution of goods and services. The Federal Republic of Nigeria, FRN (2004) in its 4th revised edition of National Policy on Education, defined VTE as “those aspects of the educational process involving in addition to general education, the acquisition of practical skills, attitude, understanding and knowledge A reality to occupation in various sectors of economics and social life. From these definitions, it is explicit that VTE is an educational phase that trains individual to acquire specific mechanical or manipulation skills required to function effectively in a rapid changing technological society. Its primary philosophy is seeking to graduate individuals for gainful employment, with the aim of making them self-sufficient, economically, politically and socially. In actual sense, VTE courses are offered in Vocational and Technical Colleges, Monotechnics, Universities, etc. Benefits of ICT With ICT, numerous benefits have been recorded in government agencies, educational and research institutes, private sectors, Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), etc. Iskander (2003) stated that Internet as an ICT tool has been recorded to be widely spread and influencing almost all human activities. Information seekers according to Ubogu (2000) increasingly want instant individual access to information without any mediation. They are expecting to find the resources they want in a digital form and accessible electronically, which is achievable through the use of ICTs. Gleeson (2001) commenting on the benefits of ICT: Posit that the last couple of decades witness revolution in computer-based communication technology. These changes have revolutionalised the way people utilized information in various communities. One of the more recent advances in this realm has been electronic publishing, especially the production of electronic journals. Electronic Journal also known as e-journals have not only affected the way information is acquired and how scientific and technology research, seeks that needed information. With the general communication infrastructures such as electronic mail, telephone, web pages, instant messaging, chat wikis provided by ICTs, allow the technologist and scientist to plan, share data and result, write academic papers and maintain contacts. Dissemination, ICTs, such as electronic journals, popular media web sites, transmit finding to the audience are crucial in facilitating communication and access to information for research development activities in all sector of the economy be it in VTE, health, science and technology, etc. Galbreath (2000) opines that ICT have become central to contemporary society. Whether one is talking on phone, sending an email, going to the bank, using a library, listening to sports, coverage on the radio, watching the news on television, working in an office or in the field, constructing practical projects, driving a car or catching a plane, one is using ICT. He further asserted that the prevailance and rapid development of ICT has transformed human society form IT age to the knowledge age. Considering the benefits of ICT to educational institutions, Obioha (2005) posited that ICT tools aids researchers in their information seeking and use of information speedily. It helps in the acquisition of more knowledge. She also found out from her work, that in view of these benefits, aids from both local and international agencies are made to support research activities including the provision of ICT tools and training and re-training of users. From the foregoing, it is clear, that the benefits of ICT most especially to educational sector cannot be over emphasized, which Raymond (2006) stated that set pace for any form of innovation and change for the society. ~ 62 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 The Aims and Objectives of VTE The goals of VTE is encapsulated in the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004) to among others, provide trained manpower in the applied science, technology and business particularly at craft, advanced craft and technical level; provide the technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for agricultural, commercial and economical development as well as to give training and impart the necessary skills to individual who shall be self reliant economically. In pursuance of the above goal, the training of VTE is articulated I n both theory and practical with the aim that on completion of training period, the trainee shall have three options: (a) Secure employment either at the end of the whole course or after completing one or more module of employable skills (b) Set up their own business and become self-employed (c) Pursue further education in advances craft/technical programme. The major aim of VTE as a business enterprise, is to become an instrument of self employment to the individual who has been empowered not only by subject matter inhibition but who through experimental learning perceived it as real life solution to problems and can make use of his initiative in labour market (Hassan, 2006). The major thrust of VTE thus can be described not just has knowledge or facts, but includes also the practice and comprehensive command of one “peculiar ability after training in solving human problems.” Gambo (2000) highlighted the objective of a functional VTE to secure as a catalyst for socioeconomic development. He further explains that a relevant VTE will not only assist in development of skilled manpower as required by the nation but will also help in laying a solid foundation and industrial development as well as income generation for the individual and the nation, which invariably will serve as a facilitator for realizing the true perspective of self-reliance and sustained development at the same time reduce unemployment, poverty and hunger. Barriers to the Adoption and the Use of ICTs Even with the numerous benefits of ICT to all facets of human life, there are still barriers to its adoption in developing countries like Nigeria. Research carried out by Gbenga (2006) revealed that many schools in developing countries do not have computers and have no access to the Internet, which is an important requirement for supporting networking for learners and teachers as well as for collaborative learning. The internet can provide wealth of learning resources access to which is at present very limited to many educational institutions in developing countries. Spherically, Gbenga (2006), listed main obstacles faced by Africans schools including tertiary institutions with respect to internet access as follows; lack of infrastructure generally and network infrastructure in particular; high cost of ICT skills level and lack of enabling policy environment. Another obstacle to the adoption and the use of ICT in higher institutions in Nigeria as identified by Gambari and Chike-Okoli (2007) is that, Nigeria is not fully part of Global University System (GUS). The GUS is an initiative to educate students through a satellite or wireless telecommunication infrastructure, mostly using internet. Lack of proper acquisition of ICT resulting in utility, low ICT skills, inadequate supporting infrastructure and high cost of maintaining and servicing equipment are all barriers to the adoption of ICT (Olatokun, 2007). This fact was corroborated by Unegbu’a (1999) that high cost of purchasing and replacing the ICT facilities and high cost of training and retraining staff resulting in low ICT skills on the part of the personnel as a major obstacle. ~ 63 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Other findings further revealed irregular power supply, as one of the major hindrance to ICT adoption and use. Alabi (1995) identified incessant failure of power supply and irregular functioning of telecommunication system as factor constraining the effective and efficient adoption and use of ICT. The Challenges of VTE The journey towards national self-reliance through technology education has remained elusive due to problems confronting VTE (Tsado, 2010). These challenges include lack of well trained manpower to teach VTE related courses in our schools. No-sufficient fund to provide modern facilities of learning which Nzelum (1993) opines is often neglected by the decision makers, is one factor militating against the realization of goal of VTE in Nigeria because most of the tools, machines and equipment in technical workshops are obsoletes. Non-availability of learning facilities such as ICTs, computers and other educational media is also a problem in VTE. The curriculum of VTE is well defined with clear set goals but learning facilities designed for the implementation of these contents are not available and where available, they are non functional. Absences of ICT experts in VTE are other challenges in VTE. This problem has made it difficult for those schools to be ICT compliance, as a result most of the academic information are still sourced manually from textbooks, journals, newsletters, etc. similarly, the over dependence on the traditional chalk-and-chalk method of impacting knowledge in VTE instead of employing modern technique of teaching, including educational media, ICTs, is still a major threat to the realization of the stated goals of VTE (Tsado, 2003). The Role of ICT in VTE To promote effective teaching and learning in VTE, ICT has crucial roles to play by embodying complex software and hardware through electronic network (ICTs). Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) which is an outstanding automated instructional programme packaged for learners through an interaction process can be access from the net to guide effecting learning among VTE students. Akinyemi (1991) supported this assertion that gains attention of the learner from the attention through appropriate programming. He further stated that CAT guide students thinking and responding to students questions. ICT can also be adopted to improve teaching and learning in VTE distance learning programme by using mechanical and electronic network of programme Instruction (PT) made accessible from the internet. PT is the presentation of the materials to be learned by students in a series of carefully validated order and in explicit steps. According to Adigun (1997) PT may be written in form of programmed text, laboratory worksheet, tape recorder, etc either printed or recording all accessible from the internet which is usually suitable for providing a more practical application in problem solving. Current research findings, latest practical projects, technological innovations, up-to-date published academic papers, recent manufactured tools, machines, equipment with manual (used for VTE practical), etc, are all accessible from the internet and the simple fact that computer has both primary and secondary storing facilities make the retrieval of these information easy. Thus a functional digital library institutions offering VTE will immensely improve the quality of teaching and learning. Onilude and Adesanya (2007) also confirmed that electronic journal (e-journal) and other ~ 64 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 related publication accessible from the net has not only affected the way information is spread, but the way the information is acquired. Alternative to practical in VTE made accessible from the internet, in form of PT, can be administered to the students, where tools, machines and equipment are not available. Where time to carry out practical in the workshop is a constraints, alternative to practical’s from net will serve, because skills acquisition is an important aspect of VTE (Ogunyemi, 2001). Thus where practical are not possible, an alternative can be adopted. Evaluation of learning outcomes in VTE can be achieved by using ICTs, through e-test, eexamination, etc. Evaluation is a process of finding out the extent and kind of behavioral changes that resulted from instruction or teaching activities in the programme. Abimbolade (1996) stated that a well packaged e-examination guides students thinking and assess students performance. Conclusion The emergence and convergence of ICT remain at the centre of global socio-economic transformation, thus the role of ICT, in VTE can not be over emphasized. Recommendations For ICT to play its expected roles in VTE, the following recommendations are proffered: All the schools offering VTE should be connected to ICT facilities. The PHCN should improve on its generation of electricity and the government should extend electricity to the rural communities when VTE institutions are cited, considering that most of ICT and their accessories are electricity-driven. ICT experts should be posted to VTE institutions as a government policy. Digital libraries should be established in institutions offering VTE by both government and NGOs. Training programme like workshops, seminar etc should be organized often for the staff of VTE institutions. References Abimbade, A (1999). Computer Literacy and the Nigeria School System. NIgeria Journal of Computer Literacy (1,). Adigun, A. 0 (1997). Introduction to Vocational Technical Education. Lagos Raytel Communication Press Ltd. Akinyemi, K. (1991). Computer in Education. Fundamental of Educational Technology. Ibadan: Y. Books. Ala bi; M (1995). Impact of In formation Technology Infrastructure. A Case Study of Kano Industrial Sector Proceeding of the 4th National Conference of COAN held in Kano. FRN (2004). National Poilcy on Education. Abuja: Federal Ministry of Education. Gaibreath, J. (2000). Knowledge Management Technology in Education: An overview Educational Technology 40(5). Gambari, A.I and Chike-Okoli (2007). Availability and Utilization of ICT Facilities in Higher Institutions in Niger State, Nigeria. Information Technologist Vol. 4 (1). Gambo, E.K. (2002). Making Vocational Institute in Nigeria Self-Sustained. Journal of Issues in Technical Teachers Educations 1(2). Gbenga, A (2006). ICT and Web Mining Techniques: A Paper Presented at ETF Capacity Building Workshop held at University of Ilorin. ~ 65 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Gleeson, A. C (2001). A Master Paper: Information Seeking Behavior of Scientist and Adaptation to Electronic Journal Retrieved from http:///ils.unc.edu/mspape. Hassan, A.M. (2006). Technical Education: A Tool for Poverty Alleviation and National Stability. The Belt Journal of Education in Nigeria 1(1). Iskandar, F. (2003). Information Communication and Technology Retrieved from www.connectonline.org/stories/story.5601. Mansell R and Silver stone, R. (1996). Communication by Design. The Politics of ICTs: Ibadan Oxford University Press. Nzelum, V.N (1993). Problems and Constraints in VTE. Journal of Ntgeria Vocational Association, UN N. Obioha, J. (2005). The Role of ICT in Information Seeking and Use Amongst Research Officers in Research Institute in Nigeria. The International In formation and Library Review 137(4). Ogunyemi, M.A (2001). The Relevance of Technical Education to Poverty Alleviation. Lagos: Fembis Publishers. Olatokun, W.M (2007).Adoption and Use of ICTs in Nigeria Manufacturing Industries: A Preliminary Survey. Infrastructure Technology 4(1). Onilude, 0.0 and Adesanya, 0.0 (2007). The Impact of ICTs in information Seeking. In formation Technologist An International Journal of ICT 4(2). Raymond, B.B (2006). Internet cafes: Academic Cyber Freedom and the Challenges of Teaching in Nigerian Universities. Journal of educational Research & Development 11 (7). Tsado, E.B. (2010). The Attainment of Self-Reliance Through the Acquisition of Practical Skills in Technology Education in Nigeria. Niger Journal of Technology Education. Vol. I Tsado, E.B. (2003). The Effects of Transparencies as an Instructional Media for Teaching TCI Building Students in Technical Colleges in Niger State. Journal of MIJESI(1). Ubogu, F.N. (2000). The Paperless Society, Force or Reality. African Journal of Library, Achieves and information Science .10 (1). UNECA(1999). Developing National Information and Communication Infrastructure CNICD Policies, Plans and Strategies. Unegbu, M.C (1999). Impact Assessment of IT on the performance of the Nigerian Manufacturing Sector. A project Submitted to African Regional Centre for In formation Science, University of Ibadan. ~ 66 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 An Analysis of Job Performance Among Academic Staff of Federal Polytechnic Offa, Kwara State Sikirat Abiodun Raji Department of Educational Foundations, Federal College of Education, Zaria, Nigeria Doi:10.5901/mjss.2012.v3n13p67 Abstract This paper conducted a study on Assessment of Job Performance among academic staff of Federal Po1ytechnic Offa, Kwara State. Two research questions and hypotheses each were formulated for this study involving a random sample of two hundred (200) respondents’ from a total population of five hundred and seventy-three (573). Structured questionnaire was the research instrument employed for data collection. It was however, analyzed using Pearson product moment co-efficient of correlation (PPMC) statistical procedure. The study reveals a number of findings among which were; condition of service are essential to effective job performance and it also recommended that management boards should review condition of service of academic staff favourably with enabling working situations. Keywords: Assessment , Job Performance, Academic staff ,Federal and Kwara State Introduction Teachers are the hub of any educational system. The school plant, cash, working tools, well designed curriculum and good leadership are all essentials but the most crucial element is the rate the teachers’ are charged with the task of effecting desirable changes in the learners as potential future leaders of this country. FRN (2004) asserted that no educational system may rise above the quality of its teachers. The quality of school productivity will be meaningless if attitude of academic staff in this institution is neglected. Productivity could be enhanced when academic staff feels gratified to see their students’ progress academically in their studies. The Federal Government of Nigeria had invested huge amount of its budgeting allocation on capital and recurrent expenditure to this educational institutions aimed at creating a conducive teaching and learning atmosphere both for teachers’ and students’ respectively. In spite of this, such revenues cannot cope with the enormous challenges leading to inadequate school plant facilities and poor conduct of research among other responsibilities. Job performance as defined by (Steers, 1999) is an act or process of getting the work or task done by an individual as demanded by an organization. School heads in the various institutions performed their duties differently. Their performance is determined by the circumstances they find themselves. It is possible to see schools’ where teachers’ enjoyed friendly relations with one another and with the school head as well. It is also possible to find a situation where the school head had established good staff - student relations. In other schools, where the head is highly directive and not sensitive to the views of teachers’ or students, the atmosphere might be unfriendly and uncooperative (Maina, 2003) ~ 67 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 The reviewed literatures on the key variables of job performance aimed at assessing the academic pursuit of the students. The theoretical framework dealt with the origin of human relations and behavioural science theories. In defining the concept, Steers (1999) viewed Job satisfaction has a conduct-pipe to job performance in either formal or informal organization. Employee turn-over, motivation, organization size and job enrichment are likely factors that can marred the success or otherwise of the performance of an organization. It is worthy of note that job performance amongst the academic staff could be ascertained through students’ academic records, accessibility and usability of teaching materials, working conditions and conditions of service. Civil service rules governed the conduct of both academic and non-academic staff of either State or Federal civil service. It is not however different except in terms of financial benefits in some areas (Federal Civil Service Manual. 1987). Timothy (1991) was of the opinion that academic staff that are at the centre-stage in this case need to have a conducive classroom environment, cordial teacherstudents relation and apply suitable teaching methods if truly improved academic performancesare being targeted at. According to Safurat (1987) as cited in Akpan (2003), Lecturers’ desire more time, more interaction with their colleagues, better professional development opportunities, improved support services, better students, improved media and instructional materials in order to enhance job performance. Statement of the Problem The alarming rate of students’ failure in Federal Polytechnic, Offa, Kwara State is becoming worrisome to all stakeholders. Regrettably, academic staff is being pointed accusing fingers on. This is because highly productive job performances by this group are sine-qua non to satisfying academic performance of the students. It appears other problems included are industrial action, absenteeism, lack of commitment from lecturers and students alike, poor working conditions, occupational mobility among a number of other factors. Purpose of the Study The main objectives of this study were to: 1. 2. Find out if there exists any significant relationship between students’ academic performance and job performance of their lecturers. Identify how leadership styles of departmental heads promote effective job performance of lecturers in Federal Polytechnic, Offa. Significance of the Study This research becomes necessary as the outcomes could be a guide to the school planners and administrators to be able to identify the extent of the Job Performance among academic staff. The findings of this study would help to guide the policy makers and educational managers those things that need to be put in place to make teaching and learning attractive. Research Questions The following questions were formulated to guide the study. ~ 68 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 1. 2. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 To what extent does students’ academic performance encourage job performance of their lecturers’ in Federal Polytechnic Offa, Kwara State? To what extent does leadership style influence job performance among lecturers’ and departmental heads’ in Federal Polytechnic Offa, Kwara State? Research Hypotheses The study formulated the following null-hypotheses: Ho1: There is no significant relationship between students’ academic performance and job performance of lecturers. Ho2: There is no significant relationship between the type of leadership styles of management and lecturers’ job performance. Research Methodology The study centered on academic staff of Federal Polytechnic, Offa, Kwara State with a total population put at Five Hundred and Seventy-Three (573) cut across six schools. These are Engineering, General Studies, Environmental Studies, Business and Management Studies, Communication and Information technology and finally Applied Science and Technology. Sample of 200 respondents were randomly selected using a descriptive survey type. A structured questionnaire tagged ‘Academic staff job performance questionnaire” (ASJPQ) was employed in line with modified Likert 5-point rating scale. The data was analyzed using Pearson Product Moment Coefficient of correlation (PPMC) at 0.05 level of significance. The use of research assistants was further employed in the administration of research instruments. The table1 provides tabular discussion of sampled respondents according to schools. Table1: Sample for the study S/N School Sample No. of Males Sampled No. of Females Total Sampled 1. Applied Science and Technology 42 21 63 2. Business and Management Studies 22 07 27 3. Communication and Information technology 10 09 19 4. 5. Engineering technology General Studies Total 17 11 129 05 19 61 22 320 200 Instrument for Data Collection The instrument used for data collection was academic staff job performance questionnaire (ASJPQ). The instrument was divided into two sections. Sections A and B using the Likert-type five point rating, scales as Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D) Strongly Disagree (SD) and Undecided ~ 69 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 (U). Section A was to elicit information on respondents’ bio-data and section B contained respondents’ opinion of students’ performance, leadership style and job performance. Results Research Question 1: To what extent does students’ academic performance enhance job performance of lecturers in Federal Polytechnic, Offa. Table 2: Opinion of Academic Staff on the Students’ Academic and Job Performance. S/N Item Statements 1. Academic achievement of students in my class during examination provides satisfaction to the job. 2. Supply of teaching and learning equipment to my school encourages lecturers’ to engage students in practical. Lecturers feel satisfied when students’ comprehend what they have learnt in class. Students who indulge in examination malpractice put the lecturer in bad light. Promotions are guaranteed when students excel in their semester examination. 3. 4. 5. Responses Disagreed F % 26 14.9 Agreed F % 135 77.6 Undecided F % 13 7.5 Total F % 174 100 114 66.7 26 15.2 31 18.1 171 100 78 44.6 15 8.5 82 46.9 175 100 114 65.5 36 20.7 24 13.8 174 100 76 43.9 35 20.3 62 35.8 173 100 From table 2,77.6% of the responses’ agreed that academic achievement of students in classes provides satisfaction to the job while only 13.8 % disagreed that students who indulge in examination malpractice put the lecture in bad light. Research Question 2: To what extent does leadership style influence job performance among lecturers’ and departmental heads in Federal Polytechnic, Offa Kwara State. Table 3: Opinion of Academic Staff on Leadership Style of Departmental Heads Job Performance Item S/N Statements 1. The head of my department is autocratic and rigid in decision making. Agreed F % 99 57.2 ~ 70 ~ Undecided F % 30 17.3 Responses Disagreed F % 44 25.5 F 173 Total % 100 ISSN 2039-9340 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 The freewill to operate and initiate policies is a welcome development outside my department. My boss in the department intimate the staff in line with what is expected of them as set out in this plan. 117 66.9 33 18.8 25 14.3 175 100 104 62.3 14 8.4 49 29.3 167 100 Staffers in my department are accorded the same recognition and respect to work and in productivity. My head of department places high premium on his/her subordinates as his network. 103 60.6 21 12.4 46 27.0 170 100 132 76.7 22 12.8 18 10.5 172 100 Human relations between the staff and boss are cordial and ultimate to educational goals. 67 38.9 29 16.9 76 44.2 172 100 From table 3 , 76.7% of the responses’ agreed that their head of departments places high premium on their subordinates while only 38.9 % agreed that human relations between the staff and boss are cordial and ultimate to educational goals. Hypotheses Testing Ho1: There is no significant relationship between students’ academic performance of students’ and lecturer’s job motivation in Federal Polytechnic Offa, Kwara State. Table 4: Correlation on Students Academic Performance and Job Performance of Lecturers. (N197) Variable x d Students academic 18.6023 .57 Job performance 17.5000 .48 T-Critical=1.96 r d p .490 76 .000 P<0.05 With the observed r-value of 0.490 which is lower than the critical value of 1.90 and observed significant level (P) of 0.000 is lower, than the accepted level of 0.05 (P<0.05). The hypothesis is therefore rejected because there is significant correlation between academic performance of students’ and job motivation of lecturers. Ho2: There is no significant relationship between the leadership style of departmental heads and job performance of lecturers. ~ 71 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Table 5: Correlation between Leadership Style of Departmental Heads’ and Job Performance of Lecturers’. (N =197). Variable x sd r d p Leadership style 17.89 .44 0.464 71 .000 Job performance 17.50 .48 T-Critical=1.96 P<0.05 From the above, the observed r-value of 0.464 which is lower than the critical value of 1.96 and observed significant level (P) of 0.000 is higher than the accepted level of 0.05 (P> 0.05). The null hypothesis is hereby rejected since there exist significant correlation between the leadership style of departmental heads and job performance of lecturers. Discussions It is evident from table 1 above that available statistics showed increase in the number of respondents’ to the variables, as this is likely to enhance high academic achievement of the students’. Sunda, (1994) argue in support of this assertion that job performance is the product of improved staff motivation. The null hypothesis 4 analyzed in the study also gave a strong backings to the outcome of research question analyzed above. From the table 3, the analysis of this research question agreed that management leadership style could better result to improved job performance if not too rigid but targeted at achieving a purposeful goal. Conclusion The study has shown a positive and significant relationship between students’ academic performance and job performance of lecturers. In addition, it can be concluded that correlation exist between leadership style among lecturers in the study area. Recommendations Based on the findings, the following recommendations are made. 1. That adequate provision of teaching materials is essential for teaching and research. Any factors such as poor record keeping and bureaucratic process involved in disbursement of funds allocated that will slow down the provisions of these items should be promptly addressed. 2. Management should work with the, relevant labour bodies in the institution to appraise working conditions internally and see how such can help increase student’s academic achievement. 3. Preferred leadership style of the various levels of the institutions’ authorities in relation to job performance of the lecturers should be investigated. ~ 72 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 References Afolabi M. (1993). Introduction to Research for writing proposals, projects and Thesis, Zaria Alpha Publishers. Aluwong, S.W. (1984). Teacher Job Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction: A Survey Report in The Journal of Teacher Education, NCCE, Vol. 3, No. 1-2, p. 51-56. Anne, A. (1968). Context of Psychological Testing: New York, Macmillan Publishers Coy. Aziz, A.A: Ahmad S.H; Bakar F.A, & Rodwell S. (1991). Improving the Quality of Education. A Case Study of Curriculum Innovation in Malaysia, London, Marborough House. Balogun, A (2001). “The Effects of Secondary School Teachers’ Job Satisfaction on the Students Academic Achievement in Kogi State of Nigeria”. An unpublished M.ED These, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Federal Republic of Nigeria, (2004). The National Policy on Education. Lagos: NERDC Press. Safurat S.A. (1987). “Causes and Correlations of Job Satisfaction among Business Teachers in Tertiary Institutions in Nigeria”. An unpublished P.hd Thesis, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Steers, R.M. (1999). Introduction to Organizational Behaviour, New York, Harper Collins. Belasco, J.A & Aluto J.A (1972). Decisional “Participation and Teacher Satisfaction” Educational Administration Quarterly, 8 pp 44-58. Bolorunduro O.M. (1998). “Laboratory facilities and Students’ Performance in Chemistry: A Study of Selected Schools in Oranmiyan Local Government Area, Osun State in Zaria Journal of Educational Studies, F.C.E, Zaria, Vol.2, p.33-35. Brayfield, A. H. & Crockett W.H. (1980). “Employee Attitudes and Employee Performance”, Psychological Bulletin, 52, pp 396-424. Bretts, P.W. (1986). Office Management, London, House and Stoughton Blake, R.R. and Mouton, J.S. (1964). The Managerial Grid, Texas, Prentice – Hall. Denga, J.D.J. (1986). Examination Cheating Behaviour Among Nigerian Secondary School Youth: Implications for Counseling in Education and Development NERC, July, Vol.3(2) p.204-208. Eyre, E.C. (1989). Office Administration, London, Macmillan Education Limited. Eze, T.S. & Ezeani, P,M. “Examination Malpractice: Implication for Teacher Education”, NCCE Proceedings of the National Conference of NCE Teachers Educators in Nigeria, at Kano; p.20-21. Farrant, J.S. (1980). Principles and Practice of Education, England, Longman Group, UK Fafunwa, B. (1996). June, 29 Brain Drain in Tertiary Institutions. Weekend Vanguard. Fwangle, S.M. (1977). “Major Reasons for Examination Malpractices Among College Students with Particular Reference to College of Education Gindiri” in Journal of Education, Federal College of Education, Pankshin, P.115-118. Halpin, A.W. (1966). The Leader Behaviour of School Superintendents, Ohio, McGraw-Hill. Herzberg, F. (1966). Work and the Nature of Man: Washington, World Herzberg, F; Mausner B; & Synderman, B, (1959). in Vroom V.H. and Deci, E.L ed (1970). Management and Motivation, London, Penguin. Hoy, W.K. & Miskel, C.G. (1982): Education Administration, Theory, Research and Practice, New York Random House. Hodgetts, R.M. (1990). Facet and Overall Satisfaction at Work, Chicago, The Dryden Press. Igunnu, A.A. (1977). “Resource Allocation at the Institutional Level for Teaching and Research Functions in Nigeria, in Zaria Journal of Education Studies, FCE, Zaria, Vol.2. No.1 p.44-47. Jiboyewa, D.A. (1977). “School Climate and Academic Achievements in Selected Secondary Schools in Bauchi State” in Dougirel Journal of Education, Vol. 1, p.54. Koontz et al. (1980). Management Japan, McGraw-Hill March J.G. & Simon H.A. (1980). Organizations, New York, Wiley. Nworgu B.G (1991). Educational Research: Owerri Wisdom Publisher Limited. Okorie, N.C. (1992). Reactions to Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Factors. A Study of Teachers Work Values; in The Nigerian Teacher Today; A Journal of Teacher Education, Kaduna, NCCE, Vol.2, p. 103-113. Owens, R.G. (1970). Organizational Behaviour in Schools, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Ozigi, A. (1981). Education in Northern Nigeria; London, Goerge and Unwin Ltd. ~ 73 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Peretomode, V.F; (1991). Educational Administration, Lagos, Joja Press Ltd. Salawu, A.S. (1987). “Causes and Correlations of Job Satisfaction among Business Education Teachers in Tertiary Institutions in Nigeria”. An Unpublished M.Ed Thesis, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Sergionvanni T. (1967). “Factors which Affect Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction of Teachers”. Journal of Education Administration Vol.5, p.66-67. Tanimu, I. (1992). “Policy Implementation in the Educational System”: A Case Study of Textbook Policy in Kaduna State: School of Education Seminar Presentation, FCE Zaria. Vroom V.H. & Deci E.L (ed) (1970). Management and Motivation: London, Penguin. Vroom V.H (1990). “Industrial Social Psychology” in G. Lindzey and E. Aronson (ed), The Handbook of Social Psychology, Vol. 5 p.10, London, Addison-Wesley. ~ 74 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Efficacy, Agency and Behavioural Change: Evaluation of a Local/Global Sustainability Education Program John Buchanan School of Education, University of Technology, Sydney Doi:10.5901/mjss.2012.v3n12p75 Abstract As world population increases, and as more and more individuals make increasing demands on the earth’s resources, the mandate for effective Sustainability Education (SE) becomes more urgent. This paper describes a longitudinal evaluation of a project currently being undertaken in government primary and secondary schools in New South Wales, Australia, funded by the NSW Department of Education and Communities (DEC). The Climate Clever Energy Savers (CCES) Project is designed to raise awareness among school students about ways of reducing electricity consumption at their schools. Students are invited to tender for funds of up to $2000.00 to support a program (such as an education campaign, or building or appliance modification) to reduce electricity consumption. The overarching research question concerns the extent to which and ways in which the program has achieved the desired behaviour changes and educational outcomes. We have found the project to be highly effective, but also suggest some modifications to further enhance its effectiveness. Keywords: Sustainability, environment, education, efficacy agency Introduction A mandate exists for effective Sustainability Education (SE), to educate us how to “live as if the world mattered” (Jickling, 2009, p. 209). This paper describes a longitudinal evaluation of a project currently being undertaken in government primary and secondary schools in New South Wales, Australia, funded by the NSW Department of Education and Communities (DEC). The Climate Clever Energy Savers (CCES) Project was established and is jointly managed by the NSW Department of Education and Communities and the state Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water. The $5 million funding is delivered through the Asset Management Directorate and managed by the K-12 Directorate. The CCES project aims to raise awareness among school students about ways of reducing electricity consumption at their schools. The evaluation of this project was implemented by a university team who sought to answer a number of research questions, which are discussed later in this paper. The overarching research question concerns the extent to which and ways in which the program has achieved the desired behaviour changes and educational outcomes. The project under evaluation The following section derives heavily from the resource and information kit provided to participating teachers, Resources for teachers 2010: Climate Clever Energy Savers (NSW DET, 2009). The CCES program’s aims are to assist students in years 3-10, aged about 7-16 years, to devise proposals aimed at reducing electricity consumption at their school. The program provides an interdisciplinary approach to studies of sustainability; and offers a real-world, problem-solving ~ 75 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 approach to issues of sustainability, supported and scaffolded by Department personnel and technology. As part of the program, students are invited to submit applications for funding to support an initiative that will reduce their school’s electricity consumption and associated costs. Each project can apply for up to $2000.00. The DEC, via the CCES team, provides support in a number of ways for the projects, including in-service workshops, a resource kit with teaching/learning activities and advice on how to implement the program, and links to a variety of subject-based syllabuses. Support is also offered via a teacher wiki, an e-folio and via email, as well as the possibility of site visits from CCES team members. Conceptual Framework Sustainable development and the environment The NSW Department of Education and Training (DET1) defined ‘environment’ as “the aggregate of all the conditions that support living things” or “the aggregate of all the conditions that influence the life of an individual or population” (NSW DET, 2001, p. 7). Bridge and Demicco (2008, p. 9) discern four elements of the (Natural) Environment: the biosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere. These are components of the biophysical system, which is one of four broader systems, each of which is sustained in the following ways, according to Fien (2004, pp. 185, 186): the biophysical system (sustained through conservation), the social system (sustained through peace), the economic system (sustained through development) and the political system (sustained through democracy). Each of these, we believe, is open to contestation. ‘Ecologically sustainable development’ describes “a pattern of activities that meet the needs of the current generation without prejudicing the ability of future generations to meet their needs” (NSW DET, 2001, p. 9). Purnell, Sinclair and Gralton (2004) discern direct and indirect sustainability behaviours. The former includes tree-planting, recycling and diligence in switching appliances off when not in use. The latter refers to political and social actions, such as writing to the media and politicians, and discussions with others. This definition would also include a good deal of current education for sustainability. Education for sustainable development Education is surely central to any significant response to concerns with regard to sustainability. UNESCO (2004, p. 11) reported “a common consensus that education is a driving force for the change needed” with regard to education for sustainable development (ESD). Both government policy documents and syllabuses are replete with statements affirming education for sustainability. It is acknowledged here that various terms exist for this field of education, such as Education for Sustainable Development (ESD; Summers, Childs & Corney, 2005) and Environmental Education, and Education for Sustainability (Littledyke, Taylor & Eames, 2009). The Australian Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, and Population and Communities (ADSEWPC, 2011) offers a helpful set of criteria against which to measure ESD. Such education must “involve everyone, be lifelong, be holistic and about connections, be practical and In 2011, the funding body changed its name from the Department of Education and Training (DET) to the Department of Education and Communities (DEC). 1 ~ 76 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 be in harmony with social and economic goals and accorded equal priority” (paras 1-13). This equal accordance to environment, society and economy is the so-called “triple bottom line” or “three pillars”. Agency, Efficacy and Leadership The development of leadership and agency is vital to action on sustainability (Hill, Wilson & Watson, 2004). Similarly, Reynolds (2009, p. 109) refers to the agency potential of ESD, claiming that it “is about empowering people to contribute to a better future through mindset changes, critical reflection and building new skills”. The NSW DET K-12 Curriculum Directorate developed a five-step Sustainability Action Process. Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts further funded and developed this process: making a case for change; defining scope for action; developing a proposal for action; implementing the proposal; evaluating and reflecting (DEWHA, 2010, p. 9). Fullan (2001) places teachers first and foremost in their role as change agents at a local level. And yet, leadership itself needs to be sustainable (Hargreaves & Fink, 2006), and needs, in turn, to be supported by appropriate and adequate resources. Similarly, collegiality and teamwork are essential, although there are some pitfalls associated with contrived collegiality (Grimmett & Crehan, 1992). Fullan (2001) places teachers first and foremost in their role as change agents at a local level. And yet, leadership itself needs to be sustainable (Hargreaves & Fink, 2006), and needs, in turn, to be supported by appropriate and adequate resources. Similarly, collegiality and teamwork are essential, although there are some pitfalls associated with contrived collegiality (Grimmett & Crehan, 1992). Education for sustainable development needs to be ‘enabling in nature’, in affording learners a sense of agency, in terms of their capacity to effect change with regard to the natural world. This, it is hoped, will enable the natural environment to repair and renew itself with fewer human impediments. Summers, Childs and Corney (2005, p. 629) observe that ESD enables people to develop the knowledge, values and skills to participate in decisions about the way we do things individually and collectively, both globally and locally, that will improve the quality of life now and without damaging the planet for the future. These two dimensions, the individual-collective and the local-global, offer another potentially useful frame of reference for both our education and our actions for sustainability. Agency or efficacy (Bandura, 1977, 1997) refers to developing the capacity, confidence and sensed mandate for key stakeholders to take action on a matter considered important. There is a considerable body of literature on the significance of teacher efficacy and agency, particularly as predictors of resilience, satisfaction, commitment and retention. For the purposes of this study, we will adopt Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy’s (2001) definition of teacher efficacy as a teacher’s, “judgment of his or her capabilities to bring about desired outcomes of student engagement and learning, even among those students who may be difficult or unmotivated” (p. 783). Clearly, a teacher’s perceived ability or inability to effect a love of learning on the part of their students is a key contributor to successful educational and behavioural outcomes on the part of students. While the following refers broadly to teacher commitment and contentment, it has relevance for all of teachers’ undertakings, including engagement in sustainability education. Chan, Lau, Nie, Lim and Hogan (2008) discovered that, along with identification with school, teacher efficacy was a strong predictor of commitment to teaching. Equally relevant to this study, they found that perceptions of organisational politics correlated negatively with commitment, while opportunities ~ 77 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 for reflective dialogue formed a positive correlation with intentions to remain in the profession. Similarly, Ware and Kitsantas (2007), in a large-scale study of more than 26000 teachers and 6000 principals, identified strong links between teacher efficacy beliefs and commitment to the profession. More recently, Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2010), in a study with more than 2000 teachers, established a link between teacher efficacy, job satisfaction and burnout. They discerned five contextual elements affecting teacher efficacy for the purposes of their study: time pressures, autonomy, relations with parents, discipline problems and supervisory support. Interestingly, relations with parents emerged as the most influential contributor to teacher efficacy. (See also Hoover-Dempsey, Bassler & Brissie (1987), who established a link between school-home relationships and teacher efficacy, but stopped short of ascribing causality.) Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2010) also identified a strong correlation between the two elements of autonomy and supervisory support. By contrast, discipline problems were found to correlate more weakly with teacher efficacy. This confirms anecdotal evidence and literature that teaching is most importantly about relationships, as part of a community of practice (Allen, 2007; Wenger, 1998). Secondly, Skaalvik and Skaalvik’s (2010) findings also suggest that discipline problems, as might be encountered in schools that are difficult to staff, do not necessarily undermine teacher efficacy, at least when they are encountered in a context of strong support from supervisors. Similarly, Ross and Gray (2006) established a direct link between effective leadership and both teacher commitment and efficacy, in a study involving more than 3000 teachers. In an Australian study, Le Cornu (2009) investigated the contribution of Professional Experience to teacher resilience. As with other studies, relationships emerged as central “to the complex and dynamic interactions between individuals and their ‘student teaching’ contexts” (p. 717). As mentioned above, this has important implications for any teacher undertaking, including the program under investigation here. Behavioural change While it is not our purpose to provide a treatise on behavioural change here, existing frameworks can inform our understanding of the processes involved in the program under evaluation, and reasons for its success or frustration. It is widely accepted that some combination of individual variables (such as knowledge, skills, belief, attitudes and values) interacts with social and environmental factors to operate on human behaviour (Kollmuss & Agyeman (2002). There is a range of views about the form that this interaction takes, or the relative importance of, or interaction among, these factors. They are discussed in relation to environmental behaviours or proenvironmental collective action. Ultimately, we concur with Jackson (2005, p.6), who asserts that, Human motivations are so multifaceted that about the only thing one can say with absolute certainty is that it is virtually impossible to derive universal causal models with which to construct behaviour change policies in different domains. Nevertheless, as stated above, we discuss some approaches in terms of how they may inform our understanding of this program and its associated projects, in terms of changed behaviour and understanding on the part of both teachers and students. Making sense of behaviour inevitably requires a multi-dimensional view that incorporates both internal and external elements. In particular, as Stern (2000) has noted, a useful model has to account for: motivations, attitudes and values; contextual or situational factors; social influences; personal capabilities; and habits. Kollmuss and Agyeman (2002, p. 240) summarise the main models ~ 78 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 of behaviour in the literature on environmental behaviour/action as falling under the following categories: the linear progression model; altruism, empathy and pro-social behaviour models; sociological models. Stern (2000) points out that there are several distinct types of environmentally significant behaviour and that varying combinations of causal factors determine the different types. There is a range of theories as to the determinants of environmentalism or the values from which proenvironmental behaviours arise. Further, Stern (p. 412) proposes the Value-Belief-Norm theory to explain why people take action due to pro-environment personal norms. With this theory, environmental action is motivated by: altruistic and biospheric values; an ecological worldview; a belief that something of value is under threat; a sense of responsibility to take action, coupled with a perceived ability to have an impact on the threat. Bamberg and Moser (2007) assert that pro-environmental behaviour is best viewed as a mixture of self-interest and pro-social motives. They suggest that attitude, social norm, and perceived behavioural control (PBC) as well as moral norm, combine to predict intention. Intention to act in a pro-environmental way was identified as a key determinant, accounting for, on average, 27% of the variance of pro-environmental behaviours (p. 20), although how such a figure is determined is open to conjecture. Attitude, behavioural control and personal moral norm were identified as the three main predictors of pro-environmental behaviour, with problem awareness an indirect determinant of pro-environmental intention. The impact of problem awareness seems to be mediated by moral and social norms, guilt, and attribution processes. Behavioural economics contends that we do not reach individual decisions in isolation, but look to others to determine our behaviour, a form of social conformity. Dawnay and Shah (2005) identify a number of relevant theories underpinning the concept of social norms. Social learning indicates that we learn by observing what other people do; social proof contends that we look to others to see how to behave, especially in situations of risk and uncertainty; and social identity theory notes that we demonstrate a strong bias toward ‘similar others’ or members of the ‘ingroup’. For policy makers, the important lesson is that we may need to focus on changing social norms in the medium to long-term to achieve lasting behavioural change. Examples of where this has been successfully done include smoking in public places and, picking up one’s dog’s droppings. Conduct of the Study The methodological approach is informed by the team’s experience carrying out evaluations of school-based projects and sustainability initiatives in a wide range of settings. The key principles that have embodied the methodology include: participatory inquiry; a mix of quantitative and qualitative methods; use of a variety of inputs; use of a mix of subjective and objective measures; drawing on existing materials to maximise time effectiveness for the project. The project obtained ethical clearance from the university and the funding body. Further to the main research question, introduced above, on behavioural outcomes from the project, the following sub-questions have driven our work: How and to what extent have teachers linked syllabus and content outcomes to energy saving and greenhouse gas reduction projects? Similarly, how have they embedded sustainability education into their teaching and learning programs? How and to what extent have students been engaged in authentic learning (including those using an interdisciplinary or cross-curricular approach) in order to develop deep understanding of the purpose, content and processes? ~ 79 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Within participating schools, has this program met students’ expectations for support? (i.e. how well have students been supported to use the Sustainability Action Process to generate and implement proposals for energy reduction and engage in learning for sustainability?) Have some schools had particular success with the program, and if so what were the features of their approach and the factors that enhanced the CCES program? Have schools struggled with implementing the program, and if so what were the features of their approach and the factors that hindered the CCES program? What, if any, unanticipated outcomes have there been? While the full report on the project comprehensively addresses each of these features of the program, a briefer account of these processes and their effects will be provided in this paper. Data Collection The evaluation entailed a participatory enquiry approach, in which school stakeholders were asked to provide existing data pertinent to the Climate Clever Energy Savers (CCES) program. An electronic survey of as many participating schools as possible. The purpose of the survey was to obtain a broad picture of the level and nature of participation in the program, as well as general perceptions of successes and barriers to implementing the program in schools. All 189 participating schools were invited to take part in this survey. Completion of the survey was a condition of funding, and a response rate of over 90 percent was attained by the time the survey closed. A pilot survey was conducted with small and diverse sample of schools. Case studies of a sample of schools, six in total at the time of writing, to ensure a representative sample. Principally, these comprised those schools that emerge as sites of best practice. A smaller number of studies have been undertaken with schools that identified particular problems and difficulties in implementing the CCES Program. Case studies comprised: On-site visits or telephone conversations, each supplemented by a member check of notes arising from the interactions; interviews with key stakeholders, focusing mainly on project co-ordinators; analysis where possible and appropriate of documents such as the school’s SEMP (School Environmental Management Program), curriculum documents, lesson plans and teacher evaluations thereof, teaching/learning resources, student work samples, evidence of energy consumption, saving and actions collected by in-school student project teams, utility bills over time; CCES curriculum and professional learning materials; records from CCES Regional meetings. Data collection has been guided by advice obtained from the NSW DET Curriculum Directorate and consultations with school teams. Data Analysis CCES is implemented through a five-step action process: making the case for change; defining the scope for action; developing the proposal for action; implementing the proposal; and evaluating and reflecting. The evaluation sought to determine: the extent to which this process scaffolded the energy reduction initiatives; and the capacity of the process to contribute to students’ autonomy in sustainability action. Further to this, the project investigated effects on morale and pedagogy, of projects deemed by stakeholders to have failed or to have had limited success. The project ~ 80 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 interrogated the initial criteria, stated or implicit, for the projects concerned, and factors that promoted or inhibited the projects. It also sought participants’ views on what might be done differently in future. Qualitative and quantitative data analysis was undertaken with regard to the ways in which schools have managed to achieve the stated aims of the program, that is, the extent to which schools: enabled students to undertake energy saving and greenhouse gas reduction projects, linked to syllabus-based outcomes and content; enhanced student engagement in learning through interdisciplinary, authentic projectbased sustainability work; embedded learning for sustainability into the school curriculum; expanded the participation of primary and secondary teachers from a range of subject areas in student-directed, project-based sustainability learning by providing structured professional learning and scaffolded teaching and learning resources. Investigations took place in the context of the Human Society and Its Environment (HSIE) and Science and Technology curricula in particular in senior primary years, and with regard to Technology, Science, Geography as well as Design and Technology syllabuses in the junior secondary years. Data were gathered formatively and iteratively, providing opportunity to advise the DEC CCES Team about the findings as the project proceeded. Findings and Discussion The findings are overwhelmingly favourable. For example, when asked how to improve the program, one primary teacher from the south coast replied, I think it’s quite good as it is and has enough broad scope to cover a multitude of approaches and provide option for different capacity levels. Generally it’s succinct, well set up and clear. Don’t mess with a good thing! This project constitutes a helpful source of assistance for the school, albeit arguably small in school budgetary terms. We note that some schools ‘topped up’ their CCES budget with their own financial support. One Northern Sydney secondary teacher observed, “the implementation of the winning proposal has been an asset to the school” as well as being highly rewarding for the students. Nature of the project Programs were divided into five main types. Note that the total number of theme codes exceeds the number of projects analysed, as some projects corresponded to more than one category. It should be noted that probably all projects come under the umbrella of ‘awareness campaigns’. Results are shown below. ~ 81 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Table 10 Program type (n = 409) PROGRAM TYPE NUMBER PERCENTAGE OF VALID RESPONSES AWARENESS CAMPAIGN 125 30 SWITCH OFF LIGHTS, APPLIANCES 110 26 APPLIANCE MODIFICATION (TIMERS ETC.) 75 18 BUILDING MODIFICATION (SKYLIGHTS ETC.) 62 15 ADAPTATION (E.G. WEARING A JUMPER) 37 9 Examples of an awareness campaign include: the production of badges, posters, bumper stickers or dramatic performances educating and reminding people to switch unused appliances off. Money was devoted to, among other causes: buying equipment such as lux meters to measure existing light in classrooms; materials and installations, such as skylights, insulation and automatic door closers; purchase of appliances such as cameras to record performances and the like; release from face to face teaching; paying a general assistant to undertake tasks such as replacing all light globes with more environmentally friendly ones; travel for site visits and/or and payment of guest speakers; consumables such as paper and lamination, or prizes and other incentives. Most commonly, the projects involved the following subject areas: English, Human Society and its Environment, Science and Technology, and mathematics in primary school, and Geography Science in the secondary years. As mentioned above, the CCES projects appear to have achieved a high degree of educational efficacy, and have garnered a good deal of interest across the gamut of students, including those with special needs or learning difficulties, and those in gifted and talented or opportunity classes, as well as other non-mainstream students. Features of the projects and program that appear to be attractive, and to contribute to this success, include: Student-centredness. The projects are student-centred, -owned and -driven, in that they invite, indeed demand, responses and initiatives from students; Authenticity. The projects are authentic, practical and ‘real-world’, entailing applications for real funds. The CCES projects are significant and relevant to the lives and futures of students involved; Immediacy of context. The projects seek local solutions to identified local problems, as illustrations of a global issue, as part of a ‘think global, act local’ approach and philosophy; A problem-solving approach. The projects entail identification of a matter to be resolved at school. This results not only in a quest to solve a problem, but, as we have seen from ~ 82 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 discussion of proposals at various schools, the problematising of solutions, with the evaluation of various ways forward. Capacity for service. The projects involve service learning, with its inherent capacity to extend students beyond, themselves, as well as to explore the experiences and perspectives of others, and to develop empathy; Transdisciplinarity. The projects often transcend subject areas, and also venture beyond sustainability matters, developing students’ expertise in literacy, numeracy, team work and advocacy skills among others, as well as engendering higher-order thinking. They are ambiguous and unpredictable in nature, rendering them educationally rich, albeit with the potential problems that can accompany unpredictable teaching/learning experiences. Concrete outcomes. One of these is the success of the grant itself, resulting in the receipt of money. Beyond this, many projects resulted in physical reminders of changed or changing behaviour and attitudes, ranging from advertising posters and stickers, to skylights and appliance timers. We also believe that the program ‘positions itself’ very effectively, with its ostensible rationale of saving money for the school, as much as saving the planet. This fiscal rationale serves to neutralise to some extent the arguments proffered by climate change sceptics or deniers, and establishes common ground and goals, regardless of one’s views on the veracity of climate change. The argument of saving money for the school is a compelling one to put to principals, and to parents who contribute to their children’s education through taxes and perhaps other support. The goal of reducing electricity costs is an attractive, local and measurable one. One Western NSW high school identified an estimated annual energy-related wastage of over $5000.00. A school is an ideal microcosm for young people’s investigation of energy use globally. As intimated above, a number of projects snowballed and took teachers and students in unexpected directions. We add, however, some generic caveats with regard to the project: We believe the approach has much to offer. If overused, however, the approach could lose its current appeal, so we suggest this as a one-off for any particular student. It is not always a straightforward matter to separate CCES outcomes from other, related outcomes, some of which might arguably have happened in any case. This is not necessarily a shortcoming of the projects; arguably it is in fact a virtue. If the projects fit relatively seamlessly into existing programs, this is to their credit. We mention it, however, in order not to ascribe to the projects outcomes that may have occurred in their absence. By definition, these projects in their current form are not sustainable without continued funding. It is possible that savings effected by reduced electricity consumption could be devoted to future projects. Nevertheless, it should be kept in mind that money is not the only currency in this equation. The outcomes relate as much to education, citizenship and sustainability as they do to matters fiscal. We also note that some projects will need little or no ongoing funding, such as the installation of solar panels, appliance timers or skylights. It may be worth bringing this fact to the attention of prospective project leaders. The process is labour intensive, but perhaps no more so than any other suite of teaching/learning activities being planned for the first time. As ideas that have been tried accrue and are made available to new participants, the amount of planning and preparation work should diminish commensurately. While we want to applaud the creativity, energy and ingenuity of the teaching and learning activities that were reported to us, we do offer a few words of caution. There is a risk of ~ 83 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 style over substance, or rhetoric over science. It is our view that the ‘climate sceptics’ are arguably more guilty of the latter (rhetoric over science). This only adds to the mandate not to fall into the same trap, however, particularly with young, impressionable people. Metaphor is an excellent way of linking the unknown to the known, the invisible or the nano- (minute scale) or tera- (immense scale) to the readily observable (Aubusson, Harrison & Ritchie, 2006). Metaphors are inevitably limited, however, and there is always a risk of style displacing substance in any teaching/learning endeavour. Illustrating the above, one school correctly interpreted a declining trend in electricity consumption at school. It may be, however, that in the months from August to November, the last four months depicted in the graph, power usage declined in line with a reduction in heating use, during the southern hemisphere spring season. More broadly, we note that schools, systems and assessment regimes tend to engender a ‘culture of correct answers’. Children have become conditioned to this, and CCES is not immune to it. CCES is to be applauded for its capacity to challenge and transcend this, but this potential, along with the potential complexity of CCES projects, may need to be specifically brought to the attention of teachers and students. Concluding Remarks Suffice it to say that the CCES projects meet many of the criteria associated with effective education, as set out at the beginning of this section. We offer again our congratulations to the teachers, students, regional coordinators and the CCES team. Foster (2006) among others, refers to the so-called triple bottom line: social equity, economic prosperity and environmental quality (p. 126). Subsequently, however, he asserts that, “the environment is always the bottom bottom line” (p. 128, emphasis in original). He continues, “the other two goals, of material prosperity and social justice are important and must be pursued by any civilised society, but there can be no prospect at all of achieving them unless basic survival conditions are met”. Our congratulations extend beyond solely organisational and educational ones. If the majority of scientists are correct, and climate change is real, these students are leading the way in mitigating its causes. References Allen, S. (2007). Joining school communities of practice: Career changer teacher identity.PhD thesis accessed on 22 March 2011, from http://gradworks.umi.com/32/90/3290999.html Australian Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, and Population and Communities (ADSEWPC, 2011). Environmental education for a sustainable future: National action plan. Retrieved on 4 May 2011, from http://www.environment.gov.au/education/publications/nap/principles.html Bamberg S. & Moser G. (2007). Twenty years after Hines, Hungerford and Tomera: A new meta-analysis of psycho-social determinants of pro-environmental behaviour, Journal of Environmental Psychology, 27(volume?) 14-25. Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191215. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: the exercise of control. New York: Freeman. Bridge, J. & Demicco, R. (2008). Earth surface processes, landforms and sediment deposits. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ~ 84 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Chan, W., Lau, S., Nie, Y., Lim, S. and Hogan, D. (2008). Teacher Commitment: The Mediating Role of Teacher Efficacy and Identification With School. American Educational Research Journal, 45(3), 597-630. Dawnay, E. & Shah, H. (2005). Behavioural economics: Seven principles for policy makers, New Economics Foundation, London. DEWHA (2010). Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. Sustainability Curriculum Framework: A guide for curriculum developers and policy makers. Canberra: Australian Government Fien, J. (2004). Education for sustainability. In R. Gilbert (Ed.). Studying society and environment: A guide for teachers. Southbank, Vic: Social Science Press. Pp. 184-200. Foster, J. (2006) Options, sustainability policy and the spontaneous order. Environmental Education Research, 11(1), 115-135. Fullan, M. (2001). The new meaning of educational change. (3rd ed.). New York: Teachers College Press. Grimmett, P. & Crehan, P. (1992). The nature of collegiality in teacher development: The case of clinical supervision. In M. Fullan and A. Hargreaves (Eds.). Teacher development and educational change. Pp. 36-55. Milton Park, UK: RoutledgeFalmer. Hargreaves, A. & Fink, D. (2006). Sustainable leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Hill, S., Wilson, S., & Watson, K. (2004). Learning ecology: A new approach to learning and transforming ecological consciousness: experiences from social ecology in Australia. In E. Sullivan & M. Taylor (Eds.), Learning toward an ecological consciousness: Selected transformative practices (pp. 47–64). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Hoover-Dempsey, K., Bassler, O. & Brissie, J. (1987). Parent Involvement: Contributions of Teacher Efficacy, School Socioeconomic Status, and Other School Characteristics. American Education Research Journal, 24(3), 4178-435. Jackson, T. (2005). Motivating Sustainable Consumption: A review of evidence on consumer behaviour and behavioural change. A report to the Sustainable Development Research Network by the Centre for Environmental Strategy, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey. Jickling, B. (2009). Environmental education research: To what ends? Environmental Education Research, 15(2), 209-216. Kollmuss, A. & Agyeman, J. (2002). Mind the Gap: why do people environmentally and what are the barriers to pro-environmental behaviour? Environmental Education Research, 8(3), 230-260. Littledyke, M. Taylor, N. and Eames, C. (Eds.). (2009). Education for Sustainability in the Primary Curriculum: a guide for teachers. South Yarra, Vic: Palgrave Macmillan. Le Cornu, R. (2008). Building resilience in pre-service teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25(5), 717-723. Reynolds, R. (2009). Geography and education for sustainable development. In R. Reynolds Teaching Studies of Society and Environment in the Primary School. Pp. 109-125. South Melbourne: Oxford University Press. Ross, J. & Gray, P. (2006). Transformational Leadership and Teacher Commitment to Organizational Values: The mediating effects of collective teacher efficacy. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 17(2),179– 199. Skaalvik, S. & Skaalvik, E. (2010). Teacher self-efficacy and teacher burnout: A study of relations. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24(4), 1059-1069. Stern, P. (2000). "Toward a Coherent Theory of Environmentally Significant Behaviour." Journal of Social Issues 56(3): 407-424. Tschannen-Moran, M., & Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2001). Teacher efficacy: Capturing an elusive construct. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17, 783-805. NSW DET (2009). Resources for teachers 2010: Climate Clever Energy Savers. NSW: DET NSW. NSW DET (2001). Environmental education policy for schools. New South Wales: NSW DET Curriculum and Support Directorate. Purnell, K., Sinclair, M. & Gralton, A. (2004). Sustainable schools: Making energy efficiency a lifestyle opportunity. Paper presented at the Effective Sustainability Education: What works? Why? Where next? Linking Research and Practice Conference, Sydney, Australia, 18-20 February 2004. Summers, M., Childs, A. & Corney, G. (2005). Education for sustainable development in initial teacher training: issues for interdisciplinary collaboration. Environmental Education Research, 11(5), 624 - 647. ~ 85 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 UNESCO (2004). Bonn Declaration. Retrieved on May 13 2011, fromhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.phpURL_ID=26967&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html Ware, H. & Kitsantas, A. (2007). Teacher and Collective Efficacy Beliefs as Predictors of Professional Commitment. The Journal of Educational Research, 100(5), 303-310. Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning and identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ~ 86 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Real-Time E-Learning System: “A Tool for Students Population Decongestion in Nigeria Public Higher Institutions of Learning” (A Case Study of Yaba College of Technology,Nigeria) M.K. Ladipo Yaba College of Technology, Lagos Nigeria I.K. Oyeyinka Center for information Technology and Management, Yaba College of Technology, Lagos Nigeria N.A. Yekini Department of Computer Technology, Yaba College of Technology, Lagos Nigeria Doi:10.5901/mjss.2012.v3n13p87 Abstract The focus of this research work was to develop a sustainable real-time e-learning system with the contents to be delivered via the Internet using online real-time processing techniques. We present the conceptual framework of the model of real-time e-learning system to reduce congestion in Nigeria higher institutions using Yaba College of Technology as a case study. The system if developed and implemented, it will decongest the population of students in our higher institutions, hence reduce or eliminate the problems associated with students population congestion in our schools. Keywords: E-Learning, Higher Institutions, Students, Population Decongestion, and Online Real-Time Processing Introduction There are more than 18 million students in Nigerian schools at all levels. That is more than the total human population of South Africa, Ghana, Kenya, Egypt, Morocco, Tanzania and the school population of France, Britain and Spain. While literacy rate stands at about 50 per cent, one of the highest in Africa, the goal of Nigeria is to eradicate illiteracy in the shortest time possible (www.nigeriatoday.com). E-learning comprises all forms of electronically supported learning and teaching. The information and communication systems, whether networked learning or not, serve as specific media to implement the learning process (Tavangarian D., et al.). The term will still most likely be utilized to reference out-of-classroom and in-classroom educational experiences via technology, even as advances continue in regard to devices and curriculum. E-learning is essentially the computer and network-enabled transfer of skills and knowledge. E-learning applications and processes include Web-based learning, computer-based learning, virtual education opportunities and digital collaboration. Content is delivered via the Internet, intranet/extranet, audio or video ~ 87 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 tape, satellite TV, and CD-ROM. It can be self-paced or instructor-led and includes media in the form of text, image, animation, streaming video and audio. E-Learning is convenient and portable – Kerman (2004) is of the view that online learning does not need physical attendance. Learning is self-spaced. One can study at home, work or on the road, one can read materials online or download them for reading later. Adebola (2008) stated that people no longer necessarily go to the library to obtain information or knowledge because internet are now available to the user at his/her home, office and cyber café centers. Greater Collaboration – Technology tools make collaboration among academicians much easier. Borofield and Akinyede (2005) maintained that since many researches or projects involve collaborative learning, the online environment is far easier and often much comfortable to work in since learners do not have to be in face-to-face setting. This will widen the intellectual horizon of the adult educator with relative ease. Increased Access – With e-learning, adult educators of highest caliber can share their knowledge across borders allowing students or learners to attend courses across physical, political and economic boundaries. Recognized experts also have the opportunity of making information available internationally to anyone interested at minimum cost. (Borofield and Akinyede, 2005). To eradicate illiteracy, there is needed to make quality education avoidable and accessible to citizenry at little or no cost. Educating people in densely populated classes which is not conducive for learning cannot provide an avenue for eradication of illiteracy in Nigeria within shortest time if care is not taken. Some school leavers in Nigeria today are still illiterate in one way or the other due to condition in which they are been taught. The population of students in Nigeria higher institutions has directly or indirectly contributed to the following problems in our higher institutions of learning: Quality of graduates, Cultism and gangsters, quality of research, ranking, stamped, indecent dressing etc. The focus of this research work is to develop a real-time e-learning system with the content to be delivered via the Internet. The system if developed and implemented, it will decongest the population of students in our higher institutions, hence reduce or eliminate the problems associated with students population congestion in our schools. We present a literature survey that covered some areas that directly or indirectly related to our paper title in section 2 of this paper. In section 3 of this paper we present methodology and research framework which is focused on data collection, analysis, results and finding. In section 4, we presents, the proposed real-time e-learning system model and we discuses it usage and benefits to Nigeria educational system and Nigeria at large. In section 5, we present the recommendation and conclusion. Major research question: To what extent can e-learning be deployed to decongest student’s population in Nigeria higher institution? Literature Survey Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board The Joint Admissions and Matriculations Board (JAMB) is Nigeria's official entrance examination board for tertiary-level institutions. The examinations being administered are available for most students who choose to apply to Nigerian public and private monotechnics, polytechnics, and universities. Most of these candidates must already have concluded their external examinations, administered either by the West African Examinations Council (WAEC) or the Nigerian National Examinations Council (NECO). By 1974, there were seven federal universities in the country. Every ~ 88 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 one of these existing universities conducted its own concessional examination and admitted its students. However, this system of admission revealed serious limitations and quite often wastes of resources in the process of administering the concessional examination, especially on the part of the candidates. The general untidiness in the uncoordinated system of admissions into universities and the attendant problems were sufficient cause for concern to the committee of vice chancellors. In the 2009 University Matriculation Exam, the grading system of the normally reputable examination body was subject to serious controversy when the overall performance was one of the poorest on records. Much to JAMB's embarrassment, it was later revealed that the machines which optically graded the papers had erroneous answers and the JAMB changed some student’s scores by as much as 15% (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_Admissions_and_Matriculation_Board). Relationship Of The Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board with Tertiary Institutions The enabling law of the Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board recognizes the importance of the Tertiary Institutions in the discharge of the Board’s responsibilities. Tertiary Institutions at very high level of their Chief Executives are represented on the Governing Board. The law is emphatic on the collaboration of the Board with tertiary institutions in the placement of suitably qualified. Many tertiary institutions staff serves the Board in the areas of syllabi development, item writing, item moderation, coordination and supervision of the matriculation examination (JAMB Annual Reports, 2000) Requirements for Admission General guidelines for admission into the Nation’s tertiary institutions are contained in a brochure which provides detailed information on courses and entry requirements which include: i. Five ‘O’ level credit passes in relevant subjects including English and Mathematics particularly for science and social sciences while mathematics may be required at an ordinary pass level for Arts students. ii. Four credit ‘O’ level passes in relevant subjects for Monotechnics, Polytechnics and Colleges of Education. iii. The candidates must equally score the minimum cut-off marks for the desired course of study. The cut-off marks for selection vary from one institution to another depending on the competitive nature of the desired course of study (Guidelines for Admissions into Monotechnics, Polytechnics and Colleges of Education, 2010/2011). Problems in Higher Institutions of Learning in Nigeria That Can Be Eliminate Or Reduce Through Population Decongestion Cult Activities: The institutions of higher learning which ought to be ideal places for the training of minds have become war zones where cult groups unleash their terror in the community. Fajana (1999) enumerated some of the menace of the secret cults in our institutions of higher learning thus: Illegal possession of firearms; ~ 89 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Drug abuse Violent crimes like armed robbery Illicit sexual escapades Killing of innocent students, academic and non-academic staff Arson, rape, extortion, threats, physical attacks, blackmail and other inhuman practices. Indecent Appearance: Indecent appearance has come to characterize the dress pattern of many students on the campuses of higher learning in Nigeria. There is hardly any higher institution of learning in this country that is not faced with this nauseating problem. The way students on these campuses of learning particularly, the female ones, dress seductively leaves much to be desired. What the girls call skirts that they wear is just a one inches longer than their pants. When they put on such dresses, they struggle to sit down, find difficulty in climbing machines, cross gutters as well as pick anything from the ground. Apart from the skimpy and tight fitting nature of these dresses, they are again transparent; revealing certain parts of the bodies that under normal dressing patterns ought to be hidden away from the glare of people (Indecent Dressing On Campuses Of Higher Institutions Of Learning retrieved march 28 2012) Research Methodology And Framework A case study was chosen as the preferred research method for this study- case study is Yaba College of Technology. The choice of this case study is based on its Location, demand for admission by the prospective students year by year and status as the first higher institution in the federal republic of Nigeria. Yaba College of technology is a unique center of learning which prepares people for the world of work; it is an environment for teaching and learning as well as research and development; Yaba College of technology has over 15,000 students population, 8 faculties, 34 academic department which cut across ND, HND and post HND levels (M.K. Ladipo 2011) The research framework is based on collection of data by inspection of records and visitation to newly completed and ongoing projects within the college. Data obtained were presented in both figure and text. Data obtained were presents as follows: Table 1: Data on Students Admission Request: Source from CITM Yaba College of Technology YEAR PS NQ NNQ NA YEAR 2007 12,000 8400 3,600 1092 YEAR 2008 19,000 13300 5,700 1729 YEAR 2009 23004 16102.8 6,901 2093 YEAR 2010 27,008 18905.6 8,102 2457 YEAR 2011 31012 21708.4 9,304 2822 ~ 90 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Figure 1: Table 1 Converted to a Chart, where PS = prospective students, NQ = Number qualified, NNQ = Number Not Qualified and NA = Number Admitted. 2. Data on Resources a) S/N Human resources Academic staff Training & Development between 2008 and 2011 Name Nature Of Training Institution University Of Ibadan. Nigeria University Of Ibadan. Nigeria Department & School Cost Science 1,500,000 Engineering 1,500,000 Liberal Studies Environmental Studies 1,050,000 Art And Printing 5,170,462.50 1 Adewoye Sunkanmi O Ph.D Mathematics 2 Olowofoyeku Adeoye Ph.D Civil Engineering 3 Flavian Obasi J. University Of Lagos 4 Olatunde Aremu 5 Balogun O Emanuel Ph. D English Ph.D Environmental Planning MA Design (Fashion And Design) 6 Yekinafei Nureni A MSc Computer University Of Lagos Technology 700,000 7 Adiigun J.0 M.Phil/Ph. D University Of Ibadan Technology 1,500,000 8 Nzekwe Nwachukwu Ph. D Ionospheric University Of Ibadan Science 1,500,000 9 Owoso J. O. Ph. D Chemistry Science 1,500,000 10 Folorunso Olufemi Ph. D Chemistry Technology 5,328,019 11 Ogunleye Christopher Art And Printing 4,668,500 12 Biotidara O.F. Phd Textile Science Resrach/Benchwork Chemistry University Of Ibadan University Of Technology Malaysia Nelson Mandela University Tswane University Of Tech South Africa Technology 5,000,000 University Of Ibadan Winchester School Of Art Uk ~ 91 ~ 1,500,000 ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences 13 Mukaila Olawuyi MSc Public Health 14 Ashiru Abiodun 15 Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Medical 2,208,020 PhD Micro Biology University Of Malasia Olabisi Onanbanjo University Ago Iwoye Science 1,500,000 Ojiodu Chukwuba Ph.D Chemistry University Of Benin Science 1,500,000 16 Omolabi Abimbola MPhil Geography University Of Ibadan Environmental 700,000 17 Abiona Olaleye MPhil Civil Engineering Engineering 700,000 18 Irokanulo Emanuel PhD Printing University Of Ibadan Armada Bello University Zaria Art And Printing 1,050,000 19 Ndubuisi C. C. University Of Lagos Art And Printing 1,050,000 20 Badmus Ismaila PhD Creative Art MPhil Mech Engineering University Of Ibadan Engineering 700,000 21 Ogunremi Ayorinde MPhil Physics University Of Ibadan Science 700,000 22 Oladosu Olakunle 700,000 Akanbi Olusayo O. Environmental 9,983,750 24 Ibrahim Adedotun Engineering 9,250,380 25 Fakolujo Olaniyi University Of Ibadan University Of Central Lancanshire Uk Okayama University Japan University Of Ottawa Canada Technology 23 MSc Computer Ph.D Built and Natural Environment PhD Industrial Innovation Science PhD Advance Material and Manufacture Engineering 13,550,000 26 Oluwolinge Catering MSc Printing University Of Ibadan Art And Printing 700,000 b) Data on Infrastructure Resources Data here are present in figures: It includes the various completed and ongoing project between 2008 and 2012. Figure 1: Just completed new school of Science with several classrooms, laboratory and staff offices. ~ 92 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Figure 2: Completed 5 stories building named ETF building with several classrooms, lecture theater and staff offices. Figure 3: Completed EDP center, where students acquire knowledge practical knowledge on entrepreneurship development ~ 93 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Figure 4: Just Completed multimillion Naira Computer Laboratory for Practical computer Training for students and Staff Figure 5: Ongoing multipurpose 12 stories building, first of it is type in the history of Nigeria polytechnics and colleges of technology. ~ 94 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Figure 6: Completed foundry Laboratory, lecture rooms and staff offices; extension of school of engineering. Figure 7: Ongoing multipurpose stories building, with several classrooms, lecture theater and staff offices. Figures 1- 7, show the ongoing and completed infrastructure within Yaba college of Technology between year 2008 and 2009. These projects illustrate the holistic approach by the management of YCT to improve and upgrade the infrastructure within the college based on the financial resource available and accessible. The buildings shown in the figure are made up of classrooms, lecture theatre, offices, laboratory and workshops, administrative offices etc. when all the project are completed it will help in all ramification to provide conducive learning environment for both staff and students in the college, increase the carrying capacity for the college i.e. more students shall be admitted, and decongest the students populations in some classes and lecture room. Results Analysis and Findings From table 1, the analysis of the results indicated the population of the prospective students increases year by year and more qualified prospective students are been denied admission in our higher institutions of learning. This is due to non availability of space and some other learning resources, where some of the resources are available the number of students are more than it, thereby leading to over use of the resources and this can affect teaching and learning negatively. It was discovered that the current population of students in the college is more compared to the available resources because as at the time of compiling this work, Yaba College of technology has over 15,000 students population, 8 faculties, 34 academic department which cut across ND, HND and post HND levels (M.K. Ladipo 2011). Consequent to that; the available resources is currently been over utilized and this can result to decline of quality of education at large. From table 2, we discovered that management of Yaba College of technology through ETF (educational trust fund) have spent sum of seventy-nine millions, eight hundred sixty eight thousand and eight ~ 95 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 hundred eight one naira (79,868,881 million naira) for academic staff training and development AS&D between 2008 and 2011. We discovered that management of Yaba College of technology is also doing everything possible in areas of physical infrastructures. The content of figures 1 – 7 is a good testimony to this assertion. Meanwhile all this efforts been put together are not enough to control the population of the students seeking for admission in our higher institution, as a result there is urgent need for alternative means of teaching and learning to accommodate more students in our schools so that literacy level in Nigeria will rise. Based on the result and findings by the authors of this paper we then present the model of elearning system for decongestion of the student’s population in our higher institutions of learning. If the proposed system is design an implemented, this will help not only in decongesting the population of students but will also improve the quality of education and made available human resources towards moving Nigeria forward. Overview of Proposed Real-Time E-Learning System The model of the proposed system by the authors of this research work is as shown in figure 8. The proposed system work as follows: The students (registered students) log in to the system with the username and password generated when he/she registered as student through the college portal. If the student is authenticated he/she can then proceed to use the e-learning system by taking any of the following activities; View, download or printing of School calendar/time-table Access Yaba Tech Digital Library Online lectures/classroom Online exams for mid semester exams only Check his/her results Student forum (register club and society) We proposed that the management of the college operate partial campus-based elearning system; in this case the students operate the same calendar with fully campus based students. These categories of students start their own semester exam in their various departments immediately the full campus-based students finish their own semester exam and vacate the college on semester break. The reason for this is to make sure that the online students are not ghost students, and for them to have interaction with the college at large. Recommendations It is highly recommended that: Government should estatablished e-learning policy that will be cost effective and easy to use by the citizens, should divert more fund on ICT infrastructure, intensify effort to improve the state of electricity supply and training of personnel so that e-learning will be more acceptable, convenient and durable in Nigeria, government should harness the use of our satellites in space to improve the speed of computer network to true broadband and citizens should brace up to understand the positive impact of the e-learning policy, so that they can embrace it, for their own good. ~ 96 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 L o g in to A c c e s s e -le a rn in g s y s te m T im e -T a b le O n lin e L e c tu re S c h o ll T T S chool D ept TT D ept E xam T T O n lin e e x a m ( o n ly fo r C h e c k R e s u lt c o u rs e w o rk) L o g in S e m e s te r YCT DIGITAL LIBRARY DISCUSSION FORUM E xam C o u rs e w o rk A tte m p t Q u e s tio n s V irtu a l c la s s ro o m E n d L e c tu re s u b m it R e s u lt c o u rs e w o rk R e s u lt S e m e s te r Figure 8: The model of the proposed system Conclusion An e-learning system is a welcome idea in this modern day life, because the use of ICT and computer based learning has become an established and popular alternative to teaching learning, resources and development. It is then advisable for government at all level to embrace this policy due to the population congestion in our public schools and citizenry eagerness to acquiring degree in one discipline or others. This paper mentioned some problems associated directly and indirectly to students population congestion in our higher institutions of learning such as; Quality of graduates, Cultism and gangsters, quality of research, ranking, stamped, indecent dressing etc. An e-learning system Model was proposed which, if implemented in a proper manner, can engender a perfect accessibility of education to all citizenry thereby result to high literacy rate in our country Nigeria, and students can choose between campus based learning or e-learning system in future, ~ 97 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 which will improve our educational system and reduce tension on our infrastructure and human resources. References Adebola, H.E. (2008). The Relevance and Consequences of Internet Browsing Among Youths in Selected Tertiary Institutions in Nigeria. International Journal of Development Studies. 6(1). Borofield, R.A. and Akinyede, J.O. (2005). Space Technology and Development in Africa and the Nigeria’s Experience. Abuja: Regent Printing and Publishing Limited. Fajana, F. (1999). The menace of secret cults on campuses. National Concord. Monday, September 2000. Guidelines for Admissions into Monotechnics, Polytechnics and Colleges of Education, 2010/2011: JAMB brochure. Indecent Dressing On Campuses Of Higher Institutions Of Learning http://projectstoc.com/read/97/indecent-dressing-on-campuses-of-higher-institutions-of-learning-in-nigeriaimplications-for-counseling Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board historical perspective: (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_Admissions_and_Matriculation_Board): retrieve March 13, 2012. Joint Admissions and Matriculations Board (JAMB): Annual Reports, 2000. Kerman, L. (2004). Convenience of Online Education Attracts Mid-career students. Chronicle of Philanthropy. 16(6). Ladipo M.K. (2011). Yaba College of Technology; Student Handbook, Oluabbey Modern Press, Lagos Nigeria Nigeria Leadership in Education: http://www.nigeriatoday.com/basic_facts_about_nigeria.htm; retrieved April 9, 2012. Tavangarian, D., Leypold M., Nolting K., Roser M.,(2004). E-learning the Solution for Individual Learning Journal of e-learning, 2004. ~ 98 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Nutritional Status of Children Less Than Five Year Old Suffering Anemia and Night Blindness in Khartoum State, Sudan Samir Mohamed Ali Hassan Alredaisy Department of Geography, University of Khartoum, Omdurman, Sudan Haram Omer El Hag Saeed Ministry of Health, Gezira State, Rufaa Nutrition and Maternity Office, Sudan Doi:10.5901/mjss.2012.v3n13p99 Abstract This work investigates nutritional status of children less than five year old suffering anemia and night blindness in Khartoum State with particular emphasis to three central children hospitals in Khartoum, Khartoum north and Omdurman. The sample size was 138 children determined by 10% rate of prevalence of nutritional deficiency diseases among children living in Khartoum State, and distributed proportionally according to the number of children suffering these two diseases in each hospital. In addition, hemoglobin and anthropometric measurements were done. Results depict that, physical symptoms of anemia are loss of appetite (7878%), paleness (5.79%), exhaust, and eating clay (95%), while for night blindness they were xerophthalmia (20%); Pinot spots (52%); karatomalacia (12%), and Cornea ulceration (4%). Acute malnutrition constituted 63% of cases of children suffering anemia and night blindness. Children suffering anemia and night blindness distributed among different age groups have very low percent of hemoglobin concentration below 60% standard, confirming for prevalence of Iron deficiency anemia. Malnutrition was highest among children aged 1-3 year old, and females are less malnourished compared to males. There was low energy (calories), Iron and Vitamin A levels of intake among these children. Some recommendations were suggested to reduce anemia and night blindness among children in Khartoum State. Keywords: Anemia, night blindness, malnutrition, Khartoum State Introduction Nutrition deficiency diseases are worldwide spreading. In Sudan, one child out of ten dies before completing five years due to these diseases (UNICEF, 2008). Malnutrition due to micro nutrients deficiency (hidden hunger) represents the most prevailing form of nutrition deficiency diseases where more than two billions are suffering from it in the world; in addition to more than 250,000 children are affected by night blindness every year and more than half dies approximately (UNICEF, 2008). In Sudan, the estimated rate of prevalence of hidden hunger is 4.8% while the rate of anemia (iron deficiency anemia) for children less than five years old is about 55.1% (National Ministry of Health, 2008; World Health Organization, 2009). In Khartoum State, anemia due to Iron deficiency is distributed as 76% in Khartoum town, 75.3% in Khartoum north town, and 23.9% in Omdurman town (National Ministry of Health, 2008; World Health Organization, 2009). However, nutritional deficiency diseases as causes of death during early childhood, have contributed by around 51% among overall causes of death during this period (UNICEF, 2008). ~ 99 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Areas nutritionally insecure in Sudan include rural areas of low crop and animal production; areas of low purchasing power and education and knowledge; and areas of low access to health facilities, in addition to areas with low access to water especially during dry season (Cambrez et al., 1998; FAO/WFP, 2006). Nutrition insecurity leads to protein – energy malnutrition. Nutrition status is measured directly by dietary surveys, biochemical data, and anthropometric and clinical examination methods. While food adequacy is necessary for a household to achieve nutrition security, but it is not in itself sufficient. This is because some other key contributors to good nutrition are also important, such as poverty reduction, female education and a healthy environment. This paper objects to investigate nutritional status of children less than five year old suffering anemia and night blindness in Khartoum State and to propose some recommendations to reduce their incidence. Methodology Data collection The fieldwork took place in February 2009 through to February 2012 in central pecialized children hospitals in each of the three towns, including Ga’far Bin Oaf Hospital in Khartoum, Child Emergency Outpatient of Omdurman Hospital, and Ahmad Grasim Hospital in Khartoum north. A questionnaire was designed to collect relevant nutritional data of children suffering anemia and night blindness, as well clinical data on symptoms of anaemia and night blindness. To estimate the sample size, based on that rate of prevalence of nutritional deficiency diseases in Khartoum State which is 10% (Khartoum State, Ministry of Health 2009), the following formula is used:- 𝑛= 𝑍 2 𝑃𝑞 𝑑2 n = sample size; Z = 1.96; P = prevalence rate of nutritional deficiency diseases; q = 1 – P; d = 0.05 The 10% prevalence rate of nutritional deficiency diseases in Khartoum State is used to get q which gave 138 individuals, as follows: 𝑛= 𝑛= 3.8416×(0.9) (0.05)2 = (1.96)2 × (1 − 0.1) (0.05)2 3.8416 ×0.9 0.0025 = 138 To determine the share of each Hospital from this sample size, the equation of distribution in proportion to size of population (children suffering nutritional deficiency diseases) in each hospital is used, as follows: Cases of malnutrition in Khartoum (15628 = ~ 100 ~ 111 × 18265 30114 =32 ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Cases of malnutrition in Khartoum north (12602) = 111 × 16216 30114 Cases of malnutrition in Omdurman (20773) = 111 × 61004 30114 = 26% = 42% The total cases of malnutrition in Khartoum State = 49003 The share of each town (hospital) of the sample size is determined as: Khartoum = 145 × 46 111 = 44 Khartoum north = 145 × 62 111 = 36 Omdurman = 145 × 36 111 =58 Before conducting the fieldwork, anemia and night blindness were determined by testing blood samples of the sick children which is executed by Technicians working in each of the three hospitals, and by one of the authors. In addition, files of sick children were used. Symptoms of anemia and night blindness were specified by Doctors during their routine rounds in the hospital. Following that, the questionnaires were filled with mothers of the sick children whom were chosen purposively. Hemoglobin measurement was done by Colorimeter, by taking 20 micro millimeter of the blood of the 138 sick children in a test tube, and 4 milliliter of Drabakin was added with 14.8 15 gram/deciliter concentration and fully mixed, left for five minutes to be read by Colorimeter. This gave that: Hemoglobin gm/Deciliter X 6.8 (constant factor) = Hemoglobin % Anthropometric measurements are done using Salter’s scale to measure weight versus age for all the 138 children to determine their nutritional status. The nutritional status index of weight versus age is a quick and accurate method to determine the nutritional status of children less than five year old. The evaluation of the nutritional status of children less than five year old was done using tables of estimation of rate for children less than five year old which is published by World Health Organization. The most indexes used to measure body to estimate nutritional status is weight for age index. Taking the measurement of weight is easier compared to measuring height and enable for more precision. Therefore, this measure is used into observing gradual growth in body volume and organs and helps into detection of early malnutrition. Food weight measurement was also done which weights for 3 kilograms (electronic scale) to measure the amount of food consumed during the day. To determine average of energy, protein, iron and Vitamin consumed relative to the size of the household, children under study were divided into age groups including less than one year, 1-3 years, and 4-6 years; and -1 year + 1-3 years, -1 year + 4-6 years, (1-3)+(4-6) years and another age group including all age classes of 1 year + (1-3) + (4-6) years. This classification facilitates comparison between food consumption according to age groups of children less than five year old. Nutrients intake were calculated using food composition ~ 101 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 tables for population in Sudan, provided by Sukar (1985). Conditions for rejection included all children transferred from other States of Sudan hospitals during fieldwork, and the study has restricted to those who live permanently in Khartoum State during the time of fieldwork. The data was statistically analyzed to calculate frequencies, percentages and Chi – square test. The Study Area Khartoum States consists of the three towns of Khartoum, Khartoum north and Omdurman (Fig.1). Rate of population increase in Greater Khartoum was 4.92 in 1956, 7.76 in 1973, 8.75 in 1983, and 13.7 in 1993 (MFEP 1956–1993). The number of persons per square kilometer was 55.6 persons in 1973, 85.5 in 1983 and 169 in 1993. In addition Khartoum state accepted 39% of internal migration of the country in 1983 and 45% in 1993 (MFEP 1956 – 1993). This population increase is reflected in the expansion of informal squatter areas (El Bushra, 1995) and consequently higher demand for public services. Fig.1. location of the three hospitals under study in Khartoum State Results Symptoms of anemia and night blindness Physical symptoms of anemia are loss of appetite (7878%), paleness (5.79%), exhaust, eating clay (95%) and snow (975%). The symptoms of night blindness are night blindness (12%); xerophthalmia (20%); Pinot spots (52%); karatomalacia (12%), and Cornea ulceration (4%). Hemoglobin measurement for children suffering night blindness (Table1) revealed that children aged 1-3 year old have less hemoglobin concentration compared to those aged less than one year and 3-5 years old who have equal concentration of hemoglobin. This means that children aged 1-3 year old suffers Iron deficiency anemia compared to the two other two groups. This contrasts children suffering anemia, where children aged 1-3 and 3-5 year old are almost have equal concentration of hemoglobin which exceeds that for children aged less than one year old who might differ ~ 102 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 significantly than the previous two age groups. This means that, children -1 year old are more anemic compared to those aged 1-3, and 3-5 year old. The general striking feature of distribution of night blindness and anemia among these three age groups is that, each age group has acquired ⅓ of incidence of a disease and the differences might be quite minor. The distribution of children suffering night blindness by sex by percent of hemoglobin concentration (Table 1) depicts males to have higher level than females, which is also applicable to anemia. However, the differences might not be significant. Children suffering anemia and night blindness distributed among different age groups have very low percent of hemoglobin concentration below 60% standard, confirming for prevalence of Iron deficiency anemia. Table 1: Hemoglobin range measurement (%) among childrensuffering anemia and night blindness by age and by sex Age / sex Night blindness Anemia frequency % frequency % -1 year 3 37 31 32.2 1-3years 18 34.8 73 38.8 3-5 years 4 37 9 39.1 Males 60 43.5 15 10.9 Female 53 38.4 10 7.2 Total 113 81.9 25 18.1 Anthropometric measurements Table 2 depicts state of malnutrition as indicative by weight of children. Acute malnutrition prevails with significant difference than the other three types of malnutrition shown in the table. The difference between normal and simple types of malnutrition is quite small. Acute malnutrition is a reflection of low nutritional status which makes children vulnerable to childhood diseases. The distribution of rate of malnutrition by age groups of these children suffering anemia and night blindness (Table 3), identified the highest rate among those aged 1-3 year old, followed by -1 year old and lastly by those aged 3-5 year old. This means that acute malnutrition remarkably prevails among children aged 1-3 year old, and significantly differ than the other two age groups, and furthermore, the difference between children aged -1 year old and children aged 3-5 year old is more than doubled. The distribution of malnutrition by sex by age distinguishes males first and then females. Females and males aged 1-3 year are most suffering. However, females are generally less malnourished than males with difference of 8.6% between them (Table 3). ~ 103 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Table 2: malnutrition among children less than 5 year old in Khartoum State Malnutrition state frequency % Normal 11 8.0 simple 13 9.4 Medium 27 19.6 Acute 87 63.0 total 13 100.0 Table 3: Malnutrition by sex by age Age / sex sex total Males frequency -1 year 1-3years 3-5 years total % Females frequency % frequency % 87 8. 81 8871 .3 9371 38 .378 3. .879 59 197. 89 879 3 975 83 8978 89 937. 1. 3978 8.7 899 Nutritional status of mothers during pregnancy and lactation Table 4 depicts types of food intake during pregnancy and lactation. During pregnancy, mothers used to consume vegetables, fruits, milk, cereals, meat, and legumes abundantly. They also depend on porridge with sauce; salad and yogurt which are connected with likes and dislikes of pregnant women. Lactating mothers largely depend on vegetables, legumes, meat, cereals, milk, and fruits + sweet porridge which are nutritionally valuable providing protein, energy, iron, minerals, and vitamins. There is no noticeable difference in food types during pregnancy and lactation, except the introduction of sweet porridge. Sweet porridge is a mixture of cereals, sugar, oil, and ghee which activates producing much milk for lactating children. Traditional porridge is made by boiling cereals (Dura or Dukhn), and usually taken with sauce or milk. Sauce is a mixture of vegetables, meat, oil, and spices. In addition, cereals are fermented and cooked to produce traditional bread (Kisra). Table 5 depicts that, the majority of mothers did not take preventive or curative doses of Vitamin A during pregnancy. This situation is somehow reversed concerning Iron and Fevol. Folic acid recorded the worst position among these four protective elements. This makes mothers and new born infants vulnerable to many childhood diseases. However, this situation might be milder when putting into consideration that 61% of the mothers have been vaccinated, 32% partially vaccinated, and only 7% were not vaccinated. ~ 104 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Table 4: types of foods during pregnancy and lactation (%) Types of foods Pregnancy (%) Lactation (%) Porridge with sauce 20.3 0.0 Salad 10.9 0.0 Salad with yogurt 9.4 0.0 Vegetables, legumes, meat, cereals, milk, and fruits 56.4 18.1 Vegetables, legumes, meat, cereals, milk, and fruits+ sweet porridge total 0.0 81.9 100 100 Table 5: Preventive and curative elements taken during pregnancy among mothers of children suffering anemia and night blindness in Khartoum State Do you take these elements? Vitamin A preventive frequency Iron Curative % frequency others Curative Folic Acid Fevol % frequency % frequency % frequency % Yes 16 11.6 4 2.9 47 34.1 2 2.9 29 21 No 118 85.5 118 85.5 91 65.9 134 97.1 109 79.0 total 134 97.1 122 88.4 138 100 138 100 138 100 Nutritional budget of children suffering anemia and night blindness The majority of households depend on fathers (63.8%) for food provisioning, while few households depend on mothers (10.1%), or relatives (26.1%). The majority of the mothers (61.6%) perceive that breast feeding is important and prevents childhood diseases, while some others (38.4%) ignore that. However, 97.1% of the mothers used to breast feed their sick children after three days following their delivery. The average period of breast feeding is eleven months. Mothers who did not breast feed their children; have attributed that to death of a mother (25%), infection of mother with tuberculosis or psychiatric diseases (50%), or the child being sick (25%). During the early 6 months of a new born baby, 89.9% of the mothers used to breast feed their children and give supplementary food, while few mothers (7.2%) depend solely on breast feeding, and still very few mothers (2.9%) wholly depend on supplementary food. During the second half of the first year of a child (6 - 12 months), very few mothers (0.41%) depend on breast feeding as the main source of feeding their children, while 87.7% of them combine breast feeding with supplementary food, and 10.9% give their children supplementary food only. This means that, the majority of mothers did not change their behavioral pattern of feeding their children throughout the first year of a child life. However, children prefer biscuits (14.3%), soft drinks (25.4%), and chips (12.3%), juice (9.4%), cakes (5.8%), and sweets (8.6%) as supplementary food types. This indicates to shift from traditional food types to read made food among urban households. The majority of children (63.8%) take three meals a day, 21.9% take four meals a day, 2.9% take more than four ~ 105 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 meals a day, and 11.6% take two meals a day. More numbers of meals does not necessarily mean more amounts of food given to a child as mothers have used to distribute a child meal within a day hours. The majority of the households’ members shares the same dish (84.8%), or eats separately (15.2%). Table 6 depicts average daily intake of energy, protein, iron, and vitamin A among children suffering anemia and night blindness. From the table, children aged less than one year old ranked first in energy intake compared to other two groups of 1-3, and 4-6 year old. Taking two age groups of children together, children aged -1 year old + 4 - 6 year old ranked first and followed by those aged -1 + 1- 3 year, with very small difference between them. The general average intake of energy for the three age groups reveals low energy (calories) intake among children aged less than five year old in Khartoum State. Taking daily protein intake by age group of these sick children, children aged less than 1 year old ranked first, followed by 4-6 year old, and lastly 1- 3 year old. Taking two age groups together, had ranked children aged -1 year old + 4-6 year old first, and those aged -1 + 1- 3 year old second, while children aged 1-3 + 4-6 came lastly. The general average intake of protein for the three age groups reveals low protein intake among children aged less than five year old in Khartoum State. Moreover, ranking daily intake of iron by age groups of these sick children puts children aged -1 year old first, 4-6 year second, and 1-3 year old last. There is slight difference in daily iron intake when two age groups of children are taken together. This is more particular to children in the age groups of -1 + 1- 3 and 1-3 + 4-6 year old. The general average of daily iron intake depicts very low level among these children. This picture is also seen when daily intake of Vitamin A is taken into consideration. Average daily intake of energy, protein, iron, and vitamin A by age groups of children suffering anemia and night blindness had identified children aged less than one year as the most advantageous group compared to the other two groups. In addition, the general average of each of these nutrients is far below the recommended level for children to remain healthy in Arica and Sudan. Table 6: average daily intake of energy, protein, iron, vitamin A by age among children suffering anemia and night blindness Table Age groups No. Energy (calorie) Protein (g) Iron (milligram) Vitamin (microgram) A -1 99 8898878 .9179 9.71 89.578 1-3 89. 79397. 93778 3979 79779 4-6 891 589171 98573 3978 58578 -1 + 1- 3 11 938179 89979 9978 9.373 -1 + 4-6 83 93737. 89578 9179 1.775 1-3 + 4-6 881 359971 83979 9978 31977 -1 + 1-3 +4-6 81 .88973 89178 8879 .1173 7 depicts average hemoglobin measurement by age groups of children by daily intake of animal and plant protein. Highest measurement of hemoglobin among children aged less than one year old is coincided with highest levels of animal and plant protein intake. This is similarly seen among ~ 106 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 children aged 4-6 year old. Taking two age groups together had ranked children aged -1 + 4 - 6 year old first, and followed by children aged -1 + 1-3 year old children, with very small difference between them. Increasing hemoglobin is associated with increasing protein, confirming for better nutritional status of these children. However, the general average of hemoglobin, as well as the general average of both types of protein is far below the recommended levels for children to remain healthy. The fact here is that, an increase in consumption of legumes will reduce Iron absorption due to Fianite and Vitamin C which reduces blood hemoglobin. Table 7: average hemoglobin measurement (%) and daily intake of animal and plant protein among children suffering anemia and night blindness by age groups Age groups No. hemoglobin Animal protein Plant protein -1 99 .5798 888739 989799 1-3 89. .8719 5.779 893759 4-6 891 ..719 57795 878789 -1 + 1- 3 11 85799 37715 891759 -1 + 4-6 83 8578. 99738 898739 1-3 + 4-6 881 81719 35798 59783 -1 + 1-3 +4-6 81 89739 ..778 89759 Discussion The investigation of nutritional status of children suffering anemia and night blindness in Khartoum State suggests low hemoglobin rate; inadequate food intake and prevalence of malnutrition by age and sex with major and minor differences. Males suffering anemia and night blindness are more malnourished compared to females. This agrees with the fact that, generally children suffer night blindness between second and fifth year of childhood, with more emphasis to males than females, but differs concerning anemia which prevails more between 6 to 8 months of a childhood, but with more emphasis to males than females (Hassan et al., 2002). The high rate of hemoglobin concentration among children aged less than 1 year old might be attributed to more care given to a lactating mother in Sudanese culture which effectively supports neonatal period and early childhood, where relatives could supply with nutritional food types such as sweet porridge. Children aged 1-3 year old have less hemoglobin concentration and suffers Iron deficiency anemia compared to the two other two groups. This might be attributed to average short period of parities and to poverty which make the majority of Sudanese to afford living costs in situations of accelerating financial inflation. However, prevalence of breast feeding in the study area is attributed to the awareness of mothers to its nutritional value to a newborn child, and to the inherited Islamic culture which enhances mothers to breast feed their children for two complete years. It might be also ~ 107 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 attributed to the fact the majority of urban households are incapable to purchase ready made food for their children where 70 to 80% of urban population live below the poverty line (Hamid, 2000), and also many of the mothers are mainly housewives who have devoted themselves to child bearing. However, this is supported by the fact that, during pregnancy and lactation, mothers used to consume vegetables, fruits, milk, cereals, meat, and legumes abundantly compared to less amounts of these food types during lactation. Prevalence of low weight and malnutrition among children less than 5 years old in Khartoum State (Table 2) is almost similar to the 50 % cited by FAO and WFP for pre-2001 studies for North Kordofan state (FAO/WFP, 2006). However, it was higher than the most recent report Sudan household health survey of 42.9% (SHHA, 2006). The result was also higher than all previous studies carried out in Sudan, although it is similar to that by Al Jaloudi for children less than five years old living in poor urban Khartoum state (Al Jaloudi, 2000). In addition, the difference in malnutrition is possibly due to geographic reasons. In Khartoum State, squatter areas have expanded rapidly in recent decades, occupied by poorest people who are generally facing inadequate food intake and unhygienic residential environment (Alredaisy and Davies, 2003, Babiker and Alredaisy, 1997). Comparing macronutrients daily intake in the study area (Table 6) with the study by Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry of Sudan (FSU, 2005) puts the study area below by that there are less protein, carbohydrates and lower energy intakes. There are less animal protein; vitamins, minerals consumed and abundant cereal are consumed. In the study area, fat and carbohydrates (calories) consumed were lower than the recommended values (Katch, 1983) and for population in Africa which is 2041.7 calories (Latham, 1997). This study agrees with Mohammed's study in Al Shigla area in east Khartoum State, which indicated to imbalanced intake of food types where legumes and cereals are abundantly consumed while meat, fish and chickens are less consumed among surveyed households (Mohamed, 1999). It also agrees with Ali's study in north state of Sudan where cereals are the main source for poor households although cereals are deficient in vitamin A, and 41% of the sample suffers vitamin A deficiency (Ali, 2005). Energy obtained by higher protein and carbohydrates intakes was more than double the value obtained by excess fat intake in this study (FSU, 2005). Cereals highly contribute to energy and protein intake in the study area, a situation similar to rural Philippines where 361g/person/day are consumed there (Florentino, 1996). Animal protein sources such as meat and milk provide less than the recommended value which is 55.3g (FSU, 2005). Conclusion and Recommendations The general conclusions of this study are as follows: 1- Children aged less than five year old living in Khartoum State are suffering anemia and night blindness. 2- Malnutrition and underweight are prevalent in Khartoum State. 3- Promotion of community and child nutrition is a necessity in the study area. Based on that, some suggestions could be presented. Firstly, breast feeding should be enhanced from delivery up to six months of a child age, and should be accompanied by supplementary feeding thereafter up to the completion of two years of a child age. Secondly, more care should be devoted to qualitative and quantitative complementary feeding. Thirdly, introduction of balance diets rich in vitamin A, and Iron when a child completes six months of age, and during pregnancy and lactation is a necessity. Fourthly, nutrition education should be introduced and enhanced among mothers to accept knowledge about good child feeding. Fifthly, urban poor ~ 108 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 should be supported by appropriate socioeconomic development programs to curb financial inflation which adversely depriving this segment of the society. References Al Jaloudi AE. 2000. Assessment of the nutritional status and household food security in the poor urban areas in Khartoum state: case study ‘’Marzouk in Omdurman’’. Unpub. PhD. Thesis, University of Khartoum, Sudan. Ali, A.M. 2005. Vitamin A deficiency and nutritional status among basic schools students in Dongola town. M Sc. University of Khartoum. Alredaisy, S.M.A. and Davies, H.R.J. 2003. The ecology of malaria in urban squatters of Greater Khartoum, Gamier area in Omdurman,’’ Arab World Geographer Journal, 6(3): 178-193, Canada. Babiker A/Bagi A/Ghani and Alredaisy, S.M.A. 1997. Evaluation of food situation and survival strategies in urban Sudan, case studies from Omdurman,’’ Bayreuther Geowissenschaftliche Arbeiten, 16: 291-300. Germany. Cambrez C, el Magboul b1. 1998. Food security and nutrition situation in north Sudan. FAO/WFO Crop assessment mission for Sudan. Khartoum, Sudan. El-Bushra, E-S. 1995. Two Million Squatter Settlements in Khartoum Urban Complex. The Dilemma of Sudan National Capital” GeoJournal, Vol.34 #4.505-514. FAO/WFP. 2006. Special report, crop and food supply. Assessment mission to Sudan, 8–27/10/2005, FAO, Rome. Florentino RF. 1996. Contribution of major food items on calorie and protein in takes in Filipinos. Joint technical workshop of the micro impacts of macroeconomics adjustment policies and the Philippine Institute of Development Studies technical resources project, 11-12/4/1996, Calatagen, Phillip. FSU. 2005. Food security annual report. Food Security Unit, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Khartoum, Sudan. Hamid, G.M. 2000. Local level authorities and local action in Greater Khartoum. The Arab World Geographer 3:230-48. Hassan, Samir and Hindi, H. 2002. Human Nutrition. First Edition, Alexandria, Egypt (Arabic). Katch F. 1983. In nutrition, weight control and exercise. 2 nd edition, Lea and Bebiger, Philadelphia. Latham, H.C. 1979. Human nutrition in tropical Africa. No.11. Rev.1. RAR. Rome. Ithaca. USA. Ministry of Finance & Economic Planning, MFEP 1956-1993: Population censuses of Sudan 1956 – 1993, Khartoum, Sudan. Mohammed, F. O. 1999. Iron deficiency anemia among children less than five year old in Alshigla area, Khartoum State. M Sc. University of Khartoum. National Ministry of Health, 2008. Guidelines for combating micronutrients deficiency. National Ministry of Health, Khartoum (Arabic). SHHA. 2006. Sudan household health survey. National report, Government of Sudan, WFP/UNEFPA/WHO/USAID/UNICEF, Khartoum, Sudan. Sukkar, M.Y. 1985. In human nutrition. Khartoum, Sudan. UNICEF, 2008. Nutrition. WWW. Unicef org/Arabic. World Health Organization, 2009. Guidelines for combating micronutrients deficiency. WHO. Geneva. ~ 109 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 E-Learning: A Veritable Tool to Step-Up Accessibility in the Nigerian Educational Sector Florence Imaobong Archibong Chima Sabastine Ugwulashi Department of Educational Management, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria Doi:10.5901/mjss.2012.v3n13p110 Abstract This paper addresses E-learning as a veritable tool to step up accessibility in the Nigerian educational sector highlighting the concepts of ICT as a tool for improving educational process, access and availability of ICT resources in Nigeria secondary schools, e-learning technologies and sustainable development as well as e-learning/online learning/distance learning. Also, challenges to e-learning in the Nigerian higher education sector and benefits of e-learning in the Nigerian educational system were treated. Since eeducation facilitates teaching and learning, it is therefore suggested that a comprehensive feasibility study be adopted by all stakeholders, there should be mass computer literacy programmes, government should ensure the growth of ICT from primary to tertiary institution, and the ICT teachers should be motivated through incentives to enhance job satisfaction. Keywords: E-learning, ICT, distance learning, online learning, Nigerian education Introduction Education in Nigeria is structured in three tiers: basic education, secondary school education and tertiary education. Traditional basic education offered to children between ages four and 14 in Nigeria consists of three years of early childcare and development education, 6 years of primary education and three years of junior secondary. Non-traditional/basic education includes educational outreach to nomadic and migrant children, almaijiris and mass literacy intervention. Traditional basic education is followed by three years of senior secondary school and then tertiary education. (Nwangwu,2012). E-learning a sub-system within ICT is the electronic process which enhances the delivering and administration of learning opportunities and support via computer, networked and web-based technology to help individual performance and development. The basic principle of e-learning is connectivity – the process by which computers are networked to share information which can connect people. This is provided for by what is often called the e-learning landscape or architecture, which refers to the hardware, software and connectivity components required to facilitate learning. (Okure,2008 p 303). The National Policy on Education (2004.17) places emphasis on the provision and utilization of information and communication technology (ICT) when it states that “in recognition of the prominent roles of information and communication technology in advancing knowledge and skills necessary for effective functioning in the modern world, there is urgent need to integrate information and communication technology (ICT) into education in Nigeria”. ~ 110 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 This paper therefore seeks to focus on e-learning as a veritable tool to step up accessibility in the Nigerian educational sector. ICT as a Tool for Improving Educational Process Today, ICT is a very important tool for improving teaching and learning. It has transformed the traditional method of teaching and learning where the teacher according to Ike (2009) like “Master Bull Frog” dishes out information to the learners who listened and watched. ICT has made teaching and learning very interactive, making the teacher to be a facilitator while the students do the actual work.The use of ICT teaching tools like computer, multimedia, projectors, interactive whiteboard (Smart Board), power point, word processors, spreadsheets, databases, macromedia flash, hyperlink mark up language (HTML), etc in preparing and delivering of lecture, one could imagine how lovely and interactive the lecture class would be. With the use of ICT facilities, students do not need lecturers/teachers for them to learn as Opara (2003) opined that with the computer-based teaching, it becomes easy for students to learn on their own and at their own pace. ICT has provided enough instructional materials for all students and instructors in different areas of study. With Computer Aided/Assisted Instructions (CAI), Computer Aided Learning (CAL), in this area, students and other interested scholars can learn at their own time and pace. CAI are information that help teach or encourage interaction which is presented on computers in the form of text or multimedia formats, which include photographs, videos, animation, speech, and music (Arnold, 2008). The guided drill and practice exercise which is a computer program that poses questions to students, returns feedback and selects additional questions based on the students’ responses is example of CAI. Recent guided drill systems incorporate the principles of education in addition to subject matter knowledge into the computer program. The dawn of internet has made provision for all these tutorials available online. Access and Availability of ICT Resources in Nigerian Secondary Schools ICT resources in Nigerian secondary school is still grossly inadequate. Studies carried out on secondary school science teachers by Aladejana revealed that the schools lacked laptop, LCD projector, video recorder, talking books and floor robots. She said 4.0% of the sampled schools have an overhead projector, 4.0% have fixed line internet access and that 5.67% of the teachers have personal computers majority used for business and commercial purposes. She however submitted that classrooms are still very much traditional without much influence on ICT. The development of ICT-based initiatives in Nigeria was kicked-started in 2002 (Jegede 2002). ICT-based initiatives is to develop computer and technology literacy through the introduction of computers in secondary schools similar to what has been done in many other countries including Turkey Morocco and others. Concerted efforts are on to improve the level of ICT infrastructure and accessibility. Education Tax Fund and School Net Nigeria have projects in which there is a provision of shared internet access for schools and communities. School Net Nigeria is an internet project for teachers and technical training development at 35 rural sites. Education Tax Fund, private sector, MOE, Telecom companies all worked together to start school net Nigeria. Schools have been benefiting from series of aids and initiatives. Universal Service Provision Fund (USPF) has really assisted in making provision for ICT resources in secondary schools. A total of 109 primary and secondary schools have been selected as beneficiaries of the first phase of the schools, University Access Programme to Digital Life Style Project of the (USPF), an initiative of the ~ 111 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Nigeria Communications Commission (NCC). The project was to equip the benefiting schools with (ICT) tools (Ndukwe 2008). Conclusively the use of ICT in secondary school is still at the initial stage. The school system still face a lot of challenges as far as availability of infrastructure is concerned. Access to ICT is still met with constraints in terms of infrastructure, funding and government little attention to its utilization. E-learning Technologies and Sustainable Development in Nigeria Okure (2008 p 306) posit that citizens of this country who have not been privileged to attend the conventional University had demanded for higher education for their job improvement. Among such are young married women who could not easily go back to school with their tender children. E-learning facilities can offer opportunity for them to still be nursing mothers at home and also acquire higher education. In the light of this, Akukwe (2003) affirms that “with the invention of the computer, the society gradually got transformed from an industrial society into an information society whereby the collection, processing and distribution information replaces the manufacturing of goods as primary source of wealth and work”. Okoli (2007) asserts that ordinarily one would look at this statement with suspicion, but that a careful consideration would reveal that nowadays information services garners a lot of money which is wealth.The instance of the open university makes the E-learning indispensable for this nation. The various gadgets can be utilized to enable citizens benefit from the education provided by the open university. The number of universities in the country has not been adequate to admit all the university aspirants. Besides, the Nigeria University System has developed less rationally than anticipated. The system had a good beginning from the colonial times and was effective up to the late 1970s as an instrument for national development until its nature changed from late 1980s owing to enrolment explosion. The total enrolment in the universities in 1980 was 73,425 but by 1990, this figure had risen to 180, 871 and by 2001 university education because of the number of students then exceeded the available facilities while the staff/students ratio increased beyond manageable proportions. Poor staffing is another problem that undermines the issue of quality in National University Commission (NUC). Statistics of 2000 showed a total of 18,328 academic staff in universities to take care of 244,871 students (FME 2003 in Okure 2008). By NUC staffing norms, a total of 33,951 should have been in the system at that time. This means that there was a short fall of 15,718 (46%) in Nigerian universities in 2000. Academic staff is the most crucial resources of all the resources required by the knowledge industry of this nation. This intellectual resource entity which Nigeria is not able to sustain and adequately preserve, constrains universities capacity to produce graduates who could be self sustaining through engagements in viable vocation and entrepreneurship projects. The E-learning technology is the answer for training the required staff to take care of teachers hence institutions can produce skilled graduates to sustain the nation. E-learning, Online Learning and Distance learning Environments The origins of the term e-learning is not certain, although it is suggested that the term most likely originated during the 1980s within the similar time frame of another delivering mode online ~ 112 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 learning. While some authors explicitly define e-learning, others imply a specific definition or view of e-learning in their article. In particular, Ellis (2004) disagrees with authors like Nichols (2003) who define e- learning as strictly being accessible using technological tools that are either web-based, web-distributed or web-capable. The belief that e-learning not only covers content and instructional methods delivered via CD-ROM , the internet or an intranet (Benson et al. 2002; Clark, 2002) but also includes audio and videotape, satellites broadcast and interactive TV is one held by Ellis. Although technological characteristics are included in the definition of the term, Tavangarian, Leypold, Nolting, Roser and Voigt (2004) as well as Triacca, Bolchine, Botturi and Inversini (2004) felt that the technology being used was insufficient as a descriptor. Tavangarian et al. (2004) included the constructivist theoretical model as a framework for their definition by stating that e-learning is not only procedural but also shows some transformation of an individual’s experience into the individual’s knowledge through the knowledge construction process. Both Ellis(2004) and Triacca et al. (2004) believed that some level of interactivity needs to be included to make the definition truly applicable in describing the learning experience, even though Triacca et al. (2004) added that elearning was a type of online learning. Online learning is described by most authors as access to learning experiences via the use of some technology (Benson, 2002; Carliner, 2004; Conrad, 2002). Both Benson (2002) and Conrad (2002) identify online learning as a more recent version of distance learning which improves access to educational opportunities for learness described as both nontraditional and disenfranchised. Other authors discuss not only the accessibility of online learning but also its connectivity, flexibility and ability to promote varied interactions (Ally, 2004; Hiltz & Turoff, 2005; Oblinger & Oblinger, 2005). Benson (2002) makes a clear statement that online learning is a newer version or and improved version of distance learning. These authors, like, many, believe that there is a relationship between distance education or learning and online learning but appear unsure in their own descriptive narratives. Distance education is the most renowned descriptor used when referencing distance learning. It often describes the effort of providing access to learning for those who are geographically distant. The instructional delivery included an instructor who was physically located in a different place from the learner, as well as possibly providing the instruction at disparate times. Distance education uses emerging media and associated experiences to produce distributed learning opportunities. Keegan (1996) suggested that the term distance education is an “umbrella” term consisting of correspondence education or correspondence study that may have once been synonymous used, being clearly identified as a potential offspring of distance education. The term then evolved to describe other forms of learning e.g online learning, e-learning, technology, mediated learning, online collaborative learning, virtual learning, web-based learning etc. (Conrad, 2006). Thus, the commonalities found in all the definitions is that some form of instruction occurs between two parties (a learner and an instructor), it is held at different times and/or places, and uses varying forms of instructional materials (Moore, 2011). Challenges to e-learning in the Nigerian Higher Education Sector According to Infinedo (2007 p 49-51) the conceptual framework illustrated in figure 1 is used to guide the discourse on the challenges facing the diffusion of e-learning in the Nigerian higher education environment. It draws upon developmental reports of notable bodies, including the G8 DOT Force, UN ICT Task Force and UNPAN. These bodies have used a similar model or framework to describe the problems faced by developing societies in spreading ICT-based initiatives. ~ 113 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 In brief, the broad categories of factors believed to be hindering efforts of developing societies in using ICT products for development include the following: 1. Infrastructural problems, i.e. poor information and telecommunication technologies facilities 2. Institution problems; and 3. Human capital problems, e.g. awareness problems. In fact, UNPAN (2005) highlighted poverty, low levels of literacy, lack of adequate infrastructure, the high cost of ICT services, lack of investments, poor institutional structures, absence of international cooperation, and lack of security (in that order) as the major barriers to achieving an information society in developing countries. Human capital problems - Poverty - Low literacy levels - Institutional problems - Organizational problems - Resistance - Poor IT skills & technical ability Spread of e-learning in the Nigerian higher education sector Awareness problems Adapted from: G8 DOT Force (6) and UNPAN (22) Infrastructural problems - Poor internet access & low bandwidth - High cost of ICT services - Lack of investments in ICT - Poor power generation Human Capital Problems As previously indicated, Nigeria is poor and indebted. The dire economic situation for both the country and its population exacerbates their inability to make use of ICT products especially those related to educationally related initiatives. The cost of a personal computer (PC) in Nigeria is six times the monthly wage of an average worker. The cost of subscribing to a telephone line or owning one is beyond the reach of an average citizen. The same is true for the procurement of internet access in Nigeria; ordinary citizens find it difficult to own such services due to lack of financial resources. It goes without saying that a lack of funding is a major problem to the Nigerian education sector. As such, it is not uncommon to read how limited financial resources have stalled some notable ICT-enabled initiatives in the Nigerian education sector. Furthermore, Nigeria lacks qualified information technology (IT) professionals as Nigerian universities do not graduate sufficient numbers of skilled IT professionals to match its current ICT needs. Oyebisi and Agboola note that the highest enrollment in the University for Science and Technology in Nigeria between 1991 and 1998 was 0.31 per 1000 and only 0.05 per 1000 students earned a postgraduate degree in the field. It is easy to see how e-learning projects can suffer when skilled professionals are not readily available. ~ 114 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Institutional problems Effective organizational skills are needed to develop and deliver education using ICT. One might be tempted to call the role of policy makers and administrators in the education sector in Nigeria into question. Do they understand want it takes to initiate and deliver education using ICT facilities? The reality is that functionaries in developing countries lack the necessary expertise to manage new innovation, including the implementation and delivery of ICT-enabled education. The report by the Commonwealth of Learning International suggests that the administrators in the Nigerian higher education sector are either unfamiliar with the use of ICT in education or unwilling to change from the status quo. Commenting on the barriers to distance education using ICT in Nigeria, Mac-Ikemenjima notes “resistance to change from (the Nigerian) traditional pedagogical methods to more innovative, technology based teaching and learning methods, by both students and academics” as a major problem facing such initiatives in the country. Similarly, Folorunso et al shows a lack of awareness regarding how e-learning can be used by higher education students as a major setback. Infrastructural Problems As is the case with the rest of Africa, Nigeria’s internet access is poor. As of 2005, there were about 3 million internet users in a country of 140 million inhabitants – this is less than 1% of the population. Only recently did a few countries in Africa procure bandwidths greater than 10 million bps. Previously, many countries in Africa, including Nigeria, had bandwidths between 64,000 bps and 256,000 bps due to high international tariffs and lack of circuit capacity in the region. Investments in the telecommunications sector used to be very low on the African continent, but it is encouraging to notice that events are changing for the better. Computers and affordable internet access are two vital facilities required for distance education and e-learning, but with such dire statistics for countries like Nigeria on the Africa continent, it remains to be seen how progress can be made by Nigerian higher education vis-à-vis implementing e-learning. Another major infrastructural challenge in Nigeria concerns its inadequate power generation. Benefits E- education in the Nigerian Educational System Osuji (2004) asserts that the adoption of the e-education will ensure the Nigerian education system the following benefits: Enhanced Access to Quality Education: e-education has the potential for reaching out to many learners and offering education whose quality is not compromised. Improvement in the Education Delivery System: ICT tools aid both teachers and students in the teaching –learning process, self-learning capabilities of ICT education will enhance mastery of school subject by Nigerian students. Teachers in the Nigerian school system would equally be aided. Optimal Utilization of Existing ICT Resources: A scan of the school system in Nigeria will reveal packets of efforts at the local, state and federal levels at implementing some form of ICT-enabled education delivery. Ensuring a Global Competitive Education System: There is trend towards a global adoption of e-education as a delivery system. In the near future, an education system that does not proceed along the part will produce graduates that are not globally competitive. ~ 115 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Reduction/Elimination of Social Vices: A number of vices that plague the Nigerian educational system such as examination malpractice, cultism are caused by a host of factors including poor academic preparation of students. Since e-education has the potential of elevating students’ performance, and increasing time, it will constitute to reducing the incidents of the vices and overtime, their elimination. Pp 11-12. Summary and Conclusion This study bordered on e-learning as a veritable tool to step up accessibility in the Nigerian educational sector. Related concepts were addressed like ICT as a tool for improving educational process, access and availability of ICT resources in Nigerian secondary schools, e-learning technologies and sustainable development, e-learning/online learning/distance learning, challenges to e-learning in the Nigerian higher education sector and benefits of e-education in the Nigerian educational system. The adoption of e-learning via ICT will lead to the wedlock between technology and education. It will take distance out of education and enhance interactivity between the learner and the teacher. Moreover, the division between open and distance education institution and the traditional institution would be eliminated. Suggestions It is a well known fact that for e-education to succeed, lots of things have to be put in place, among which are comprehensive feasibility study by all the stakeholders to determine the level of awareness and preparedness for the take off of e-education in the various educational sectors of Nigeria. There must be mass computer literacy programmes and train the trainers workshops must be organized at federal, state and local government levels to produce IT profession and to train the would be trainees at the various levels of our education. The administration has tried to help the country in terms of internet development, but a lot till needs to be done. Government should work closely with internet services providers (ISPs) to reduce cost of internet service. This is necessary if Nigerians are to benefit fully from the present online learning of distance education being practiced worldwide. Government must provide a special programme of studies through distance learning to take care of the educational needs of those that are qualified for university education but could not be accommodated for lack of space in the existing tertiary institution. To demystify information and compunction technology in Nigerian educational system, government must include ICT in secondary school curriculum and provide all secondary school teachers with personal laptops which they themselves can help to fund under an arrangement. Provision of alternative power supply in view of the present poor power supply situation in the country. Making the use of ICT mandatory at all levels of Nigerian educational institution through adequate financial provision for both human and material resources. Ensure the growth of ICT from primary to tertiary education level through the development of relevant ICT curricula for each level of education. ICT software that would meet our local needs should be developed. ~ 116 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Encourage ICT teachers with appropriate incentives that will make them to be dedicated, motivated and derived maximum job satisfaction. References Akukwe, A. (2003). Computer studies: An introduction. Owerri: Colon concepts ltd. Aladejana, F. (n.d). The implications of ICT and NKS for science teaching wither Nigeria. Institute of Education, OAU Ile-ife, Nigeria. Retrieved April 6, 2012 from www.google.com Arnold, D.N. (2008). Microsoft (R) Encarta 2008 DVD. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on Education: NERDC Press. Ifinedo, P. (2007). E-learning in the Nigerian higher education sector: opportunities and challenges. Retrieved April 7, 2012 from www.ncsu.edu/aern/TA57.2/TA57.2 pdf Ike, G.A. (2009). The use of information and communication technology (ICT) in teaching and learning in school. A paper presented in a two-day seminar on ICT and effective teaching as it relates to mission schools in Anglican Diocese of Owerri teachers’ workshop, May 14, 2009. Moore, J.L. (2001). Internet and higher education: e-learning, online learning and distance learning environments. Are they the same? Retrieved April 6, 2012 from https://scholar.vt.edu/access/.../e-learning %20 scott % 20 Midkiff.pdf Ndukwe, E. (2008). School to benefit from Nigeria’s universal service provision fund (USPF) The Loerie Awards. Nwangwu, P. (2012). How to transform Nigerian education system (3). Retrieved April 6, 2012 from Odili.net/./501.html Okoli, E.C. (2007). The place of the improved information and communication technology in the management of Nigerian university education. NAEAP publications. Okure, S.J. (2008). Using e-learning (of ICT) technologies: towards sustainable development in Nigeria. In Babalola, Akpa, Hauwa & Ayeni, (eds.): Managing education for sustainable development in developing countries. Ibadan: Nigerian Association for Educational Administration and Planning (NAEAP). Opara, C.C. (2003). Genesis of computer science. Nigeria: Pradses Books & Press. Osuji, F. (2004). Ministerial initiative on e-education for the Nigerian education system. ~ 117 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 School Workshop Safety Practices and Students’ Skill Acquisition in Electrical Installation Works in Technical Colleges in Akwa Ibom State Ofonmbuk Isaac Michael Ekereobong Sunday Udoudo Department of Vocational Education University of Uyo, Uyo-Nigeria Doi:10.5901/mjss.2012.v3n13p118 Abstract The study was designed to determine the relationship between School Workshop Safety Practices and Students’ Skill Acquisition in Electrical Installation Works in Technical Colleges in Akwa Ibom State. Two research questions and two hypotheses were formulated for the study. The population for the study was 45 which comprised 27 Electrical Installation teachers and 18 Workshop assistants in the six Technical Colleges in Akwa Ibom State. No sampling was taken as the whole population was used for the study. An instrument called School Workshop Safety Practices and Students’ Skill Acquisition in Electrical Installation Works (SWSPSSAEIW) was used to collect data. The collected data were analysed using Pearson-ProductMoment-Correlation Coefficient (PPMC). The results from the study showed that adherence to electric shock preventive measures and regular safety audits relate positively to students’ skill acquisition in Electrical Installation Works. It was recommended among others that Electrical Installation students should be properly taught on how to keep maintenance record of equipment in the workshop and teachers of electrical installation should ensure that electrical students are well groomed on how to carry out accident investigation procedures. Keywords: Safety,School, Workshop,Electrical Installation, Teachers Introduction A workshop is defined as a place where the leamer may experiment, test, construct, dismantle, repair, design, create, imagine, and study (Okorie, 2001). Going by this definition, a workshop is an essential facility for the study and practice of Technical/Vocational Education. As a matter of facts, various types of workshops are in use, some of which are the single unit, General unit and Mobile shop. Numerous activities taking place in the school workshop involve the use of tools, machines most of which can cause serious accidents if safety consciousness is not observed effectively. Kadiri (2006) cited in Muhammed (2010) defined safety as a condition of being protected against physical, social, occupational accidents, harm or any other events. According to the author, it is the responsibility of both staff and students to ensure safety of themselves and people around them. Mbaba (2000) opined that any Technical school that ignores safety practices or pays lip service to its implementation does so at its own risk because the losses it will encounter will be enormous. ~ 118 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Okorie (2001) observed skill acquisition as the bedrock of modern educational practices needed to fit individuals into the world of work, education for living (life skills) and self reliance. This implies that acquired skills enable individuals to develop their intellectual, physical, social, emotional and economic capacities. Skill acquisition is best defined from the point of view of the learner as the process of obtaining knowledge of technical and practical nature from an individual, group or institution that can impart such knowledge. School workshop safety practices such as regular safety audits, adherence to electric shock preventive measures among others, if effectively implemented and enforced could enhance a meaningful students’ skill acquisition in Electrical Installation Works in Technical Colleges in Akwa Ibom State. Electrical installation works in this context refer to all forms of fixing of electrical equipment, machines, cables, etc. these include Electrical domestic installation, Industrial installation, winding of electrical machines, repair of electrical machines and equipment, Battery maintenance, repairing and charging among others. Basically, a number of researches have been carried out in an attempt to boost students performances in the shop, yet a lot of students are still lagging behind in the area of skill acquisition. Worried over this development, necessitated the study entitled “School Workshop Safety Practices and Students’ Skill Acquisition in Electrical Installation Works in Technical Colleges in Akwa Ibom State”. Statement of the Problem Accidents and injuries are common in school workshops (Alake, 1992). Specially, in Electrical workshops of the Technical Colleges in Akwa Ibom State, a number of factors might be instrumental to the occurrence of accidents and injuries. Some of these factors are unsafe acts of people, contributing causes (acts that can lead to the cause of accident but cannot cause accident) and unsafe conditions (Muhammad, 2010). In a nutshell, lip service is paid to school workshop safety practices by both Electrical teachers and students as regards enforcement and compliance. These developments have in no small measure militated against students’ skill acquisition in Electrical Installation Works. Consequently, a greater percentage of school leavers who studied Electrical Installation in the Technical Colleges are unable to prove their mettle in numerous firms, industries and other establishments they find themselves. From the researcher’s point of view, if these ills militating against students’ skill acquisition in Electrical installation works are not stamped out or drastically reduced, it will be very difficult for Electrical installation students to acquire useful skills. Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study was to determine the relationship between School Workshop Safety Practices and Students’ Skill Acquisition in Electrical Installation Works in Technical Colleges in Akwa Ibom State. Specifically, the study sought to determine the relationship between: 1. regular safety audits and Students’ Skill acquisition in Electrical Installation Works; and 2. adherence to electric shock preventive measures and Students’ Skill acquisition in Electrical Installation Works. ~ 119 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Regular Safety Audits and Students’ Skill Acquisition in Electrical Installation Works. Safety audit as a safety practice is a systematic approach to evaluate potential hazards and to recommend suggestions for improvement. It is an important tool for identifying deterioration of standards, areas of risks or vulnerability, hazards and potential accidents in an Office, Facility or Plant for determining necessary action to minimize hazards and for ensuring that the whole safety effort is effective and meaningful. This practice, if embraced in electrical shop would in no small measure bring about a remarkable students’ skills acquisition. According to Brayant (1992) cited in Yakubu (2004), audit safety system is a management tool which is used in positive terms to evaluate “the ‘state of act’ of the safety progamme”. Brayant emphasized that it is a most useful system required when performance is known to be low and efforts are required to stimulate additional ones. The audit system involves the use of supervisory methods, which identify hazards situations or circumstances such as physical items like faulty tools, equipment or machines and non-physical items working methods, lack of discipline, lack of training, failure to follow procedures or use of incorrect equipment to mention a few. Actually, the management method of measuring safety activity through reporting, recording and investigating equally identify hazardous situation. The records of safety performances are subjected to analysis. This performance trend in the organization is used to find remedy for the present and make forecast or projection to the future safety conditions. Basically, the approach is very relevant and could be useful to training and practice during operation in the laboratory. However, Alan (1998), viewed safety audit as an inventory or checklist of the features in the shop which one feels affects his or her safety. These features include the electrical accessories, tools, equipment, etc. Safety audit allows action to be taken to correct these features. Whether there is sufficient lighting, whether one would be heard if one called for help, whether there are people who can help, or improvements you would like to see to enhance safety are questions whose answers help determine the appropriate action to take. Alan further added that the goal of a safety audit include: Identification of potentially hazardous electrical situations and provision of corrective actions for these situations; Determination of electrical system and electrical safety compliance with National Electrical code; Review and provision of corrective actions for electrical safety work processes; Identification of potential cost savings and efficiencies through modifications of electrical system. Generally, safety audit is to identify and, if possible, to improve an environment (shop) to make it safer and less threatening for its users. The result will be reduced opportunities for anti-social behaviour in the shop. Of course, a safety audit is a simple but powerful tool. Its strength lies in each person’s direct experience, as with expert on his or her own neighbourhood. John and Randolph (1986), opined that safety audits are designed to inspire users of the laboratories or workshops to get involved, and to challenge them to work for change in parts of their neightbourhoood where they feel unsafe or uncomfortable. According to the authors, safety audit areas include: Electrical safety audit, Fire safety audits, Occupational Health Hazards and First aid, House keeping, ~ 120 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Documentation on company policies on safety, Documentation on preventive maintenance and practices and Employees Awareness on safety, Drills and Training levels. This implies that safety audit is a necessity as far as school shop is concerned if students must acquire useful skills in electrical installation works. 2.6 Adherence to Electric Shock Preventive measures and Students’ Skill Acquisition in Electrical Installation Works. Students’ skill acquisition in Electrical shop could be enhanced if the students and teachers are adequately protected from Electric Shock. The Institute of Electrical Engineers (1999), viewed electrical shock as the effect of passing electric current through the Body. The minimum current a human can feel is thought to be about I milliampere (MA). The extent of the injury will depend upon the quantity or amount of current which flows through the body, the path or course of the current through the body, the duration or length of time the victim is in contact with the circuit, the kind of electrical energy, and the physical condition of the victim. According to the Institute of Electrical Engineers (IEE), some of the effects of electric shock are:Psychological: The perception of electric shock can vary, depending on the voltage, duration, current, path taken, frequency, and other factors. Current entering the hand has a threshold of perception of about 5 to 100MA for direct current (DC) and about I to 10MA for alternating current (AC) at a frequency of 60 hertz(Hz). Shock perception declines with increasing frequency, ultimately disappearing at frequencies above 15-20KHZ. Burns: Heating due to resistance can cause extensive and deep burns. Voltage level of 500 to 1,000 volts tend to cause internal burns due to the large energy (which is proportional to the duration multiplied by the square of the voltage) available from the source. Damage due to current is through tissue heating. In some cases, 16 volts might be fatal to a human being when the electricity passes through organs such as the heart. Ventricular Fibrillation: A low-voltage (110 to 220v) alternating current of 50 or 60Hz through the chest for a fraction of a second may induce ventricular fibrillation, when the current is as low as 60mA. With direct current, 300 to 500mA is required. If the current has a direct pathway to the heart, a much lower current of less than 1mA, (AC or DC) can cause fibrillation. Fibrillation are usually lethal because all the heart muscle cells move independently. Above 200mA, muscle contractions are so strong that the heart muscles cannot move at all. Neurological effects: The current may interfere with control of the nervous system, especially over the heart and lungs. Repeated or severed electric shock that does not lead to death has been shown to cause neuropathy. When the current path is through the head, it appears that, with sufficient current, loss of consciousness almost always occurs swiftly. According to National Safety Council (1992), electrical shock could be caused by unsafe work practices, defective equipment and lack of knowledge of the dangers of electricity. Defective equipment: The types of equipment involved in electrical accident range from motordriven equipment, control devices, portable electric tools, switches, panel, cutouts, conductors, plugs, and fuses to electric extension cords. A variety of equipment conditions involving various types of equipment creates many electrical hazards. Some of the common defects of tools and equipment are listed as follows: Improperly grounded equipment (ground wires missing, broken, or improperly connected). ~ 121 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Open conduits, switch boxes, damaged or worn connections, and exposed live wires. Improperly connected power tools and defective insulation in portable tools. Defective switches, receptacles, extension cords, and camp sockets. Insulation which is defective, inadequate, worn, frayed, wet, oily or deteriorated, creating short circuit possibilities and energizing equipment frames. Unsafe Practices: Unsafe practices and work procedures result in electric shock and fires. Some of the common unsafe acts committed in shops are: Using ungrounded equipment and portable tools or removing ground connections. Overloading of circuits or overfusing circuits by the use of wrong size or type of fuse. Failure to use suitable protective equipment, gloves, rubber mats, etc for electrical installation and repair. Use of metal ladders while working on electrical equipment. Installation of electrical facilities which do not meet the National Electrical Code. Work practices which damage motors, insulation wires, or electrical accessories. Using defective tools or equipment in need of repair. Unsafe cleaning of electrical panels switch boxes, motors, and other electrical equipment with water or dangerous solvents. Failure to de-energize circuit before working on equipment. Lack of Knowledge: It might be said “that ‘ignorance’ is no excuse for causing electrical accidents”. Unfortunately a number of electrical accidents do happen because “the individuals ‘just didn’t know any better’ as a mater of fact”. Too many people lack an understanding of electricity, a situation which can be remedied through adequate supervision and sound educational programme. Kneeland, Timothy and Warren (2008), in relation to prevention of an electric shock recommended that people should avoid working on exposed live conductors as much as possible. In the school shop, a positive programme of action which encompasses education and training of the students must be embraced. These authors added that students should be taught the basic concepts necessary for an adequate understanding of electrical energy. Safety practices should be taught to the students, making certain that the reasons for following definite procedures are known to them. Teachers on the other hand, should analyse the shop environment and list all possible sources of electrical hazards. Each item on the list should be discussed with students, and the safe practices which attend each hazard should be taught to all concerned. When students full understand the causes and results of electrical accidents, they should be encouraged to assist the instructor in identifying present hazards and potentially dangerous situations. Generally, for a meaningful students’ skills acquisition in Electrical Installation works in the school shop, adequate programme for the prevention of electric shock must rest upon: correct installation of equipment; intelligent selection and purchase of equipment; periodic inspection of equipment; regular maintenance; and education of students for the safe use of electrical energy. Methodology The survey design was adopted for this study. The target population for the study was 45 Electrical Installation teachers and Workshop assistants. This population was made up of 27 Electrical installation teachers and 18 workshop assistants obtained from the six government owned ~ 122 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Technical Colleges in Akwa Ibom State. There was no sampling since all the respondents involved in the study were used. A 30 item structured questionnaire entitled “school Workshop Safety Practices And Students’ Skill Acquisition in Electrical Installation Works” (SWSPSSAEIW) was used for the study. The questionnaire was made up of three sections A, B and C. Section A solicited information on personal data of the respondents, Section B was divided into two parts which solicited information on Regular safety audits and adherence to electric shock preventive measures. Section C elicited information on skill acquisition in Electrical Installation works. Responses were measured on a 4-point rating scale. The instrument was subjected to face validation by three experts from the department of Vocational Education, University of Uyo, Uyo. The data generated in the study were analysed using the Mean statistic while the Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) was used to test the hypothesis at .05 level of significance. Result The summary of the Mean statistic and PPMC are presented on Table 1, 2, 3, and 4. Research Question 1 What is the relationship between regular safety audits and students’ skill acquisition in Electrical installation work in Technical Colleges in Akwa Ibom State? Table 1: r-value showing the relationship between regular safety audits and students’ skill acquisition in electrical installation works. Variables Regular safety audits Students’ skill acquisition N 45 45 Sum of scores 1736 3601 Mean scores 38.578 80.022 Computed r-value 0.580 Table 1 shows that the Mean score for regular safety audits is 38.578 while the Mean score for students’ skill acquisition is 80.022 and the computed r-value is 0.580. This result implies that there exist a positive relationship between regular safety audits and students’ skill acquisition in Electrical installation works. Research Question 2 What is the relationship between adherence to electric shock preventive measures and students’ skill acquisition in Electrical Installation works in Technical Colleges in Akwa Ibom State? Table 2: r-value showing the relationship between adherence to electric shock preventive measures and students’ skill acquisition in electrical installation works. Variables Adherence to electric preventive measures Students’ skill acquisition N shock Sum of scores 1914 Mean scores 44.533 Computed r-value 45 45 3601 80.022 0.7360 ~ 123 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Table 2 indicates that the Mean score for adherence to electric shock preventive measures is 44.533; the mean score for students’ skill acquisition is 80.022 and the computed r-value is 0.733. The implication of this result is that the respondents have agreed that there exist a significant relationship between adherence to electric shock preventive measures and students’ skill acquisition in Electrical Installation Works. HO1: There is a no Significant relationship between regular safety audits and students’ skill acquisition in electrical installation works in Technical Colleges in Akwa Ibom State. Table 3: Pearson Product Moment Correlation analysis between regular safety audits and students’ skill acquisition in electrical installation works. N= 45 Variables ∑X ∑y ∑X2 ∑y2 1736 68248 3601 290163 ∑xy Cal. r-value Crit. r-value decision Regular safety audit (x) 139846 Students’ skill acquisition (y) 0.5799 0.276 * * Significant at .05 level of significance. Table 3 shows that the calculated r-value of 0.5799 is greater than the critical r-value of 0.276 at .05 level of significance with 43 degree of freedom. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected. This shows that there is a significance relationship between regular safety audits and students’ skill acquisition in Electrical installation works in Technical Colleges in Akwa Ibom State. HO2: There is no significant relationship between adherence to elective shock preventive measures and students’ skill acquisition in Electrical installation works in technical Colleges in Akwa Ibom State. Table 4: Pearson Product Moment Correlation analysis between adherence to electric shock preventive measures and students’ skill acquisition in electrical installation works. N= 45 Variables Adherence to electric shock preventive measures (X) Students’ skill acquisition (y) ∑X ∑y 1914 3601 ∑X2 ∑y2 82060 290163 ∑xy 15400 Cal. r-value 0.7333 Crit. r-value decision 0.276 * * Significant at .05 level of significance. Table 4 shows a calculated r-value of 0.7333 which is greater than the critical r-value of 0.276 at .05 level of significance with 43 degree of freedom. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected. This implies that there exist a significant relationship between adherence to electric shock preventive measures and students’ skill acquisition in Electrical Installation works in Technical Colleges in Akwa Ibom State. ~ 124 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Discussion On research question 1, the result of data analysis shows that regular safety audits positively relates to students’ skill acquisition in electrical installation works. The findings from table 3 show that there is a significant relationship between regular safety audits and students’ skill acquisition in electrical installation works. These findings are consistent with the opinion of Brayant (1992) cited in Yakubu (2004) which opines that audit safety system is a management tool which is used in positive terms to evaluate the state of act of safety programme. In Brayant opinion, safety audit involves the use of supervisory methods which identify hazards situations or circumstances such as physical item like faulty tools and equipment among others. This implies that safety audit is a necessity as far as school shop is concerned if students must acquire useful skill in electrical installation works. The study of Alan (1998) viewed safety audit as an inventory or checklist of the features include the electrical accessories, tools, equipment, etc. According to the researcher, safety audit allows action to be taken to correct these features. Data in table 2 indicate that adherence to electric shock preventive measures and students’ skill acquisition in electrical installation works relates to each other. In table 4, result shows that there is a significant relationship between adherence to electric shock preventive measures and students’ skill acquisition in electrical installation works. The findings of the study are in line with the views of Kneeland, Timothy and Warren (2008) who in relation to prevention of an electric shock recommended that people should avoid working on exposed live conductors as much as possible. In the authors opinions, students should be taught the basic concepts necessary for an adequate understanding of electrical energy. This implies that when students fully understand the causes and result of electrical accidents in the shop, they will be free to practice and acquire useful skills in electrical installation works. Conclusion Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions are made:1. 2. 3. 4. Regular safety audits and students skill acquisition in electrical installation works relates to each other. A greater percentage of the electrical students do not have adequate knowledge of accident investigation procedure. There is a positive relationship between adherence to electric shock preventive measures and students’ skill acquisition in electrical installation works. A greater number of electrical students not been taught how to keep maintenance record of equipment and machines. Recommendations On the basis of the above findings, it is pertinent to proffer the following recommendations:1. Teachers of electrical installation should ensure that electrical students are well groomed with regard to accident investigation procedures. 2. Electrical students should be properly taught on how to keep maintenance record of equipment in the shop. ~ 125 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 3. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 The state government should make provisions for periodic following-up studies of former graduates of Technical Colleagues in the state to collect information for curriculum development. References Alake, T. J. (1992). Need for Safety Precautions in Secondary School Technical Workshop. Technical Education Today. 3 (1&2), pp.14-15. Alan, M. M. (1998). Electrical Installation in Hazardous Areas. Butterworth: Heinemann. Institution of Electrical Engineers (1999). Protection Against Electric Shock. London, UK. Kneeland, T. W. and Carol, A. B. (2008). Pushbutton Psychiatry: A Cultural History of Electrical Shock Therapy in America. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press. Mbaba, U. G. (2000). Industrial Safety Management: Its implication for Vocational Technical Education. Journal of Education and Society 4(2): 57-59. Muhammad, H. H. (2010). Workshop Safety. A Paper Presented at a 5-day Workshop on Capacity Building for Technical Teachers on Pedagogical Skills at Owena Hotels, Parliament Road, Akure 8th-12th February. National Safety Council (1992). Accident Prevention Manual for Business and Industry (Administration and Programmes). 10th Edition, Itasca, IL: National Safety Council. Okorie, J. U. (2001). Vocational Industrial Education. Bauchi: League of Researchers in Nigeria. ~ 126 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 The Influence of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTS) on Parents/ Adolescents Relationship Ahiauzu, Levi Uche Odili, Samuel Otunuya Department of Accounting Education Federal College of Education (Technical),Omoku- Nigeria Doi:10.5901/mjss.2012.v3n13p127 Abstract The purpose of this study is to examine the influence of ICTs on parents/Adolescents relationships among staff families of Federal College of Education Technical Omoku. The objective of this study include to find out ways in which ICTs influence parents/adolescents relationships among academic staff families of Federal College of Education Technical Omoku, to explore into the nature of social interactions that exist between the parents and adolescent In the context of ICTs use, and also to examine the ways the parents relates with their children in respect of ICTs use. This study adopted survey design and selected a sample population of 30 participants from the staff families of Federal College of Education Technical Omoku using purposive sampling technique. The data obtained were analyzed with weighted mean, the results show that the adolescents’ use of ICTs do not foster social pathology among them or hamper good parents/adolescents relationships, though the parents are to be concerned with their children's ICTs based activities. The influence of ICTs on parents/adolescents relationship is a function of the level of the knowledge and use of technologies by both them, Adolescents ICTs use does not necessarily cause relational difficulties with parents nor lead to social pathology, nevertheless the parents should emphasize the need for new media literacy among the adolescents in this ever changing new media environment that characterize the knowledge-based economy. Keywords: Parents, Adolescents, Society, Staff, Relationship Introduction It is expected that people will experience changes in society during their lifetime, some of these might be rival, others subtle and difficult to grasp, whilst some changes are very dramatic in nature, very often these changes originate in technological development that get introduced into society. At present, society at large is amid an explosion of information and communication technologies that are neither rival nor subtle. This development has introduced what seems to be an almost unlimited way or new ways in which to communicate together and disseminate information, and to use these technologies for entertainment. This "digital revolution", according to Walsh (2000, p-69) began with the introduction of the computer, and eventually led to a situation where all satellite and telecommunications and digitization processes are controlled by the computer. Initially, the concept new information and communication technologies' was used to encompass all these technologies. Since then a more simplistic concept, Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) was introduced. It can be speculated that this was necessitated by the convergence of media technologies (Montgomery, 2000). ~ 127 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 In a related sense Young (2002, P.I) states that the "convergence of microelectronics, communication and computing technologies has given rise to new information systems, which have the ability to manipulate information rapidly in a number of ways and deliver it with an incredible speed at very low cost". This manipulative attribute of the new information systems has not only given rise to new categories of communications services but also made it possible for information to travel at nearly the speed of light. We are, therefore in a global market of information where the flow of information no longer respects national boundaries (Ukonu, 2006: P. 96). The attended changes in the sphere of information and communications process occasioned by rapidly evolving new technologies are by no means peripheral to the daily lives of people (Klein rock, 2004: P.193). The common use of terminology such as GSM, e-mail, Internet cafe's surfing the net, cyberspace and global village are indicative of how entrenched ICTs have become in today's society. Ifeagwali (2005: P. 222) notes that "the new communication technologies continue to advance rapidly and are impacting on lives and situations of the people across the globe in an increasingly meaningful way". This development patterns lifestyles of people significantly across all social strata; more importantly, family interactions and relationships have come under the enormous influence of the new media environment. Leiand and colleagues (1999) argue that the digital technologies of today are isolating parents more deeply from their children than even before. ICTs have no traces behind for parents to know what their children are engaging with, and thereby lessen the opportunity for reality checks from parents. Some families have obtained some of these technologies for personal and have access to Internet facilities both at home and in workplaces. In some families there are rules about when and for how long some of the available ICTs like computer, video game, Internet can be used, though some do not. In some cases. Internet surfing or computer use is an individual activity, in other forms; the computer is placed in the living room or in some other central spot, so that it becomes part of the general family activities. In Nigeria, many of the higher institutions of learning have adopted Computing and Internet technologies, which are accessible to all in the campus. Some of the new technologies like (Computers and Internet facilities) are provided by the institutions and/or by commercial providers. Even some tie staff have these technologies at home for private use because the pervasive penetration and diffusion of the technologies in society. Unavoidably, some parents have become connected to the Internet because of its importance; particularly as they realized that the information and communication services available through the facility can allow them to be in constant contact with their children and grand children who do not live in the immediate vicinity. On the other hand, there are also tales of families being severally disrupted by the Internet addiction of one of the parents or children. The question remains: What happens when ICTs are introduced into the home? Do they bolster or impede interactions among family members? Do they help in keeping families together or tire them apart? Does the influence of ICTs depend on the user and the use? To this extent, this paper examined the impact of ICTs on parents/ adolescents relations among staff families of Federal College of Education Technical Omoku, in the school, there are Internet and Computing facilities available for use by the staff and the students through subscription. Also there are commercial cyber centers in and around the campus and in the town, which have increased the availability and accessibility of the technologies to people in the school. ~ 128 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 The Problem The family traditionally has been the primary socializes of children, with its role amplified and extended by the school, the church, mosque or temple, and the larger community. These days, there is another powerful player on the socialization science-new information and communications technologies. In today's world, children spend an average of three hours daily in front of the screen, that is, at least 50% of their time is spent more with the new media than with any other out-of-school activity including: Homework, being with family or friends, and/or reading (Moscovitch, 2007). Through these media interactions, children are exposed to a staggering amount entertainment and being familiar about how to achieve success in life, about who has power or not, about violence Internet relations and what constitutes the good life. The new media provides children with the satisfaction of being in the know, of going behind the scenes and of learning about the world and about people. An example that illustrates this very clearly is a study carried out by Davie, et al., (2004) on adolescents' use of cell phones in which he found that teenagers' use thetechnology (cell phone) to establish and maintain relationships outside of their parents' control parents may limit their children's use of cell phones with the amount of airtime they are willing to try but the children can interact with whom they want and where they want, without parents over hearing their conversations. Establishing relationships outside parental control, however, is not a unique phenomenon that applies only to the youth, of today, what is unique about the "net generation, according to weight, (2001, P. 37) is that ICTs increase the opportunities for children to socialize without parental knowledge. Additionally, there is the possibility that the ease and enthusiasm with which children engage with ICTs may surpass their parents' enthusiasm and capacity to adapt to this new environment (Bersonard & Berson, 2003) when children become the more techno-literate members in a household it may disrupt the guiding role of the parents (Stahl and Fritz, 2002). Although Roe (2000) was more cautious in his assessment of the impact of ICTs on the family structure, he agreed that the family dynamics in a home may change due to the introduction of new technologies. The possibility that children's use of ICTs impacts on their relationships with their parents' commands research on this issue. Researchers claim that few studies have explored what these technologies mean for children (Hinn, Leader and Bruce, 2001; Robberts, 200q; Sulranta, 2003). Besides, Prezza et al. (2004) claim that few studies have been done on psycho-social consequences of cell phone use among children in today's world. Therefore, the problem this study seeks to unravel is the various ways in which ICTs impact parents-children relationship among staff families of Federal College of Education Technical Omoku. Purpose of the Study This study explored the impact of ICTs on parents/adolescents relationships of staff families of Federal College of Education Technical Omoku Obtaining information from the adolescents on the nature of their parents' actions and reactions with them when they engage with any ICTs can provide insight on how ICTs influence parents/adolescents relationships. The specific objectives include: 1. To find out ways in which ICTs influence parents/adolescents relationships among academic staff families of Federal College of education Technical Omoku. ~ 129 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 2. 3. 4. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 To explore into the nature of social interactions that exist between the parents and their adolescent children in the context of ICTs use; To examine the ways the parents relate with their children in respect of ICTs use. To make some useful recommendations that will foster healthy relationships between parents and their children in the context of ICTs use. Scope of the study This study focused essentially on these ICTs: Cable TV, Internet, Computer and Cell phones. Studies on the social impacts of ICTs in the family were reviewed; this study is delimited to adolescent children of the academic staff families of Federal College of Education Technical Omoku. Research Questions 1. 2. 3. Based on the problem stated, the following questions are formulated to guide the study. In What ways does ICT influence parents/adolescents relationships among academic staff families of Federal College of education, Technical Omoku? What is the nature of social interactions that exist between the parents and their adolescent children in the context of ICTs use? How do parents relate with their children in respect of ICTs use? Review of Related Literature Much of the research in this field focuses on whether these technologies are beneficial or harmful to the well being of its users, resulting in a binary determinism amongst researchers (casast ai, 2001 p. 24). There are three discernable proponents in this debate; those who have doom and gloom perspective, those who are accentuating the positives of these technologies, and a middle ground claiming no easy judgment can be passed on the impact of ICTs. What follows is an overview of the arguments posed by the "Utopias" and "dystopias" (Suoranta, 2003, p.4) as well as by those who are more cautious in their conclusions on the influence of ICTs. The 'Dystopias' A contracting effect of ICTs is that whilst offering instant and multiple ways to interact with others, the very same technology can also deny the basic need for .face to face contact and human touch. People can set up their offices at home and conduct their business online without having to interact with others in person. It is also possible to do shopping and banking via the Internet, thereby lessening the opportunities to socialize with others in a more conventional way. In a dramatic analogy Cole and Cole (1998) compare this scenario with the solitary confinement of a prisoner. They argue that it is a basic need for human beings to have regular face to face contact with others, and that ICTs are preventing people from satisfying this need. Their analogy may be an overstatement but the fact remains that the facilities offered by ICTs have supplemented, and at times substituted, conventional ways of relating in- person with others. Those who have a negative view of ICTs argue that people are being isolated from one another despite the abundance of ways to interact through ICTs, and that this is detrimental to their psychological well being (Kraut, et al, 1998). ~ 130 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 There is also a concern that "N-geners", TapscoH's description of the youth that are growing up in a digital world of computerized technology (Aphek, 2003, p. 4), will substitute in-person socialization with their peers with online activities, related to people increasing interacting with others in the absence of physical proximity, are the findings of a study in Japan where cell-phone communication between parents and children was explored. For the participants, the meaning of 'being available' was equated with 'being at home, leading the researchers of conclude that the parent-child relationship is rendered placeless through the use of cell phones (Minoura in Suoranta, 2003). In a social commentary on adolescents of today. Bean and Moni (2003) see the fluid space created by the Internet as disrupting a fixed sense of place for children that can spill over to their inner world. The strongest argument posed by the dystopia is that exposure to indecent material, such as excessive violence, hate speech and explicit sex, correlate positively with anti-social behavior. This also pertains to children's use of cell phones. The host of filtering services that are available to safeguard children on the Internet is further proof of this concern. Postman in Aphek (2003, p. 2) argues this to the extent where he concludes that the traditional lines between childhood and adulthood are being blurred by children's easy access to the 'secrets of the adult world'. It has been indicated earlier that parents do not meet children's enthusiasm for ICTs as entertainment and socializing tools (Berson and Berson, 2003; Casas et al, 2001; September and Savahl, 2002). This may lead to a situation where the socialization of children is increasingly facilitated by new technologies without parental guidance. In a study conducted by Stahl and Fritz (2002) only 100/0 of seven to twelfth graders reported that their parents supervise their visit to chat room or Websites. This view is confirmed by the previously mentioned South African study in which the researchers concluded met parents influences over children's interaction with ICTs is "negligle" (Savahl and September, 2004 Considering the possible negative aspects of these technologies and parent's reluctance to act as agents that will guide children in this digital environment, it is no surprise that some researchers will have a 'doom and gloom' attitude towards ICTs. The 'Utopias These researchers revel in the opportunities that ICTs offer to children. According to the Utopias, computerized technologies satisfy children's natural curiosity and also stimulate their creativity (8ackgham in Suoranta, 2003). They accentuate that ICTs are opening up new horizons of information for children and are a 'library of libraries' (8iocca, 2000, p. 24). Other researchers have seen the Internet as a "mega publishing house" (Aphek, 2003, p. 5) because of the opportunities that children have to voice their opinions through the many websites on the Internet. The sense of empowerment and autonomy offered by the ICTs to children can be explained by examining what the different technologies have to offer to the youth. Owing a cell phone permits children to acquire adult status (Prezza et al; 2004) because teenagers are less dependent on their parents to interact with their peers. With computers and the Internet technologies, the sense of autonomy that adolescents experiences, results from having access to information that is often not regulated by parents, and from acquiring computer related skills (Kline and Botterili, 2001, Izenberg and Lieberman, 1998). This is evident in a study on young Canadians in a wired world (Environics, 2001), which found that 47% of these tens claim that they have learned to use the internet by experimenting on their own. Thus, mastering information and communication technologies can be conducive to adolescent's sense of achievement and autonomy. ~ 131 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Tyier (2002) contends that Internet use does not foster pathology but is merely a new way of doing the same activities in which children used to engage. It is argued that outline relationships can help people to overcome their initial anxieties to engage in face to face meeting (Tyier, 2002) and may offer social support for teens with problematic relationship (Wblak, Mitchell & Finkehor, 2003). Addressing the concern that online communications can lead to sensory and social deprivation (Cole and Cole, 1998), some researchers found that it would be unusual for relationships, which were established online, to remain electronic in nature (Tyier, 2002).This implies that people still engage in face to face interaction with one another, and online communication is used to strengthen offline relationships and ICTs are merely offering additional ways to maintain these relationships (Gross et al, 2002 & Krout et al, 2002). Those who are optimistic about the benefits of ICTs argue that moral panics about the effects of these technologies are merely blocking the enhancement of the benefits offered by technology (Walton and Jansen, 2003). The 'Middle ground A middle ground in these two opposing ends of the debate on the influence of ICTs points to a balanced approach towards these technologies that denies an 'either/or judgment on the possible effects of lCTs on the user.' Weinrock (2004) discusses the pros and cons of new technologies at great length. According to his analysis, the development that brought many benefit for its users, have at the same time opened the backdoor for the darker side to enter. Montgomery (2000) also claims that the digital culture of today holds both promises and perils for the youth. It is instructive to note that any discussion on the possible effects of these technologies should be accompanied by qualification of the context and modality of use as well as a description of the user's characteristics. The point of departure is the acknowledgment that technology in itself carries no meaning (De Ber, 1998) but that the user constructs the significance thereof. Research conducted by Wolak and Colleagues (2003) into adolescent's online relationship illustrate this clearly. They found that teens (both gender) who experienced serious conflict with their parents and had high levels of personal problems, such as peer victimization and delinquency, were prone to form close online relationships. In contradiction to the 19% of the teens who did not experience serious personal problems engaged in such relationship via ICTs. It was also reported that he less vulnerable participants had a sound social support network offline, and discussed their online relationships with those people rendering them less vulnerable for exploitation. In assessing whether adolescent's engagement with ICTs is harmful or beneficial in respect of, parent-child relationships, it is necessary that the social context and development stage of the user be taken into (Gross et ai, 2002). Gross et al (2003) found that adolescent's online communications were to a large degree only an extension of their off-line relationships; the internet is but another tool in their communication. The conclusion drawn from these two studies is that it cannot be assumed that everyone who engages in online relationships will automatically establish a close online relationship through digital communications (Gross et al, 2002; Wolak. et al, 2003). If close relationships develop, it may be harmful for the more vulnerable segment of wars that for others it may have the opposite effect. The youth that engage in online relationships is extremely diverse and that makes it almost impossible to generalize research results (Wolak et al, 2003) Tyier (2002) supports this evaluation of digital technologies. According to his research findings, people change technology to satisfy their psychological needs rather than technologies shaping these needs, and that the social impact of these technologies depends on the social context in which they are utilized. This resonates with a ~ 132 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 study Selnyn, Gorrad and Furong (2003) who found that adult's use of ICTs is patterned according to long term, pre-existing socio-economic factors. The conclusion is that those are more affluent and explored to lCTs in their work will be more adaptive to the digital landscape in their personal lives. The difficulty that researchers have in unraveling the impact of ICTs is summarized in the two longitudinal studies by Kraut and colleagues in 1998 and 2002. If using the Internet for online communications was found to be associated with symptoms of depression and social withdrawal, it becomes difficult to explain why the research yielded contradictory results. From these studies and others that were found to report contradictory results of the possible impact of lCTs it can be conceded that there is no simple main effect that lCTs have on the average person (McKenna & Bargh in Tyier, 2002).This should caution researchers from a hasty generalization of their findings. Turkle (1996) captured the ambiguous nature of the influence of ICTs when she describes the Internet as a Rorschach test where it is the user that determines the meaning of the technology. It has been indicated in the literature that with vulnerable youth, for example those who experience problematic relationships with their parents, the use of these technologies might be harmful. This means that it is not necessarily the technology in itself that can be problematic, but rather the social context that determines its impact. In exploring the impact of ICTs on parent-adolescent relationships the existing context of their relationship will be an important contributor. The impact will also be affected by the 'how' and 'what' of teenagers' engagement with ICTs. Methodology The research design adopted in this study was exploratory. Exploratory study is deemed appropriate when the research is conducted in a relatively unknown field. The literature review indicated that there is a paucity of information on this study in Nigeria, An exploratory research design does not aim to provide detailed and replicable data, but is a preliminary investigation of the topic at hand (Bobbie & Mouton, 2001) The population of this study consisted of all the adolescent children of the academic staff of the college that are living with their parents, whose age range is between the ages of 12 and 14 years with a mean age of 13 years. Out of the population, 30 adolescents from the staff families were selected using purposive sampling method. This is in line with established research practice where the researcher is looking for participants with particular characteristics, in this case the age group who share a common interest (Kelly, 1999) which is lCTs use. The meaning of the technology It has been indicated in the literature that with vulnerable youth, for example those who experience problematic relationships with their parents, the use of these technologies might be harmful. This means that it is not necessarily the technology in itself that can be problematic, but rather the social context that determines its impact. In exploring the impact of ICTs on parent-adolescent relationships the existing context of their relationship will be an important contributor. The impact will also be affected by the 'how' and 'what' of teenagers' engagement with ICTs. This study is located in the Federal College of Education, (Technical) Omoku,. Data for the study were obtained through structured questionnaire designed with four point Likert rating scale with a criterion mean of 2.5 together with interpersonal interviews and the outcomes were analyzed using frequency percentages and weighted mean. ~ 133 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Results Table 1 Response to the impact of ICTs on parents-adolescents relationship S/N ITEM SA A D SD 1 ICT use at home has facilitated the socialization parental guidance Adolescents ICT broaden their spheres of social interactions and relationships both at home and outside ICT use at home lessens your parents’ opportunities to socialize with you in a more conventional way Parent-adolescent relationship is rendered placeless through the use of cell phones. Adolescent ICT use at home lessens the opportunities for reality-checks from parents Parent’s involvement in their children ICT use at home is unsatisfactory Adolescents’ use of ICTs should always be regulated by their parents When adolscent’s ICT use is unregulated by their parents, it could pose serious relational problems between them and their parents at home When children become the more techno-literate members at home it disrupts the guiding role of the parents Your ICT use at home offers opportunities for constructive interaction between parents and you ICT use at home is isolates you from your parents If adolescent’s ICT use is unregulated by their parents at home social pathology is inevitable 8 15 20 36 45 4 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 MEANS 13 TOTA L 56 8 2 91 3.0 9 36 8 57 1.89 8 6 14 19 47 1.05 12 18 22 10 62 2.04 8 12 30 9 50 1.9 12 15 40 2 59 1.9 4 3 34 11 52 1.7 16 15 42 - 73 2.2 56 33 6 2 97 3.03 12 6 28 11 57 1.89 30 9 30 9 60 2.00 1.88 Source: Analysis of field survey The Table results show that the adolescents' use of ICTs does not foster social pathology among them nor hamper good parents-children relationships, though the parents are to be concerned with their children's ICT s based activities. It may be true that children are adapting more easily to phenomenon of digital technologies than parents (Montgomery, 2000, Wright, 2001) but it is not that straight forward to conclude that children are prone to reject their parent's authority over them because of the parent's lack of techno-literacy. ~ 134 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Without repeating the debate amongst researchers on this, it seems as if the participants and their parents are in agreement, that ICTs pose no real harm to its user. Relating this to their relationship, than foster a mutually positive outside to one another. It can be speculated that when parents become convinced that real dangers lurk in ICTs; this will become a strain on the relationship, especially when the teenager is not convinced about these dangers. Conclusion and Recommendations It is abundantly clear that the new technologies are part of the warp and woof of our everyday lives. In some homes, TV goes on with the first cup of tea and for many; the flickering light of the screen is the last thing they see before they turn in for the night. Factor in computer. Video game systems, CD players and Tape recorders are part of the private domains of many homes. Many parents no doubt are becoming increasingly connected to the Internet as they realize that e-mail allows them to be in constant contact with their children and grandchildren who do not live in the immediate vicinity. On the other hand, there were cases in the area under study of families that were severely disrupted by the internet addiction of one of the parents or children. It was observed that many of the families have rules regarding ICTs use, especially at home, however, in some families, watching of TV or computer use is an individual activity. Well on thing is certain: the media are so pervasive and so influential- in terms of how family time is used, in terms of their socializing power, which parents need to help their children become discriminating media users. Children may be very familiar with media contents; that does not necessarily imply any critical awareness of what the content means. Teaching one's children to be savvy media consumers is much a part of parenting these days as teaching them other basic skills. While this may hold true for cable TV, matters become different when we enter the digital universe. Here, the youth are more at ease and knowledgeable than the majority of their parents, however, it does not mean that the parents should mind what their children do on-line. Exploring some of the riches of new media can also be shared activity between parents and children. Lest we forget, interactive equals interaction implies connection and connection is what keeps a family strong. References Aphek, E. (2003). Children of the Information Age: A Reversal of Roles. (0); http://www.acm.org/ubiquity /view/eaphek-2html. Accessed on 14 April. BBCC News (2Q03). (0): http//news.bbc.co.uk/i/hi/technology/3133192.stm Accessed on 23 May 2004. Berk, L.E. (2000). Child development. (5"/\ Ed). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Berson, I.R. & Berson, MJ. (2003). Digital literacy for effective citizenship Social Education. 67(3), 164-175 Biocca, F. (2000). New media technology and youth: Trends in the evolution of new media. Journal of' Adolescent Youth, 27(2), 22-29. Casas, F., Alsinet, c., Perez, T., Figure, c., Conales, M. & Pasual, S. (2001). Information technologies and communications between parents and children. Psychology in Spain, 5(1), 33-46. Cole, L. and Cole, M. (1998). Sensory isolation while being a prisoner of the information age. Communication World, 15(4), 40-47. Davie, R., Panting, C. & Charlton, T. (2004). Mobile phone ownership and usage among pre-adolescent. Telemtics and Informatics, 21, 359-373. De Beer, A.S. (1998). Mas.? media: Towards the millennium-the South African handbook of mass communication. Pretoria: Van Schaick. ~ 135 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Environics, (2001). Young Canadians in a wired world: The students' view. Report prepared by Environics Media Awareness Network, Retrieved on 3 May, 2008, from http://\vw.media-wareness.ca/engligh /specialntiatives/survevs/students-survev,cftn. Gross, E.F., Juvonen, J. & Gable, S.L. (2002). Internet use and well being in adolescence. Journal of Social Issues, 58 (1), 75-98. Hinn, M.D., Leander, K. & Bruce, B. C. (2001). Case studies of a virtual school. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 45 (2), 156-167 Izenberg, N., & Nd Liberman, D.A. (1998). The web, communication trends, and children's health-part 4: How children use the web. Clinical pediatrics 37 (6), 335-340. Kleinrock, L. (2004). The Internet rules of engagement: Then and now. Technology in Society, 26 (2-3), 193-207. Kline, S. & Botterill, J. (2001). Media use audiforB.C teens: Key findings. Report Prepared For Distribution To B.C. Schools, Media Analysis Laboratory, Simon Fraser University. British Columbia, Retrieved on 3 May, 2008, from http://www. sfu-ca/media-Iab. Kraut, R., Patterson, M, Landmark, V., Kiesler, S., Mukopadhyay, T. & Scherlis, W. (1998). Internet paradox: A social technology that reduces social involvement and psychological well-being. American Psychologist 53 (9), 1017-1031. Kraut, R., Kiesler, S., Boneva, B., Cummings, J., Helgeson, V. and Crawford, A. (2002). Internet paradox revisited. Journal of Social Issues, 58(1), 49-75. Leiand, J., Gordon, D., Underwood, A., Weingarten, T. & Figuero, A. (1999). The secret life of teens. Newsweek, 133 (19), 4-50. Montgomery, K. (2000). Youth and digital media: A policy research agenda. Journal of Adolescent Health, 27 (2), 61-68. Prezza, M., Pacilli, M.G. & Dinelli, S. (2004). Loneliness and Ew technologies in a group of Roman adolescents. Computers in Human Behavior, 20 (5), 691- 702. Roberts, D,F. (2000). Media and youth: Access, exposure, and privatization. Journal Of Adolescent Health, 27 (2), S-14. Roe, K. (2000). Adolescents' media use: A European view. Journal of' Adolescent Health 17(2), 15-21. Selwyn, S. And September, R. & Savahl, S. (2002). The influence of new information and communication technologies on children's Lives. The South African Study. Child and Youth Research and Training Programme. University of the Western Cape, Bellville. Unpunished Report. Stahl, C. & Fritz, N. (2002). Internet safety: Adolescents' self report Journal of Adolescent Health, 31(1,) 7-10. Suiranta, J. (2003). Youth and information and communication technologies. Retrieved on 3 May, 2008, from http- ^wvvw.un.org/esajscdev/unyin/helsink/ch 12 ict.suoranta.doc Turkic, S. (1996). Life on the screen: identity in the age of the Internet. London: Weidenfield & Nicolson. Tyier, T. R. (2002). Is the Internet changing social life? It seems the more things change, the more they stay the same. Journal of Social Issues, 58(1), 71-85. Walton, M. & Jansen, C. (2003). Drawing the line: Violence and other issues in children's use of video games and gaming. Cape Town: HSRC Seminar. Unpublished Paper. Wolak, J., Mitchell, KJ. & Finkelhor, D. (2003). Escaping or connecting: characteristics of youth who form close online relationships. Journal of Adolescence, 26(1), 105-119. Wright, C. (2001). Children and technology: Issues, challenges. And opportunities . Childhood Education, 78(1), 37-49. YATJ, Y. Z. (2002) "Globalization, ICTs and the new Imperialism: Perspectives on Africa in the Global Electronic Village (GEV)", Retrieved on 27 May, 2007, from http/\www.codesria.orgI'Archives/gaIO/papers gal 0 12/1CT Yau.htm Young, Jeffrey R. (2004, November 9) "Does Digital Divide Rhetoric Do more than good," The Chronicle of Higher Education 48: 1 - 5, Retrieved on 21 Nov. 2007, from http://chromcle.com/free/v48/il 1/1 la05/01 .htm). "- ~ 136 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Entrepreneurship Business Education Capabilities in Emerging Poverty Alleviation Programme in Nigeria Pac Ordu Naboth-Odums, A School of Business Education Federal College of Education (Technical) Omoku-Nigeria Doi:10.5901/mjsss.2012.v3n13p131 Abstract The paper discussed to unveil the economic potentials in business education programme with emphasis on educational and employability capabilities. Inspite of the high unemployment rate of graduates, some scholars have encouraged effective implementation of business education curriculum objectives. The paper made extensive use of these scholarly opinions that derive their basis from national education policy, NCCE business education objective and the SIWES curriculum. The paper concluded that business education programme curriculum has the capability of enhancing graduate self-employment to reduce incidences of graduate unemployment in the country. The paper saw the importance of professionally qualified business educators to teach and administer their programme for effective growth and development. It was recommended among others that the challenge of quality business education teachers need to be pursued with zeal to eliminate the presence of interlopers. Keywords: Entrepreneurship, employability, objectives, business educators, interlopers. Introduction Employment is the key to every persons endeavours. The nature of employment may vary but the underscoring point is the search for a stable source of income. In some cases, education has been noted by some persons to be an area that is worthy of investment to guarantee their future economic contribution to the society. The conventional problem of unemployment has placed on man the additional pressure to search for productive educational area such as can be found in business education programme. This is because business education programme, according to Ogbonny (2010) is that aspect of the educational programme that provide knowledge, skill, understanding and attitude needed to perform in a business environment. The understanding that the investment in business education is capable of giving the student that desired capabilities he require to be able to effectively fend for himself has contributed to higher number of students in the programme than any other in vocational education generic programme. If properly implemented, the objective of business education programme is capable of inculcating in learners the ability to float small scale businesses on graduation. This will, in no small measure, make them employers and wealth creators in the economy which is the focus of government in Nigerian today. ~ 137 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Knowledge capabilities in business education programme Poverty alleviation capability is the possession of knowledge and skill competencies that holds the ace to enhancing an individual’s power of economic sustainability. These capabilities are found to be inculcated in the context of business education curriculum where the focus is, on one hand, to help learners develop mindset for self-employment. The idea behind the introduction of entrepreneurship education in higher institutions is to realize the dream of private sector economy. This was recognized by the national education policy (2004) which in section 41 stated inter-alia: Technical and vocational education is used as a comprehensive term referring to those aspects of the educational process involving, in addition to general education, the study of technologies and related sciences and the acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, understanding and knowledge relating to occupations in various sectors of economic and social life, p. 29. Underscoring the importance of the above, the policy went ahead to state the followings in the same section: Technical and vocational education is further understood to be: an integral part of general education; a means of preparing for occupational fields and for effective participation in the world of work; an aspect of lifelong learning and a preparation for responsible citizenship; an instrument for promoting environmentally sound sustainable (sic) development; a method of alleviating poverty. Category of courses in business education Entrepreneurship business education curriculum content is positioned to deliver certain employability skill contents to participating students. As an ingetgral part of general education preparation, contents contain two broad categories of courses – the general education category and the departmental category. The general education category are courses meant to educate the students on the conventional education principles and perspectives. These courses are found to be commonly applicable to most students in all tertiary institutions as grass-root courses which they must offer to give them the foundations of education. In addition to these courses are those departmental ones that have also been grouped into two broad categories – skill courses and operational courses. The skilled courses are offered from their first semester to their graduating semester. These are provided with contents to develop skills, knowledge competencies and attitudes in the student to enable him acquire the needed vocational capabilities in his occupational field. It is the ability of the student to acquire these vocational capabilities that places him in an employability skills playing arena. With these, the student goes out with the cognitive and psycho motive competencies to practice in his occupational field. The objective of operational courses is to enable the student to understand the concept of ensuring success in any human environment. This brings him to understanding the role of human factors in the relationship between his business outfit and the society. ~ 138 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Corroborative intervention Corroborating the stance of national policy on education in regards to the role of business education, the National Commission for Colleges of Education NCCE (2008) stated the objective of business education as: a. to produce well qualified and competent Nigeria Certificate in Education (NCE) graduates in business subjects who will be able to teach business subjects in our secondary schools and other related educational institutions. b. to produce NCE business teachers who will be able to inculcate the vocational aspect of business education into the society. c. to produce NCE business teachers who will be involved in the much desired revolution of vocational development right from the primary and secondary schools. d. to equip students with necessary competencies so as to qualify them for a post NCE degree programme in business education. e. to equip graduates with the right skills that will enable them to engage in a life of work in the office as well as for self-employment. Teaching perspective of business education programme From the above, the NCCE has looked at the NCE graduates from four perspectives. On one hand, is the teaching perspective for graduates designed to be competent to teach and inculcate the necessary knowledge at the junior secondary school levels. The objective is focused at the production of quality teachers. Stressing on the need for quality in the production of teachers, the policy stated that no nation can be greater than the quality of her teachers. This means that the NCE teachers must be given quality education to enable them deliver the same quality of resources in their effort to teach learners. Invariably, it further implies that the teachers of these NCE focused students must also be highly qualified in their various occupational fields to justify the dream of the policy. Challenges of poor quality teachers in business education programme In his attempt to give directions on the quality of teachers, Bdliya (2010) opined that teachers of any tertiary institution programme must be university graduates with post graduate qualifications in their disciplines together with professional qualifications. He further informed that a significant proportion of teachers in Nigeria are untrained or not qualified resulting in substandard institutions of teacher education. He emphasized that the nature of challenges confronting teacher education in Nigeria may be dubbed the problem of numbers and the problem of relevance. These problems bear relevance to the state of affairs in business education teacher production where Nwosu (2009) lamented that it is only in business education programme that you can find the highest number of unclassified degree certificate holders claiming to be teachers of the programme. These holders of unclassified degree certificates parade themselves as business educators, and have in some cases, as a result of their numbers and the instrumentality of their institutions, subdue and intimidate professionally qualified business educators. In his view, Osuala (2004) opined that those who do ~ 139 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 not possess the needed university degree certificates and are teaching in business education programme are known as grasshoppers and interlopers. In his contributions to the challenges of quality and numbers controlling business education programme, Odumuyiwa (2011) warned that the Association of Business Educators of Nigeria (ABEN) frown at a situation where non-professionally qualified people sit to decide the fate of business education programme in Nigeria. Stressing further he said that nobody can give to another person that which he does not have. By this warning, he means that a non-business educator who sits to teach, or administer business education programme would, rather than giving what is professional to the learners, give that which he has, which automatically would be at variance with the objectives of business education. In his opinion, Ekpenyong in Ekpenyong (2010) has this analogy to create about the role of teachers: It is possible to teach classics in such a way as to make it a soulless mechanical grind.It is possible to teach handicraft so as to make it a vehicle for liberal education. The difference lies in how the subject is taught, p. 6. Educational prospects of business education students From the second part of the objective of business education as seen from the perspective of NCCE, the programme is to enable students develop competencies to enable them pursue degree programme in business education. Under this consideration, the objective opened a leeway for these NCE students to pursue academic careers in a way that they would acquire post graduate qualifications to enable them teach in business education departments of higher institutions. The presence of qualified lecturers will encourage the development and growth of business education programme thereby closing the bridge through which grasshoppers and interlopers use to gain entry into the programme. Self employment prospects of business education students The third perspective of NCCE business education objective holds the ace for those students who would graduate with the right knowledge, skill competencies and attitudes capable of enabling them to engage in a life of work in the office. Uzor and Ike (2010) explained that in the office environment today, those who possess relevant business skills have better gainful employment opportunities than those who lack such skills. From this explanation, he opined that skill is the ability possessed by the individual to do something well, which he gained through training and experience. He therefore concluded that a skill can be said to be one’s personal competencies in the performance of specific tasks acquired after a period of training or experience. This means that the competencies acquired by the business education student is effectively used to carry out his duties in the office as employee in which ever business organisation he is employed. His contribution through effective use of skills enhances productivity and helps others to carry out their works effectively too. Ekpenyong (2010), in his view explained that business education programme curriculum is intended to provide learners with both intellectual and occupational skills. To him, these skills are intended to make graduates of business education function effectively not only as employees but also as self-reliant persons and therefore stand out as wealth creators of the society. Discussing further, he explained that since business education is one of the subunits of technical and vocational education, the followings represent the goals of business education: ~ 140 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 to develop individuals who will be properly equipped with the prerequisite knowledge and skills for productive work life; to develop individuals who will be capable of meeting the modern business and technological challenges; to develop a pool of competent and reliable technical manpower, capable of being mobilized in times of national economic emergencies; to develop in the youth the right attitudes and skills towards work; equipping the youth with the requisite knowledge and skills for paid or selfemployment; to prepare the youth for meeting community, state and national economic aspirations; to enable the youth to choose and perfect on those areas of business education for which they have interests and aptitudes; to equip the learners to develop skills for making rational economic decisions; to enable the learners to relate their expertise to the needs of their communities; to prepare business and industrial managers who will be capable of meeting technological and managerial complexities of modern industry; to provide the vocational and technical knowledge in various areas of business. P.4. Productivity in entrepreneurship business education A close study of the educational policy of Nigeria shows that the policy demands of business education graduates to acquire the type of education that would enable him to have a holistic and generic view of general education. In addition to this, it requires the graduates to have skills and technological knowledge to enable him fit into the mainstream of our economic activities. This means that productivity of a nation is of primary importance in the objective design of business education programme through its focus to meet the needs of individual learners. An attempt to meet the needs of individual learners is an attempt to meet the needs of the industry and the society. But Ekpenyong (2010) explained that the traditional method of instructions in business education created a gap between schooling and the world of work. This missing resources in the place of instructions are responsible for the inability of business education graduates from venturing into self-reliant employment but instead, prefer to join the endless queue of unemployed graduates. This gap was first recognized by National Board for Technical Education (NBTE) when it included in her Polytechnic products curriculum the Students Industrial Works Experience Scheme (SIWES). This was followed by the inclusion of SIWES in the minimum standard of NCE programme. As business education programme is a beneficiary of this scheme, her students are expected to acquire practical knowledge of business operation within the three months of participation in the schemes. At the SIWES work stations, industrial supervisors who understand the concept of the programme ensure that student-employees are properly put through the entrepreneurial operations to close the missing gap resulting from theoretical lessons of the student while at school. The role of industrial supervisors are of paramount importance in the entrepreneurial development of business education students. If the students are well groomed, they return back to school fully aware of the practical aspects of what they had been thought in class before proceeding on Students’ Industrial Works Experience Scheme (SIWES). On the other hand, it ~ 141 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 students are poorly handled, they return empty and worse than their state of preparedness before they proceeded on SIWES. Business educators’ entrepreneurial roles in teaching Professionally qualified business educators teach business subjects with a view to linking contents to entrepreneurship setting. Virtually all the departmental courses in business education programme are entrepreneurial in nature and are designed to teach students the operations of business organizations. This means that courses in business education curriculum have entrepreneurial impacts to play if properly handled by the teacher. This brings the author to boldly insist that it is only where a professionally qualified business educator teaches students that he can take the joy to expand entrepreneurial context of the curriculum content for the advantage of students. This has been the concern of NCCE objective when it states among others that the programme hopes to equip graduates with the right skills that will enable them to engage in a life of work in the office as well as for self-employment. Business educators, in their attempts to teach students, put learners through the process of what Okoli (2010) explained that in business education, people have more opportunities to exercise creative freedom, higher self esteem and greater sense of control over their own lives. This has to be so because entrepreneurship business education serves as an instrument for students through which they are powered to control their future. For a student to establish the mindset for the control of his future, he needs adequate entrepreneurial knowledge of basic objectives which networks from class assignments, lessons, discussions, tests, examinations, reading habits, etc. If business educators are focused, this will eventually draw the attention of students to focus at the type of things they need to do to succeed in life such as activities that are productive to them as students rather than those activities that are unproductive. The nature of assignments from the educator to learners are those that have the capacity of helping students to discover hidden facts which invariably are transferred to business opportunity identification and his desire to exploit their service capabilities. Regarding the current level of unemployment in the country, NCE entrepreneurship business education has the potentials to reduce poverty through involvement of business education graduates in small scale business operations. This is necessary today in the country where, according to Okolocha and Ile (2008) entrepreneurship education is most relevant in economies with high incidence of unemployment. These authors went further to explain that this is so because business education programme has in its subunits, areas as accounting, finance, marketing, office management, legal and the economic environments in which a new business venture operates. Occupational career preparation in business education programme In business education programme exists lots of occupational clusters from which the horizon of students are targeted at exploiting which area to select from. Business education programme provides students with information about careers in various business occupations as future wealth creators. The provision of occupational competencies and education helps students obtain counsel on areas of his interest in the various clusters. If students are well informed about the occupations in their programme, they stand the chance of adjusting their mindsets to a particular area of business occupation desired for the future. In this regards, counseling students on their choice of ~ 142 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 business come to play where the business educator acts as a counselor to ensure that students wisely select areas of interests rather than working on influence from peer group members. Counseling business education student for effective realization of vision 20:2020, Ordu (2012) questioned the rationale behind non-professional business educator serving as counselors to business education students. He argued that these counseling staff of institutions are graduates of guidance counseling and did not in any way undergo courses to make them knowledgeable in other academic programme peculiarities. In this circumstance, he questioned how such a person could give the knowledge he does not have to students who are in need of their own peculiar occupational knowledge. He therefore concluded that business educators are better counselors for their programme than any other person. Conclusion Based on the discussions, the following conclusions are drawn: Granted that the state of graduate unemployment rate is high in Nigeria, business education programme can position the future of her graduates. This is evidenced from the provisions made for business education programme as stated by national policy on education and the Nation Commission for Colleges of Education. To capture these provisions, there is need for non-qualified teachers of business education programme to key-in their absolute loyalty in the profession by upgrading their certifications. This will enhance quality of teachers which will translate to quality delivery of curriculum contents and quality products. This will also enable the programme to position herself and effectively control teaching and learning aimed at producing students that are equipped to effect some economic contributions. With the introduction of entrepreneurship education in the programme, coupled with the existing contents that are self-employment oriented, the future is bright for business education graduates. Recommendations Having observed that business education programme has the curriculum contents that is focused at equipping graduates with capabilities to survive as wealth creator, the paper recommends as follows: 1. To maintain quality, business education programme should fish out non-professional teachers; 2. these non-professional teachers should be encouraged by their institutions to proceed on courses in business education to integrate them into the programme mainstream; 3. Allocation of teaching course to lecturers should be geared towards areas of teacher’s interest to encourage development; 4. Business educators should be encouraged to attend conferences to gain from the exchange of new knowledge and innovations that is the focus of conferences; 5. Graduating students should be encouraged to produce business plans in areas of their business interest. References Bdliya, P. (2010). Teacher Education and National Productivity. A lead paper presentation at the convocation ceremony of the Federal College of Education (Tech) Omoku, Rivers State, 23rd April. ~ 143 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Ekpenyong, L. E. (2010). Business Education and Entrepreneurship in Nigeria: The Missing Link. A lead paper presentation at the annual conference of association of business educators of Nigeria (ABEN) at Federal College of Education, Osiele, Abeokuta, 12th-15, October. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education, (4th Ed), Abuja: Federal Ministry of Education. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education, (4th Ed), Abuja: Federal Ministry of Education. Nwosu, B. N. (2009) Nwosu, Job creation through business education and the challenges of national economic empowerment and development strategy (NEEDS). Business Education Book of Readings, 1 (7): 18-27. Odumuyiwa, J. S. (2011). The place of business education programme in the emerging challenges in national development pursuit. An address of welcome presented at the 23rd Annual and 2nd International Conference of Association of Business Educators of Nigeria, Lagos, 11-15, October. Okoli, B. E. (2010). Towards development of entrepreneurship education in business education. Journal of Business and Vocational Education, 1 (1): 60-66. Okolocha, C. C. & Ile, C. M. (2008). The role of business education in promoting entrepreneurial skills in women. Business Education Journal, 6 (2): 221-233 Ordu, P. (2012). Introduction to Vocational Education. Omoku: Jef Computers Services. Osuala, E. C. (1998). Foundations of Vocational Education. Onitsha: Cape Publishers International Ltd. Osuala, E. C. (2004). Principles and methods of business and computer education. Enugu: Cheston Agency Ltd. Uzor, O. and Ike, B. O. (2010). Business education and employability skills in the e-era. Journal of Business and Vocational Education, 1 (1): 54-59. ~ 144 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Innovative Methods and Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning M.N Modebelu A.N. Duvie Department of Agricultural Education Micheal Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, Abia State of Nigeria Doi:10.5901/mjss.2012.v3n13p139 Abstract Teaching is an enabling job, a noble activity and a profession that involves a lot of activities to facilitate the process. Learning, which is a positive permanent change in behaviour occurs through an effective teaching process. Effective teaching and learning centre on the teacher who is both the fulcrum on which education revolves and the key that unlocks this door of education. Teachers in the third world nations should be fully equipped for this duty. The paper examines the innovative teaching methods for effective teaching and learning. Specifically the paper discusses: concept of effective teaching and learning, impediment to effective teaching and learning, enhancement factors, innovative teaching methods and conclusion. Recommendations include empowering teachers through quality workshops on application of the four innovative teaching methods viz: information transition and reception, cognitive strategies development methods, attitude development methods and cognitive and motor skills development methods. Keywords : Innovation, teaching methods, teaching strategies, teaching techniques, teaching trends and innovative teaching method. Introduction Education has long been accepted as a veritable instrument for effecting positive change in behavior of citizens as well as raising intellectuals for national sustainable development. Federal Republic of Nigeria-FRN (2004) emphasizes the goals of education in Nigeria to include inculcation of the right type of values, attitudes, communication skills as well as life-long skills. These goals are attainable through effective classroom interaction. This interaction occurs between the teacher and the learner through the process of teaching and learning. Teaching, which is the primary function of a teacher, entails giving instruction, imparting knowledge, facts, skills, attitudes, interests and aptitude. It is the teacher that imparts on the learner through the process of teaching. Modebelu (2007) sees teaching as an activity, consisting of a body of actions and programmes planned and directed towards inducing learning through conscious and deliberate efforts of a teacher to learner. A teacher in this situation is expected to be a professional, who should consciously and deliberately utilize his or her wealth of experience, training skills, competencies right attitudes, interests, content master with the help of instructional materials, methods and skills to facilate the less experienced individuals learners. The product of teaching is learning. Learning as a concept has varied definitions due to various theories of learning that defines it in different perspectives. Anyachebelu (2005) defines learning as change in behaviour that is permanent which excludes change due to illness, fatigue, maturation and use of intoxicants. Learning therefore is a manifestation of evidence of receiving good teaching. It is the positive ~ 145 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 permanent change in behavior due to experience and practice gained that enables the learner face later situations differently. Since learning entails the holistic process of development of life-long skills etc. it then becomes exigent for educators, administrators, managers and planners to identify factors that hinders effective teaching and learning as well as factors that could enhance teaching and learning. The problem of this paper is that performances of students in external examinations such as national examination council (NECO), senior secondary certificate examination (SSCE) and other degree examinations in the three education levels in Nigeria appear inadequate. Consequently the goals of education seem not to be achieved hence there abounds half-baked graduates output of these three education levels, unemployable as well as non self reliance. The paper examines the following: Effective teaching and learning, teaching methods, teaching technique, teaching strategy, trends in teaching method, innovative teaching method/applicability, conclusions and recommendations. The main function of a teacher is teaching which entails helping to organize learning experiences, managing and promoting learning. Teachers are entrusted with the responsibility of guaranteeing learning programmes and are held responsible if students learning do not occur adequately. Effective Teaching Obi (2003) describes effective teaching as a process related to the teachers actively conscious of the individuality of each of the child, including his needs, strengths, weaknesses, growth patterns and background of experiences. This implies that effective teaching is the process by which an effective teacher creates an atmosphere for a wholesome teaching and learning. Anyachebelu (2005) defines effective teaching as a situation whereby the teacher is vast in attainment, knowledge and skills as well as possession of certain pre-requisites and acceptable practices within the codes of ethics of teaching profession Anyachebelu also asserts that effective teaching must be an embodiment of conceptual skills associated with knowledge and relevant to the teaching. Effective teaching is therefore the process of achieving the objective of teaching as well as goals of education through an effective teaching. Components of Effective Teaching Obi (2003) identifies five components of effective teaching to include: a. knowledge of the subject matter b. ability to help students with their works c. Presenting subject matter appropriately. d. Motivating students to excel and e. Firmness/fairness in preparing marking guides and grading of examination. Elements of effective teaching according to Kanno (1997) comprises of purposeful teaching, planned-teaching, content-mastery teaching ,conceptual-skills display, instructionally-aided teaching, teaching skills adapted teaching, creativity-skill teaching interest sustaining teaching and goal attainment teaching. Bello (1981) also identifies the following as necessary elements of teachers’ effectiveness: Creativity, Curiosity, Confidence, Endurance, Perseverance, Tolerance, Objectivity, Honesty, Industry, Diligence, Friendliness, Modeling, Rapport with colleagues, and Responsiveness. There cannot be effective teaching without teacher effectiveness. Teacher’s ~ 146 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 effectiveness demands for teacher's improved relationship with their work in terms of job satisfaction, productivity for efficient and effective achievement of the schools objectives and educational goals. Qualities of expected of an effective teacher include: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l. Having a clear voice Speaking at a moderate rate Using of strong voice Varying of tone of voice Using languages/terminologies easily understood Using of conventional delivery pattern Using facial expression and gestures Boldness and friendliness Close observation/supervision of the students Being a a model Being dynamic, enthusiastic, creative and innovative Seeking knowledge for up-dating (Anyachebelu 2005) Teaching Methods In as much as there are various factors that could influence positively teaching and learning, the paper sees teaching methods as very didactic. Mkpa (2009) sees teaching method as the totality of all the means, strategies, techniques and ways a teacher employs to maximize and facilitate classroom interaction. It is also a means of conveyance of facts, decaoding messages that eventually result in the realization of the stated educational objectives. Teaching method is therefore a way of doing teaching business, the procedure, orderliness, in planning and execution of teaching proper with an appropriate integration of instructional materials to achieve the objectives at the classroom level. Some of the teaching methods available for effective teaching and learning include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Lecture method Activity method Project method Discussion method Discovery method demonstration method Role playing method experimentation method Individual method Peer teaching method Team Teaching method Play-way method Excursion method/Field Trip (Kanno, 1997) These methods have been in existence and in practice while the problems of poor student’s performance, half baked graduate production and non-attainment of education goals continue to ~ 147 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 abound. There is an urgent need for a better practice and utilization of the above mentioned methods for qualitative student' learning facilitation. Enhancement Factors Innovation is the ability to introduce something new. The existing teaching methods require some level of innovativeness to make teaching and learning an interesting and worthwhile activity. Teaching methods are supposed to serve as arousers and sustainers of learners’ interest throughout the lesson. Concept of teaching technique, teaching strategy and teaching approach are supposed to supplement teaching methods and add to their effectiveness. They are also to elucidate the trends in the teaching methods and basis for choice of innovation methods. Teaching Techniques This is an entire body of procedures and methods of science, art, skill and craft in the procedures and methods used in achieving the goals of instruction at the school and out of the school to bring about change in behaviour in the desired direction. Gage (2006) describes teaching techniques as a set of unique activities that a teacher adds and utilizes to implement a particular method for effectiveness. This implies that a lecture method may employ one or a combination of upto five techniques to make innovation. Brown (1972) recommends a combination of four of teaching techniques or method to make an innovative lecture teaching method. The teacher may choose the classical techniques, the thesis technique, the problem centered technique or the sequential technique. Teaching Strategy This is the science and art of using teaching as a tool in achieving the purpose of the teachinglearning process in and outside the classroom setting. The forms of teaching strategy are based on the subject-content to be taught. This is illustrated with Chinese conclusion on teaching and strategy, saying I hear I see I do - I forget I remember I understand The above illustration agrees with Mkpa (2009) observing that people generally remember. 10% of what they read 20% of what they hear 30% of what they see 50% of what they hear and see 70% of what they say 90% of what they say as they do a thing The point being made is that innovativeness in teaching methods requires strategies plus effective use ‘and integration of instructional materials. This unequivocally helps the teacher impartation of ~ 148 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 adequate knowledge that brings about desirable changes in behaviour in the learner(s) in the process of teaching and learning situation. Teaching Approach This approach is generally a theoretical view on how instruction should be carried out based on a particular principle of learning. Mastery learning approach is therefore based on a variety of educational principles among which are; (i) Individual differences in learners to accomplish learning tasks at different rates (ii) When a learner has not learnt that the teacher has not taught. (iii) Given equal opportunities, that every learner is a potential achiever, i.e. capable of accomplishing the learning tasks. In support of the above, Mansaray (1987) emphasizes that teaching approach is more general than that of method in the sense that it incorporates a number of methods. Trends in Teaching Methods: Research reports and observation reveal two major or categories of teaching methods. The most popular and commonly used are described as the (a) Traditional Method (Teacher Centered Method (TCM) or Teacher- Talk Chalk (TTC) and (b) Innovative Teaching Method (ITM) or Learner- Centered Method- (LCM) or PupilActivity- oriented Learning Method (PALM). Teacher- Centered Method (TCM) The teacher is the focus in this model of classroom teaching. The teacher is at the centre of all the classroom activities. He does the talking, writes on the chalks or white board, demonstrates, and performs the experiments (such as demonstration of fountain experiment in chemistry). He draws, labels and identifies specimens. The teacher also does all the explanations in the name of teaching. The learner remains passive listener and a member of the teaching-learning process. Mkpa (2009) observes that even the subject matter, teaching methods, as well as the instructional materials are designed in favour of the teacher ie teacher-centered method (TCM). The issue is that this approach has been in use and seems to have failed the system. The approach rarely involves the learner in the development of high cognitive levels of learning analysis, synthesis and evaluation of issues. It does not readily equip the learners with the desired psychomotor and affective skills for the learner to fully appreciate his environment, adapt, benefit and contribute meaningfully to his or her nation. Mkpa (2009) remarks “that is not to say that one cannot learn anything from the pages of newspapers, watching television programmes, but there is more interpretation going on than a mere transfer of information from one brain to another”. There is a call for de-emphasis on this traditional method of teaching captioned teacher-centered-methods based on the following five reasons viz: The approach does not (i) encourage necessary interactions in the teaching and learning situation; (ii) allow the learners participate actively in the classroom activities; (iii) promote development of desirable skills, attitudes and values in the learners. (iv) encourage the learner to use their initiatives and develop self-confidence but encourages rote learning. ~ 149 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Learners Teaching methods and skills Teacher Contents Instructional aids Figure 1: Teacher- Centered- Method (TCM) Learner Centered- Method (LCM) The ills of TCM have called for a shift to LCM. This is completely a converse focus in the teachinglearning process. Learners occupy prominent position and become the fulcrum upon which teaching and learning revolves. Teachers Teaching methods and skills Learner Contents Instructional aids Figure 2 Learner –Centred- Methods (LCM) LCM is currently being emphasised because of its ability to i. encourage active participation of the learners in the teaching and learning process. ii. encourage active participation and interaction among learners, the teacher and other components of the teaching and learning process iii. encourage and promote the development of skills. iv. encourage the learner to develop and use their own initiatives v. discourage rote learning and passivity in the classroom on the part of the learner Innovative Teaching Methods The innovative existing teaching methods demand that no one teaching method is adequate for effective teaching and learning of a concept or subject-matter. A cluster of teaching methods could serve as a teaching method to ensure effective teaching and leaning. Based on this, teaching ~ 150 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 methods already in use are grouped into four. These are seen as four improved asinnovative methods of teaching and learning. They are as fllow : (a) The information Transmission and Rececption Methods (ITRM) (b) The Congnitive Strategies Development Methods (CSDM) (c) The Attitudes Development Methods (ADM) (d) The Cognitive and Motor Skills Development Methods (CMSDM) as well Information Teansmission and Reception Method (ITRM) This method involves the use of lecture, recitation, assignment and text-book to elicit and transmit information and knowledge. Lecture method: This is the major teaching method that is adopted by (ITRM). It is the oldest method of teaching, originally traced to the middle ages of highly prized Jewish teachers which they used in imparting learning. The Jewish learners through this method memorized everything the teacher said by heart, to repeat, reproduce and regurgitate them almost verbatim at time of need. Lecture method is purely the act of giving a long talk to a group of people on a subject matter within a specific time. It is very popular in secondary school and tertiary institutions. It is a typical of teacher-centered method. It may entail reading the note. Kanno (1997) sees the method as a process by which teachers send information to students, projecting one-way channel of communication model. Costin (2002) reports that this method becomes innovative when the following conditions are applicable; when a. Basic purpose of instruction is to disseminate information and receive same. b. The materials are needed to be memorized and remembered for a short time. c. The material must be organized and presented in a specific way for a particular group of learners. d. It is necessary to provide an introduction to an area or directions for learning activities to be achieved through other teaching methods. The teaching intends to train, develop and employ intensive listening skills in training learners in the skill of accuracy and speed especially in the skill of writing fast with accuracy. Lecture method should not be used when the 1. objectives are other than information skill acquisition. 2. higher cognitive objective are desired 3. participation of learners is very essential. 4. the materials to be taught is abstract complex or detailed. 5. long term retention is sought. 6. student ability is average or below average. Cognitive Strategies Development Method (CSDM) This method does not only help the learner to collect information but also assists him/her develop some cognitive strategies in learning concepts, facts etcetera. Examples are learning of concept formation, interpretation of data, applying rules like in quizzes, form relationships and connections. The method support the idea that knowledge lies at the beck and call of the learner and thus should be awaken to grab it. Under this method of teaching and learning are discussion and activity methods. ~ 151 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 i. ii. iii. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Discussion method: This employs more of class interaction and expression of opinion as its major strategy of instructional delivery. Each learner is given ample opportunities to contribute to the topic focused upon. The classroom has a democratic atmosphere, which elicits effective participation from the students. The teacher acts as moderator of the discussion. All forms of questioning techniques are employed to elicit responses from students. Learners are actively involved, they see classroom and learning tasks as challenging, conductive, stimulating and interesting. Target group for the discussion should range from 3-12. Aim is to come up with a solution. Activity Method: This suggests the capacity of being active and readiness to do activities by the learners in the classroom situation. Activity makes teaching and learning real. This agrees with Chinese teaching strategy for effective learning – when I see and do, I learn better and remember better. Project Method: Project method is a systematic planned undertaking of a set of tasks by the learners in which a given period of time is allocated and learners are taught with special reference to the project or sites. This encourages independent learning, creativity and originality. It is used to supplement formal classroom teachings. This method is very apt in achieving self-reliance and life-long skills. It is an agreement with the educational idea of one of the great educationist of America – John Dewey, who believes that education should fit the child rightly into his/her present society rather than preparing the learner for the future which is unknown. Bello (1981) is of the opinion that a well planned and carefully executed project will greatly develop learners by bringing him into actual contact with the lives and activities of their neighborhood. It provides new process skills for problem-solving. Attitude Development Methods (ADA) This category of teaching method assists learners to learn and develop social behaviors that are related to interpersonal behaviors, school work and achievement. Methods under this method are inquiry, role play, dramatization or play-way, modeling and laboratory methods. i. Inquiry method: This is the method that stimulates learners’ interest in seeking information about ideas and concepts by asking questions. It drills learners and enables learners search for knowledge in a systematic and logic way. It promotes independent reasoning and self-reliance while the teacher guides, directs and re-directs without providing the solutions. He only leads the learners to the answers. It is time consuming and expensive but helps learners develop skills of observation, exploration and questioning. It promotes active participation, team work cooperation and tolerance among learner. ii. Role Playing: This is specially a form of acting. Learners are allowed to pick roles in a human life situation such as family (father, mother and children) and its functions or family problems as the case maybe. The method is good at attitude development, mastery of decision-making skills and improvement of communication skills. There may not be prepreparation or no rehearsals. Roles should not be forced on participants. It is a behaviour modification therapy. iii. Dramatization. Here learners render vividly plays or act characters in a play. This requires pre-preparation of scripts or distribution of roles. It is common in use in literature in English or theatre acts etc. ~ 152 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 iv. v. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Modeling: This require a three dimensional representation of the real object or miniature of what is required. Examples are human skeleton model, heart, circulatory system etc. The learner acquires the necessary attitude by imitating the model as role model. Laboratory method: This method emphasizes observation, exploration and experimentation. This is mostly in use in science teaching. Some of these steps are involved: identification of a problem, confrontation with puzzling situations, observation, formulating of hypotheses, verification, experimentation, organization, explanation, reflection, inference and conclusion. Cognitive and Motor Skills Development Method (CMSDM) This method is concerned with the development of the learners thinking faculty and decisionmaking abilities. The teacher’s role is to guide the learners’ progress by means of commands and cues. This method is adopted from Skinner, Gagne and Ausbel educational ideas. It requires that learning materials, facts, concepts, problems are presented to the learner in steps, systematically in a gradual process – Five teaching methods under this are: demonstration, guided discovery, concept-mapping, games, discussion and questioning skills. i. Demonstration: This involves displays, exhibitions and use of examples during practical instructional practices. This method emphasizes practical, tangibles, concrete illustrations during lessons. Two senses are involved, sense of hearing and seeing. It guarantees about 50percent learning ( Mkpa, 2009) . ii. Guided Discovery: This involves helping learners to discover certain facts or answers to a given problem. Learners most often depend on their teachers to provide all answers they need. iii. Concept Mapping: This is a useful way of representing concepts in a map and their relationship in two dimensional structures for the learner to see and connect relationships. It is a very powerful lesson summarizing strategy. iv. Game: This is social activities that are played by two or more people in a competitive sport like sprint in order to exhibit some positive knowledge, attitudes, values and skills that can led to a winner. This demand for proper planning by the teacher for effectiveness. This makes teaching and learning very natural, real, permanent and easy to recall. It also creates environment for healthy competition. Conclusion Effective use of teaching methods in improving teaching and learning in Nigeria school system has been examined. The paper made attempt to high-light basic concepts associated with teaching methods such as teaching, learning, teaching strategy, teaching techniques, teaching approach and teaching methods. Two major trends of teaching methods were highlighted. Already in use teaching methods were grouped and categorized into four innovative teachings methods viz: Information, transmission and reception method Cognitive strategies development method Altitudes development method and Cognitive and Motor Skills Development It is of the view of the author, that effective implementation of the methods will immensely align with teaching and learning to modern trends and effectiveness. ~ 153 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Recommendations These innovative teaching methods should be reflected in teacher education curriculum. This will help to ensure that new graduate teachers will be fully equipped for effective teaching and learning. Seminars, conferences and workshops should be organized for the practicing or serving teachers and lecturers as a way of up-dating their stalls/ knowledge and in the application of these methods to enhance quality teaching and learning for self-reliance. References Anyachebelu, E. (2005). Educational psychology Effective for Improving Teaching and Learning.Lagos: Paprus Publishers. Bello, J.Y.(1981). Basic Principles of Teaching. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Ltd. Brown, D,A. (1972). Lecturing and Explaining. London: Methuen. Costin, F. (2002). Lecturing versus other methods of teaching: A review of research. British Journal of Educational Technology, 3(1) ,431-447. Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN) (2004). National Policy on Education. (6th ed.) Lagos: NERDC. Gage, N.L. (2006). Teaching method. New York: Macmillian. Kanno, T.N.(1997). Teaching Practice, Microteaching and Methodology of Education in Nigeria. Aba: Excel Consult Services Ltd. Mansarary, A. (1987). The Sub-matter and Human Learning in School. In E.E. Ezewu Social Psychological Factors of Human Learning in School,Chapter 8, 102-177. Mkpa, N.D. (2009). Teaching methods and Strategies in U.M.O Ivowi (Eds) Curriculum theory and Practice. Lagos: Curriculum Organization of Nigeria. Modebelu, M.N. (2007). Teachers’ work behaviour under female principals’ administration. Nigerian Journal of Educational Management 6(1), 1-10. Obi, E. (2003). Educational Management: Theory and Practice. Awka: Jamoc. Enterprises ~ 154 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Evaluation of School Health Services in Nomadic Primary Schools in Southwestern Nigeria A. Ibhafidon A. A.U. Ejifugha Department of Physical and Health Education Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education, Owerri-Nigeria. Doi:10.5901/mjss.2012.v3n13p149 Abstract Schools health services are procedures which are established to appraise the health status of pupils and school personnel, counsel pupils, parents and others concerning appraisal findings, carry out follow-up services, provide emergency care of injuries and sudden illness, help prevent and control communicable diseases and encourage the correction of remedial defects. Previous studies have shown low levels of positive health attitude and practices, resulting in a high prevalence of malaria, tooth decay. Gastrointestinal and skin diseases. Therefore, this study evaluated school health services in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria in order to identify areas needing improvement. The study employed descriptive survey research design. Total enumeration procedure was used to include all the 1,005 nomadic primary school teachers in Southwestern Nigeria. The instrument used for the study were observation checklist, Focus Group Discussion Guide, and questionnaire which was validated through the use of test-retest method with a reliability coefficient of 2.88. Five hypotheses were postulated and tested at 0.05 alpha level using Binomial test. Based on the result four hypotheses were accepted while one was not accepted as shown by the observed binomial proportion of respondents’ responses to the statements on all the variable. The results showed that the following activities were not significantly carried out in Nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria: health appraisal (0.2895;<0.05); follow-up services (0.407; P<0.05); emergency care and first aid (0.3602; P<0.05). However, communicable diseases were significantly controlled in the school (0.6218; p<0.05). It was concluded that school health services was not given necessary attention in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria. Hence, it was recommended that for a functional school health services, the stakeholders (Federal, State, Local Governments and the nomadic communities) should endeavour to put in place health appraisal, health guidance and counseling follow-up services and emergency care and first aid in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria. Keywords: Evaluation, Nomadic, School health services, primary schools, Southwestern Nigeria. Introduction School health services are those services provided in schools by health educator, nurses, physicians, dentist and other health related workers like guidance counselors and social workers to health appraise, promote and protect the health of pupils and that of the personnel. Johnson (1991) observed that school health services are procedures established to: appraise the health status of pupils and school personnel, counsel pupils, parents and others concerning appraisal findings, carryout follow-up services, provide emergency care for injury or sudden illness, help prevent and control communicable diseases and encourage the correction of remedial defects. ~ 155 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 School health services are designed to determine the physical and emotional status of pupils, to prevent diseases and to secure the cooperation of parents and pupils, for correcting defects and maintenance of health (Mshelia, 1999), in contributing to the concept of school health services, Akinbile (1998) stated that school health services contribute to those school activities directly concerned with the present health status of the school child. Nwana (1988) regretted that what is referred to as school health services in Nigeria may be described as a farce while Kane (1997) noted that although special clinics were established for the welfare of pre-school children, the same cannot be said of the health of school children. Negligence of the school health services can be attributed to the unfounded assumption by Nigerians that once a Nigerian child attains school age be becomes immune to diseases. In Nigeria, Abiodum (1996) conducted a survey of 500 pupils aged between five and fifteen years in a small rural community and seventy five percent (75%) were found to suffer from mental morbidity, disturbances of emotional and conduct disorder constituted sixty seven percent (67%) of the total morbidity rate detected which made him to emphasize the need for a more functional school health services. The most basic functional aspect of school health services is the health appraisal of pupils. According to Freeman (1999), health appraisal involves the continuous and close observation of the school child and the teacher, while Turner, Bandall and Smith (1990) viewed health appraisal of pupils’ health as a means that ensures, professional advice to pupils and their families on personal health as well as advice to the school on the adaptation of the school programme to the needs of pupils. Health appraisal should include dental inspection, screening tests for vision, hearing and speech, medical examination, health history and teacher’s observations. According to Tahir (1997), the population of Nomads in Nigeria is 9.3 million and that, out of the estimated population of 9.3 million nomadic people in Nigeria, 3.1 million are children of school age. In the view of Mshelia (1999), these nomadic children of school age do not enjoy good health for a long period of time because of the prevalence of numerous communicable disease, they suffer from multiple infestations and infections. Consequently, the morbidity rate is high among them and the major causes according to him are communicable diseases resulting from poor environmental conditions. Malnutrition, injuries and lack of general health supervision were also implicated in the high morbidity rate. Mshelia (1999) further stated that if school health programmes in nomadic primary schools were vigorously pursued, the incidence of high morbidity rate among school pupils would have been minimized to the barest minimum. From the foregoing, the present study is designed to evaluate the school health programme in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria. Statement of the Problem The health of primary school pupils is a matter of universal concern as children are the most precious assets any nation can have as their well-being reflects the future of the nation. The school age is a period in which the child undergoes rapid physical and mental development and this calls for a functional school health programme if the overall development of the child is to be achieved. Experts have revealed that nomadic primary school pupils at various times have suffered from communicable diseases, infections, injuries leading to death as a result of tetanus infection, dental caries, rashes, ill equipped first aid boxes for emergency care, reported cases of epidemics resulting from poor environmental conditions. Nomadic school pupils have not shown a high level of positive healthful practices and attitudes, which school health service is aimed to achieve. ~ 156 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Mshelia (1999) asserted that the life expectancy of nomadic children is low due to high death rates, as they do not enjoy good health for a long period of time because of the prevalence of numerous communicable diseases. But if school health programmes in nomadic primary schools are adequately provided for and vigorously pursued, absenteeism in schools as well as high morbidity rates among pupils of nomadic primary schools would be minimized if not completely eradicated. However, from the foregoing, this study is set to evaluate the school health services in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria. Hypotheses The following hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance: 1. Health appraisal is not significantly available for pupils in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria. 2. Health guidance and counseling is not significantly available for pupils in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria. 3. Follow-up services are not significantly available for pupils in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria. 4. Emergency care and first aid is not significantly available for pupils in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria. 5. Control of communicable diseases is not significantly carried out in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria. Significance of the Study Since the establishment of the National Commission for Nomadic Education, available records show that the school health services component of the organization programme of activities has not been evaluated. It is envisaged therefore, that the outcome of this study will bring to light areas in the school health services in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria that need intervention from the stakeholders (Federal, State, Local Government and Nomadic Communities) to improve on areas where there are lapses for a better school health services. The outcome of the study would also serve as a source of reference material to people who may be interested in similar areas of study in future. Methodology The descriptive survey research design was used for this study. The use of this method was considered appropriate because of its merits, which suits a study of this nature. This study is designed to find out the current status of school health services in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria. The researcher is not manipulating any available but simple studying the existing occurrences and the population is also spread across many locations (states) hence, the choice of descriptive survey research design. A total sample of 1005 representing 100% of the total population of nomadic primary school teachers in Southwestern Nigeria was used for this study. Purposive sampling technique was used to get samples of parents and pupils. Purposive sampling according to Owie (1997) is the best since the subjects have been selected by laid down rules and regulations for a particular purpose. This is the case with the subjects in the study. ~ 157 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 The researcher adopted total enumeration procedure to include all 1005 nomadic primary school teachers. The instruments for this study were structured questionnaire, focus group discussion guide and observation checklist. The structured questionnaire was designed according to the hypotheses that were tested in this study. The questionnaire was in two sections, section A and B. Section A was on demographic data of the respondents while section B sought information on the variables selected for the study. The questionnaire was in close-ended form in line with the modified Likert scale technique of summated ratings. The responses were on a four point rating of Strongly Agreed (SA) Agreed (A), Disagreed (D), and Strongly Disagreed (SD). The four point modified Likert scale has been shown to be reliable and valid. This is because it enables the respondents to indicate the extent of agreement and disagreement. For the qualitative aspect of this research, focus group discussion guide and observation checklist were used. The instruments (questionnaire, focus group discussion guide and observation guide) were validated by experts in the Department of Human Kinetics and Health Education, and Institute of Education, University of Ibadan for content, construct and face validity. The corrected version of the questionnaire was administered to twenty nomadic primary school teachers in Edo State using test-retest method. The data collected were correlated to determine the reliability of the instrument using Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) in order to bring out the degree of relationship of the scores obtained. The reliability of the instrument was found to be 0.88. The researcher and six trained research assistants who are the state coordinators of Nomadic Education Programme in Southwestern Nigeria that is, Ekiti, Lagos, Ogun, Ondo, Osun and Oyo States administered and collected the questionnaire. For the focus group discussion, the researcher and research assistant who is a Fulani helped to gather necessary data from the parents and pupils of the nomadic primary schools in South Western Nigeria. The completed questionnaire were collated, coded and analyzed using both descriptive an inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics of frequency counts and percentages were used to analyze section A of the questionnaire, which deals with the demographic characteristics of the respondents. The inferential statistics of Binomial test was used to test the hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. The data collected during the focus group discussion, and the observation made were used to corroborate the results obtained. Data Analysis and Discussion of Findings Hypothesis 1: Health appraisal is not significantly available for pupils in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria. Table 1: Binomial test table showing the proportion of respondents who agreed or disagreed with items on health appraisal. Summary Items Agreed Disagreed Health Appraisal Items 312 (31.0%) 693 (69.0%) Test prop. Observed prop. 0.5000 0.3105 ~ 158 ~ 2-tailed prob. 0.0000 Comment Negatively Significant ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Table 1 showed that 312(31.0%) of the respondents agreed that health appraisal was available for pupils in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria, while 694(69.0%) of the respondents disagreed that health appraisal was available for pupils in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria. Through the observation carried out in nomadic schools it was discovered that out of the 205 nomadic schools in Southwestern Nigeria, 55(26.8%) provided health appraisal for pupils while 150(73.2%) did not provide health appraisal for pupils. Table 1 above also presented responses to health appraisal items computed with binomial test. The results show that observed proportion of 0.3105 for those who agreed with items on availability of health appraisal for nomadic primary school pupils is significantly lower than those who disagreed with the items on health appraisal availability at the 5% level (P=0.0000<0.05). Therefore, the hypothesis, which stated that health appraisal is not significantly available for pupils in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria is accepted and the researcher concluded that health appraisal was not significantly available for pupils in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria. The focus group discussion revealed that pupils were not tested for vision, hearing, height and weight and no dental inspection was carried out among the pupils as well. Also Maduagwu (1995) found out that health appraisal of students’ health was not adequately carried out in secondary schools in Anambra State. It was only six percent (6%) of the respondents that indicated that health appraisal was carried out in their schools. The result of this finding is in line with the findings of Nwana (1988) who stated that health appraisal services were not provided in the majority of primary schools she investigated and where it was available, classroom teachers did it. Williams and Jellife (1982) opposed the idea of modeling school services in poor countries after European and North American practices with prime emphasis on routine medical examinations, which with limited staff and inadequate facilities at referral centers, usually degenerate into an endless and almost pointless routine of inspection with no possibility of correcting the large number of abnormalities discovered. Hypothesis 2: Health guidance and counselling is not significantly available for pupils in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria. Table 2: Binomial test table showing the proportion of respondents who agreed or disagreed with items on health guidance and counseling. Summary Items Agreed Health 291 Guidance and (29.0%) Counseling items Disagreed 714 (71.0%) Test prop. 0.5000 Observed prop. 0.2895 2-tailed prob. 0.0000 Comment Negatively S ignificant Table 2 showed that 291(29.0%) of the respondents agreed that health guidance and counseling were available for pupils in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria, while 714(71.0%) of the respondents disagreed that health guidance and counseling were available for pupils in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria. Through the observation carried out in nomadic schools, it was discovered that out of the 205 nomadic schools in Southwestern Nigeria. 47(22.9%) ~ 159 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 provided health guidance and counseling for pupils while 158(77.1%) did not provide health guidance and counseling for pupils. Table 2 above also presented responses to health guidance and counseling items computed with binomial test. The result show that observed binomial proportion of 0.2895 for those who agreed with the items on availability of health guidance and counseling is significantly lower than those who disagreed with the items on health guidance and counseling availability at the 5% level (P=0.0000<0.05). Therefore, the hypothesis which stated that health guidance and counseling is not significantly available for pupils in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria is accepted and the researcher concluded that health guidance and counseling is not significantly available for pupils in Nomadic primary schools in Southwestern in Nigeria. The above findings are in line with the findings of Wilson (1993) who stated that in many Nigerian primary schools health guidance and counseling is absent. Speaking further, he stated that guidance and counseling is the procedure by which nurses, teachers, physicians and guidance counselor interpret to pupils and parents, the nature and significance of a health problem and aid them in formulating a plan of action which will lead to the solution of the problem. The above findings are in contrast with the findings of Maduagwu (1995) who found out that guidance and counseling services were adequately carried out among pupils in the schools he investigated in Anambra State. Through the focus group discussion it was revealed by the pupils that, they were not being counseled concerning their health. Hypothesis 3: Follow-up services are not significantly available for pupils in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria. Table 3: Binomial test table showing the proportion of respondents who agreed or disagreed with items on follow-up services. Summary Items Follow-up Services items Agreed 409 (40.7%) Disagreed 596 (59.3%) Test prop. 0.5000 Observed prop. 0.407 2-tailed prob. .0000 Comment Negatively significant Table 3 revealed that 409(40.7%) of the respondents agreed that follow-up services were available for pupils in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria, while 596(59.3%) of the respondents disagreed that follow-up services were available for pupils in nomadic schools in Southwestern Nigeria. Through the observation carried out in nomadic schools, it was discovered that out of the 205 nomadic schools in Southwestern Nigeria, 92(44.9%) provided follow-up services for pupils while 113(55.1%) did not provide follow-up services for pupils. Table 3 above also presents responses to follow-up services items computed with binomial test. The result showed that an observed proportion of 0.407 for those who agreed with items on availability of follow-up services in significantly lower than those who disagreed with the items on follow-up services availability at the 5% level (P=0.000<0.05). Therefore, the hypothesis which stated that, follow-up services are not significantly available for pupils in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria is accepted and the researcher concluded that follow-up services were unavailable in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria. ~ 160 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 The result is in contract with the findings of Maduagwu (1995) in a research he conducted in Anambra State Secondary Schools, which revealed that follow-up services were adequately carried out among the pupils. Also Arunsi (1997) in a study conducted in Lagos Primary Schools found out that nurses and teachers held meetings to discuss the health of pupils and that meetings sometimes included the parents of pupils. The schools health nurses visited very sick pupils at home and the teachers were informed when the pupils had recovered enough to resume school. A good flow of information existed between the school, the clinic and the pupil’s home. The nurses and teachers met with parents on the health of their children. The focus group discussion carried out in nomadic communities revealed that there were no follow-up services in nomadic schools. Majority of the parents also revealed that there were no follow-up services in nomadic primary schools. Brooks and Brooks (1999) identified follow-up services as one of the activities carried out in the interest of those children for whom the school has a record of physical abnormalities, according to them, follow-up services are not being given the necessary attention in schools. Hypothesis 4: Emergency care and first aid is not significantly available for pupils in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria. Table 4: Binomial test table showing the proportion of respondent who agreed or disagreed with items on emergency care and first aid. Summary Items Agreed Emergency care and First Aid items 362 (36.0%) Disagreed 643 (64.0%) Test prop. 0.5000 Observed 2-tailed prop. prob. 0.3602 0.0000 Comment Negatively Significant Table 4 above showed that 362(36.0%) of the respondents agreed that emergency care and first aid were available for pupils in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria, while 643(64.0%) of the respondents disagreed that emergency care and first aid were available for pupils in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria. Through the observation carried out in nomadic schools it was discovered that out of the 205 nomadic schools in Southwestern Nigeria, 77(37.6%) provided emergency care and first aid for pupils while 128(62.4%) did not provide emergency care and first aid for pupils. Table 4 above also presented responses to emergency care and first aid items computed with the binomial test. The results showed that an observed proportion of 0.3602 for those who agreed with items on availability of emergency care and first aid is significantly lower that those who disagreed with the items on emergency care and first aid availability at the 5% level (P=0.0000<0.05). Therefore, the hypothesis, which stated that emergency care and first aid is not significantly available for pupils in nomadic schools in Southwestern, is accepted and the researcher concluded that emergency care and first aid was not significantly available for pupils in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria. The above findings are in contrast with the findings of Maduagwu (1995) who found out that emergency services were adequately provided in the school he investigated. Falawiyo (1988) and Nwana (1988) stated that first aid is the commonest emergency care provided in the schools. ~ 161 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 However, in nomadic schools this is not the situation, first aid and emergency services were not available because of the fact that, there were no well equipped first aid boxes and persons trained in the use of first aid were not available in the schools. Cases of serious injuries were immediately referred to the hospital for treatment. The result of these findings is in contrast with the findings of Arunsi (1997) in a research she conducted in Lagos State primary schools. She said that pupils affirmed that emergency care and first aid services were provided for pupils while the parents indicated that the health personnel gave prompt treatment in emergency situations. The findings are in line with the observation carried out in the nomadic schools, which revealed that although first aid boxes were available in some of the schools, these boxes were not well stocked and besides, person(s) trained to carry out first aid in case of injuries was (were) not available in the schools. Hypothesis 5: Control of communicable diseases is not significantly carried out in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria. Table 5: Binomial test table showing the proportion of respondents who agreed or disagreed with communicable diseases control items. Summary Items Agreed Communicable 625 diseases control (62.0%) items Disagreed 380 (38.0%) Test prop. 0.5000 Observed 2-tailed prop. prob. 0.6218 0.0000 Comment Positively Significant Table 5 showed that 625(62.0%) of the respondents agreed that communicable diseases were controlled in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria, while 380(38.0%) of the respondents disagreed that communicable diseases were controlled in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria. Through the observation carried out in nomadic schools, it was discovered that out of the 205 nomadic schools in Southwestern Nigeria, 132(64.4%) had experienced control of communicable diseases while 73(35.6%) had not experienced control of communicable diseases. Table 5 above also presents responses to communicable disease control items computed with binomial test. The results showed that an observed proportion of 0.6218 for those who agreed with items on communicable diseases control in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria is significantly higher than those who disagreed with the items on communicable disease control at the 5% level (P=0.0000<0.05). Therefore, the hypothesis which stated that, control of communicable disease is not significantly carried out in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria is not accepted and the researcher concluded that communicable diseases were significantly controlled in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria. Crosson (1995) in a study he conducted in some selected public schools found out that communicable diseases outbreak in the schools investigated were controlled by the Local Health Department. The application of appropriate hygiene, sanitation and environmental control procedure are essential for controlling the spread of communicable diseases. Foutes (1996) also stated that a high incidence of scabies infection among school children in a research he conducted was adequately controlled. While Arunsi (1997) in a research she conducted ~ 162 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 in Lagos primary schools found out that nurses took measures to prevent the spread of communicable diseases among pupils and their parents in the school clinics. The nurses also cooperated with teachers on immunization programmes for the pupils in times of outbreak of diseases. Infected pupils and staff were isolated, and the school environment was fumigated when an epidemic had been brought under control. The efforts to control communicable diseases in nomadic schools are predicated on the recognition of the fact that the school environment was very conducive to the transfer of disease among the children and staff. Also school age children possessed low levels of immunity therefore, conscious efforts were made to protect them from communicable diseases. In contrast are the findings of Maduagwu (1995) in a research conducted in Anambra State secondary schools were communicable diseases where not adequately controlled. Focus group discussion with the parents revealed that, in the community, outbreak of communicable diseases were usually reported to the local health centres and most times such cases were taken care of. Recommendations Based on the findings of this research work, there is the need for urgent attention to be given to school health services in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria. These recommendations will have little effect without the strong support of planners, policy makers, administrators at the national, state, local government and community levels. 1. The Government should ensure that before a child is enrolled in a school, medical examination of such a child is carried out and even while in school, periodic and routine medical examination should be done on the pupils. Such examinations should include visual screening, hearing and auditory acuity screening and dental inspection. Through this, early detection of medical problems could be achieved which will lead to early correction or treatment of such defect. 2. Health guidance and counseling should be given priority in nomadic schools by the government. To this end, the government should employ qualified health teachers, nurses and guidance counselors who will be able to interpret to pupils and parents the nature of a health problem, and also aid them in finding solutions to such problems. 3. The Federal, State, Local Government and the community should collaborate among themselves and provide well stocked first aid boxes for nomadic schools to enhance emergency care of injuries before taking the victim to the hospital if need be. 4. The issue of communicable disease control in nomadic schools and the communities should not be taken with levity by the government, the communities and the schools considering the kind of environment in which the nomads live, cases of outbreak of diseases should be promptly reported to the appropriate quarters for immediate action. Parents and teachers should make sure that pupils suspected of having communicable diseases are isolated from the class or taken to the hospital for treatment. The teacher should make sure that until the child is declared fit medically; he or she should not be allowed to return to the class. This is to prevent possible infection of others. Conclusion Based on the research findings, it was concluded that nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria have no functional school health services. This is so because out of the five variables tested ~ 163 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 only control of communicable diseases was significantly indicated. Health appraisal, health guidance and counseling, follow-up services, emergency care and first aid were significantly unavailable in the schools. References Abiodun, O.A. (1996). Emotional illness in a pediatric population in Nigeria. Journal of Tropical Pediatrics, 39, 1:49-51. Akinbile, P. (1998). Better health for all through new approaches to the teaching of health education in tertiary institutions. Nigeria School Health Journal. 10,112: Royal People Nigeria. Arunsi, E.O. (1997). An evaluation of primary school health services in Lagos State, Nigeria. Ph.D Thesis. Institute of Education, University of Ibadan, Nigeria xi +13pp. Brooks, S.M. & Brooks, N.A. (1999). Turners personal and community health 15th ed. St. Louis: The C.V. Mosby Company. Crosson, J.E. (1995). Infectious disease and the public schools. Des Moines, Lowa: Mountain Plains Regional Resources Center. Droke University. Folawiyo, A.F.A. (1988). Primary health care system through school health education. Nigerian School Health Journal 1.7:69-74. Foutes, J.A. (1996). Policy decisions in scabies control. Journal of School Health 51.5:673-675 Freeman, R.R. (1999). Public health nursing practice 8th ed: Philadelphia: W.S. Sanders Company. Maduagwu, G.O. (1995). A survey of school health services in secondary schools in old Njikoka LGA of Anambra State. Nigeria School Health Journal 7.4:51. Mshelia, B.S. (1999). Guideline for teaching health education in nomadic primary schools. National Orientation Workshop for Nomadic Head Teachers in Southwestern Nigeria. Ibadan. Nwana, O.C. (1988). Implications of primary health care for school health programme. Nigerian School Health Journal 7,1:21-25. Owie, I. (1997). Measurement and evaluation in education, Principles and procedures: Accra: National Books Consortium. Tahir, G. (1997). The Executive Secretary, National Commission for Nomadic Education. Address at the 5th biannual meeting of state co-ordinators and directors of nomadic education in Nigeria. Held in Sokoto. Turner, C.E.; Bandall, H.E. & Smith, S.L (1990). School health and health education, 6th ed. St. Louis; The C.V. Mosby Company. Williams, C.D. & Jellife, D.B. (1982). Mother and child health: Delivering the services. Oxford: Oxford Medical Publication. Wilson, B.P. (1993). Quality care and research: A commentary on how not to evaluate: Evaluation and the Health Profession 3,4:473-476. ~ 164 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Challenges of Eco-Sustainability Campaign and Environmentalism in Nigeria: The Way Forward Nche George Christian Department of Philosophy and Religion Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki-Nigeria. Doi:10.5901/mjss.2012.v3n13p159 Abstract The effects of Climate change alongside its attendant environmental issues have become glaring and devastating in Nigeria. Is it to talk about the incidence of flood that have cataclysmically wrecked several states in the Country, the massive loss of lives and property, or the increased York of poverty and destitution that have befallen thousands of people as a result of climate change? Good enough, there has been eco-sustainability campaigns and environmentalism in the country. These campaigns aim at stabilizing the earth’s eco systems while encouraging environmental sustainability. Beyond this challenge already posed by the phenomenon of climate change, this Paper seeks to discuss the external challenges militating against efficient eco-sustainability campaigns in the Country. The rueful lack of fund, facilities, adequate environmental Training and the menace of corruption, high insecurity, poverty and poorly regulated population growth, have been found to be these challenges. The Paper however, recommends concerted efforts from both the government and other stakeholders, in order to successfully combat climate change and its effects in the Country. Keywords: Eco-sustainability, Climate change, Campaign, Environmentalism, Eco-system, United Nations Introduction Over the years, the phenomenon of climate change and other attendant environmental issues have been at the front burner of global discourse. The global goal has been to heal and replenish the earth. This is because the earth has suffered generational neglect and injustice. The earth has for so long, been subjected to “slavery” and her natural resources and endowments exploited in utter disdain and condescension. The increase in land use, deforestation and burning of fossil fuels are some of the anthropogenic activities that have destroyed and pillaged the earth’s atmosphere and environment. Consequently, the grave effect of climate change is currently felt in several parts of the world. Ecological disasters like extreme weather conditions, floods and loss of biodiversity which have resulted in increased rate of poverty, famine, draught, etc; are now commonly heard of, in several Countries. In Nigeria, for instance, the incidence of flood seem to be occurring on daily basis as there has been reported cases in Ibadan, Cross River, Lagos, Akwa-Ibom, Enugu, Abia, Anambra, Plateau States etc. According to Scientists, these ecological disasters are just a tip of the ice bag, when compared to the magnitude of danger, climate change holds for man, if it continues unchecked. Climate change is “an over-riding environmental threat that impacts most other aspects of environmental sustainability including forests, water and oceans”. (www.climateark.org). And it has been estimated that at least a 80% reduction in greenhouse gas (Carbon dioxide, Nitrous oxide, Methane etc) emission is to be achieved as soon as possible and not later than 2050, to achieve adequate ~ 165 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 ecological sustainability. Hence, there have been several Eco-sustainability campaigns both at the International and National levels with the sole aim of saving the earth’s climate. While the global Eco-sustainability campaigns are spearheaded by the United Nations on the platform of United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and other similar agencies/organizations; these campaigns are carried out by both Nationally based and United Nation affiliated organizations at the National Levels. In Nigeria, Eco-sustainability campaigns have been in existence and their methods are impressively eclectic. However, these campaigns are beset with some problems or challenges in the Country. Therefore, a critical look at these campaigns and these challenges is the main thrust of this Paper. Eco-Sustainability Campaign and Environmentalism: Eco-sustainability: The word “sustainability” has its etymological origin in the Latin “sustinere” which is a combination of two words – “tenere” (to hold) and “sus” (up), literally meaning “to hold up”. Eco-sustainability (or ecological sustainability) refers to the ability to hold up, maintain, conserve and enhance ecological features of the earth. It is currently applied to the consistent sustenance and development of the earths ecosystems in relation to every aspect of human life, like health, economy, sports, commerce, etc. eco-sustainability campaign, then refer to all the environmentally friendly thoughts, decisions, actions and every other activity targeted or aimed at creating awareness on the welfare of the natural environment. Environmentalism: Environmentalism on the other hand, refers to the human consciousness and concern for the natural environment which is expressed in environmentally friendly thoughts and actions. Global Eco-Sustainability Campaigns The Global Campaigns for the conservation and sustainability of the earth’s ecological systems is relatively old. The conservation of the natural environment has for so long been a global concern, hence, as far back as 1948, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) was founded as the world’s first global environmental Organization. And its fundamental objectives have been to tackle climate change, achieve sustainable energy, improve human well-being and build a green economy. This organization currently has more than 1,200 member organizations, including over 200 governments and over 900 non-governmental organizations. (www.iucn.org). Again, in September 1961, the World Wide Fund for Nature (formally known as World Wildlife Fund) (WWF) was founded in Morges, Switzerland. The fundamental mission of this organization is to stop the degradation of the planet’s natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature through conserving the world’s biological diversity. And since 1961, the organization has invested nearly US $10 billion in more than 13,000 conservation Projects in over 150 Countries. (www.panda.org) It is however, pertinent to note at this junction that, in global Eco-sustainability campaigns, the United Nations is the key player. The Organization has over the years, held several Environmental summits and created platforms for other global Eco-sustainability campaigns. For instance, the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment which lasted from June 5- 16, 1972, was held in Stockholm, Sweden. This is popularly known as Stockholm Conference and was the UN’s first major conference on international environmental issues, and marked a turning point in ~ 166 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 development of international environmental politics (www.en.wikipedia.org). Also, in 1978, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) held a conference in Tbilisi, Georgia, which emphasized the need for Environmental Education across the world. One of the Declarations of the Tbilisi Conference was “To provide every person with opportunities to acquire the knowledge, values, attitudes, commitment and skills needed to protect and improve the environment” (UNESCO 1978). Again, in collaboration with the United Nations Environment Programmes (UNEP), the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) organized the first and the second World Climate Conferences on 12-23 February 1979 and on 29 October to 7 November 1990 respectively in Geneva. The first Conference led to the establishment of the World Climate Programme (WCP), World Climate Research Programme (WCRP) and Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988, whereas, the second conference was somewhat more political and a step towards a global climate treaty. This particular conference led to the establishment of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), “of which the Kyoto Protocol is a part, and to the establishment of the Global Climate Observing System (GCOS)”. (www.en.wikipedia.org). Furthermore, on the phenomenon of climate change, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has taken the lead in organizing several subsequent International Conferences on Climate Change. For instance, while the issues raised in respect to the Kyoto Protocol in the 1997 climate change Conference as organized by the United Nations Framework conservation on Climate Change (UNFCCC), were being deliberated upon, the Copenhagen Summit (Cop15 – Conference of Parties) was convened in 2009, in Denmark. This was followed by the Cancun conference (Cop-16 in Mexico) and the most recent Durban Climate Change Conference (Cop 17) held within the months of November and December 2011, in South Africa. These later Conferences were, among other reasons, organized for the main purpose of evolving a mutually accepted legally binding agreement on the carbon dioxide emission reduction. On the other hand, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) which is an offshoot of the Stockholm Conference of 1972, is waxing stronger in its Eco-sustainability Campaigns. As United Nation’s Programme, ‘it activities covers a wide range of issues regarding the atmosphere, marine and terrestrial ecosystems, environmental governance and green economy” (www.en.wikipedia.org). Hence, it has recorded significant world ecological achievements like “the historical 1987 agreement to protect the Ozone layer-the Montreal Protocol., the solar loan Program in India, the marshlands Project in Middle East” (www.en.wikipedia.org), and so on. Also, with the initiative and aid of the United Nation’s Environmental Programme (UNEP) several environmental projects have been initiated in several other countries across the globe. Some of these projects include “the Kawasaki City Environmentally Harmonious project in Japan, the middelgrunden Wind Turbine Co-operative in Denmark, the Sustainable Agriculture projects carried out by Centre for Applied Research and Environmental System (CARES) in U.S.A, Sustainable Projects (the Eco-village) in Ireland and so on. (www.ecosustainable.com.au/projects.htm) Furthermore, the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development was recently held and concluded on 22 June 2012 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. This is popularly known as the Rio + 20 Summit and was organized under the ambit of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). The theme of the conference was “The Future we Want” and it attracted more than 190 Nations who deliberated and accepted the concept of “Green Economy in the context of sustainable development and poverty eradication”(Sheffield and Nierenberg 2012). Also, as part of the global Eco-sustainability Campaign, some dates have been designated to creating awareness on environmental issues. These dates include World Wetlands Day (February 2), World Sparrow Day ~ 167 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 (March 20), World Water Day (March 22), Earth day (April 22), World Biodiversity Day (May 22), World Environmental Day (June 5), World Oceans Day (June 8), Zero Emissions Day (September 21),World Planting Day (October 22) and so on. (www.en.wikipedia.org). In summary, these Conferences and more, go a long way to buttress the fact that the conservation and sustainability of the natural environment is indeed a global concern. However, this global goal, which is to replenish and conserve the earth’s Eco-systems, cannot be actualized without the collective efforts of all the countries that make up the globe. Therefore, it is on this premise, that the campaigns for Eco-sustainability in Nigeria shall be discussed. Eco-Sustainability Campaigns and Environmentalism in Nigeria The environmental issues in Nigeria seem to be enormous and interconnected. Some of these environmental issues include air pollution, water pollution, deforestation, soil degradation, indiscriminate dumping of refuge, poor drainage and sewage system, bush burning, oil spills, gas flaring and so on. And at the receiving end, are the people who suffer a lot of ecological disasters like breathing problem, desert encroachment, loss of biodiversities, poor agricultural productivity, floods and attendant loss of lives, property and mass displacement diseases, increased poverty and destitutions etc. as a result of the above environmental injustice and neglect in the country. This has made the nature of eco-sustainability campaigns in Nigeria, somewhat aggressive and confrontational. Hence, there are many environmental right organizations in the Country. Some of these environmental organizations include; Gender and the Environmental Initiatives (GEI), Waste Management Society of Nigeria (WMSN), Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP), Pan African Vision for the Environment, Environmental Right Action (ERA) etc. Particularly, the Environmental Right Action (ERA) is a Nigerian non-governmental organization founded in 11th January 1993, by Nnimmo Bassey along side other three persons. The members of the organization are also called Friends of the Environment/Earth (FOE) and are dedicated to the defence of human ecosystems in the context of human rights as well as, “the promotion of environmentally responsible governmental, commercial, community and individual practice in Nigeria, through the empowerment of local people’ (www.essentialaction.org). The Niger Delta experiences in relation to ecological damages like oil spills and gas flaring by Oil Companies (Shell and others) in the region, is the organization’s port of call. Also, as part of the campaign for ecological sustainability in Nigeria, the Nigerian Environmental Study/Action Team (NEST) has taken as a duty, the task of sensitizing and empowering Nigerians on issues of environment and sustainable development. (www.nestinteractive.org). Similarly, Nigerian Youths have founded the Nigerian Youth Environmental network (NYEN), whose mission is to create positive environmental awareness among Nigerians, and fellow Youths in particular. (www.orgs.tigweb.org). The Ecofest Nigeria, on its own part, has been impressive in its eco-sustainability campaigns. The Ecofest Nigeria is a Green initiative of Arther Mackenzie dedicated to promoting environmental consciousness and awareness. Its mission is “to reconnect humanity to the environment by addressing one of the greatest challenges facing humanity-climate change”. (www.ecofest-ng.com). It is currently organizing “Ecofest Nigeria 2012,” which is an Environmental Impact Assessment Conference. Additionally, it is carrying out an ecological project, which is called “Planting for Peace: 155 million Tree Campaign” which is expected to be completed within a period of five years. Furthermore, in 2006, there was a national coalition of over one hundred (100) diverse Civil Society Organizations from across Nigeria, to form the Climate Change Network Nigeria (CCNN). This coalition is “an imperative measure to ~ 168 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 evolve a national CSO-led integrated stakeholder’s involvement in climate solution campaign for effective mitigation, adaption and national response to the deadly impacts/vulnerability of climate change”. (www.unep.org). The Climate Change Network Nigeria (CCNN) works in partnership with the special Climate Unit of the Federal Ministry of Environment of Nigeria. The Organization has developed a Seven-point Action Plan which include: i. Promoting Grassroots Awareness through Community Outreach on Climate Change (COCC) ii. Facilitating Research, Exhibition and documentaries (RED) iii. Promoting Advocacy and Communication (A&C) iv. Training and Capacity Building (TCB) v. Renewable Energy promotion (REP) vi. Combating Deforestation and Desertification and Flooding (CODD+F) and vii. Implementing Climate Solution Campaign Programs (CSCP) The discourse on the Eco-sustainability Campaigns in Nigeria, would be incomplete without the Nigerian Conservation Foundation (NCF). This Organization, since inception, embraced three major thematic interventions to achieve its main objectives of Environmental Education in Nigeria. They include a Nationwide Schools Conservation Programme; Community Based Education at the Organization’s Project Sites and Promotion of Environmental Learning through Publications, Education materials and environmentally related events and campaigns. ( www.ncfnigeria.org) The Nigerian Conservation Foundation (NCF), through its Nationwide school Conservation Programmes, has recorded some success in creating awareness on the need for environmental sustainability, among young Nigerians. This is done through the establishment of Conservation clubs in both primary, high schools and tertiary institutions. Hence, as at December 2009, NCF Conservation Club Programme had a network of 1,743 clubs with 34,077 members. These Clubs carryout various activities like planting of trees and organization of campaigns, lecture and walks. Also as part of the Campaign for ecological sustainability the NCF has established an Electronic Library called the Nature’s Roost, for the purpose of linking Nigerian Conservation Club members to the global community especially as it relates to the environment. Interesting, the campaign for ecological sustainability in Nigeria is not a duty restricted to non-governmental organizations; some state governments in the Country, have taken as a serious business, the campaign for sustainable environment. A good example, is the Lagos state. The Lagos state government is waxing stronger in it’s campaign for a “green Lagos” under the leadership of Governor Babatunde Fashola who gave the theme of the year 2012 campaign as “Plant Trees for a Better Climate” (Udodinma 2012:46). In an occasion, Governor Fashola reportedly said thus; In the realization of the importance of Trees to sustainable environment, our tree planting campaign continues to wax stronger having planted over 3 million trees across the State since 2008. The air round Lagos is now Faster and cleaner (Adesina 2012:18) This is exactly what Nigeria and the world at large need: a clean air, a greener environment, and a restoration of the lost glory of nature which was aesthetically expressed in the quality of air man breathed, forest, lands and waters. This is the goal of Environmentalism and Eco-sustainability campaigns in Nigeria. However, these campaigns for the conservation and sustainability of the natural environment in Nigeria is faced with some external challenges which shall be discussed under the next sub-heading. ~ 169 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Challenges of Eco-Sustainability Campaigns and Environmentalism in Nigeria Besides, the challenges already posed by the phenomenon of climate change, there are other external challenges facing eco-sustainability campaigns in Nigeria. These challenges include: Lack of Fund and Facilities This is one of the major obstacles to efficient eco-sustainability campaigns in Nigeria. Ecological campaigns involve a lot of methods like Awareness creation, execution of Ecological projects, environmental researches and so on. Each of these methods of campaign requires fund to be effectively carried out. Therefore, in a situation where there is insufficient fund to embark on these campaigns, Ecological sustainability as a goal, would be elusive. This is true of Nigerian situation. The idea of eco-sustainability seems not to have captured adequate attention in the Country and as such very little is often left for it. Hence, while speaking at the 9 th February 2011 World Wetland Day (WWD) celebration organized by the Nigerian Conservation Foundation (NCF) in Ogun State, Mr. Ademola Lawal, the Omo Forest Environmental Education Officer, described low finance as one of the greatest challenges facing the club. (www.ncfnigeria.org). Again, the lack of adequate facilities like laboratories for Environmental researches Buses for awareness creation, etc. which aids campaigns, is another major challenge to eco-sustainability campaigns in Nigeria. Lack of Adequate Environmental Training In 1977, the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural organization (UNESCO) in a declaration at the Tbilisi Conference, emphasized the need for Environmental Education for every individual across the globe. It also recommended the inclusion of Environmental Education in school curricula. However, the challenge has been how to efficiently carryout this environmental Education. In Nigeria for instance, the question has always been; how many teachers embark on this Environmental Education and how many are adequately trained on environmental issues? Even beyond the school curricula and among the Environmentalists as well as those who embark on Ecosustainability campaigns; how many are adequately vest with the fundamental knowledge in the science of Ecology and Environment? This is indeed a challenge which affects the quality of Environmental awareness creation in the Country. Corruption and Mal-administration Embezzlement and misappropriation of public fund in Nigeria, has always been a great obstacle to growth and development in all aspect of the Country’s life. Particularly, the menace of corruption has been a challenge to a successful and efficient eco-sustainability campaign in Nigeria. The gross mismanagement and misappropriation of N199.329 billion Ecological Fund by the Federal Ministry of Finance is a case in point. (Nwankwo and Oluwole 2012). Even the way some serious environmental issues like gas flaring, oil spill etc are being handled by the Federal government, is highly discouraging. For instance, several communities in Niger Delta Region have been wrecked by accumulated oil spills from aged and poorly maintained oil infrastructures owned by Shell Oil Company. In relation to Bodo Oil Spill, the United Nation Environmental Programme (UNEP) has confirmed that “Nigerian Regulatory Agencies are at the mercy of Oil Companies when it comes to conducting site inspections” (The Nation 2012:4) Similarly, the Environmental Rights Action (ERA) ~ 170 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 reportedly accused the Federal Government of abandoning the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) assessment report on Ogoniland pollution for over a year, which demanded a $1 billion total oil clean-up of the region” (Amusan 2012:3). This lackadaisical attitude of the Federal Government towards the environment is indeed discouraging and a challenge. High Insecurity It is no more news to be told that life and property are rarely safe in Nigeria. Every one, including the rich and the poor, is threatened by the astronomic rise of insecurity in the Country. This is occasioned by the incidence of armed robbery, kidnapping for ransom, and all-dreaded Boko Haram insurgence. This challenge of insecurity has been a great obstacle to several developmental projects and activities in the Country. It has affected eco-sustainability campaigns and environmentalism in several ways. For instance, due to the level of insecurity in the country, some parts especially the north, have been declared danger zones. As a result, some of these places are hardly chosen for ecological projects like Seminars, Workshops or even Tourist destinations. On 26th July 2012, for instance, the Nigerian Conservation Foundation (NCF), Taraba state Project Coordinator, Mr. Ashimi Tirimisiyu was reportedly killed by gunmen at Jalingo, Taraba State. And this was barely two months after the Foundation lost her executive director, Professor Emmanuel Obot in the unfortunate Dana Air Crash. Also, the Boko Haram insurgence and its characteristic bomb explosions have peculiarly exacerbated the phenomenon of climate change. This is true because, for each bomb explosion, some tons of Sulphur dioxide, ash and dust are released into the atmosphere, which contribute to climate change. Population Growth Population growth in Nigeria is also a challenge to efficient eco-sustainability campaigns in the Country. The Country’s population currently stands at 167 million and it has been projected that in 2050, it shall increase to 303.6 million (Population Reference Bureau 2002) due to the current rate of growth. The implication is that some socio-economic problems like poverty, conflict etc, shall intensify, due to the struggle that shall ensue for limited resources. Okpala (1990) has rightly observed that irregular “population growth causes soil erosion, nutrient exhaustion, rapid deforestation and other problems which render the land unusable for Agriculture”. No wonder, President Goodluck Jonathan, on 27th June 2012, reportedly lamented the overwhelming rate of population growth and went on to back Birth Control Measures. More interestingly, however, the current rate of population growth in Nigeria has affected campaigns for ecological sustainability through the resultant pressure on the environment. It also increases the number of Ecological Footprints and as such as challenge. Ecological Footprints refer to the “real areas of the earth’s surface dedicated to every individual’s consumption of food and wood products, building, roads, garbage dumps etc.” (Okonkwo 2005).s Poverty The rate of poverty in Nigeria is overwhelming. It is no more news to be told that majority of Nigerians live below a dollar per day. More enigmatic, is that the consequences of this menace of poverty affects every aspect of the peoples life, including the environment. For instance, a larger number of rural dwellers are as well as some urban dwellers depend on fire woods for cooking. ~ 171 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 These fire woods are gotten from fallen trees and branches, and as such, fuels deforestation. Also, poverty has been the major cause of rural-urban immigration in Nigeria which increases the population density of urban areas in cities like Lagos, Abuja, Abia, Enugu and other cities in the Country. Interestingly, an outstanding characteristic of these over-populated Cities, is illegal structures and buildings, which are put up for either commercial purposes or residential purposes. More interestingly, is that majority of these structures are wrongly situated on water canals which has resulted in poor drainage systems. Consequently, flood has wrecked several parts of these cities in recent times. This has, in extension, affected eco-sustainability campaign in the Country. The Way Forward Indeed these challenges listed above have affected eco-sustainability campaigns and environmentalism in several ways, in Nigeria. Specifically, however they have affected both the quantity and quality of ecological awareness and Environmental Education in the Country. And Sutton (1998) has rightly asserted that “a society that is not ecologically sustainable is being driven recklessly”. Hence, the following have been recommended as a Way Forward: A. Parental Participation: The war against climate change is a war for all, not for a few. Therefore, parents should take as a duty, the task of inculcating environmentally friendly values in their children at home. This will go a long way in preserving the natural environment as well as enhancing campaign for eco-sustainability. B. Philanthropic Assistance/Partnership: Apart from the age-long assistance and partnership with the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and other internationally based governmental and non-governmental organizations, more organizations, companies and wealthy individuals both in Nigeria and abroad should financially assist and sponsor ecological projects in the country for the sustainance of the natural environment. C. Government’s Commitment: Government should place more value on the environment by allocating more fund and making sure these funds are adequately used in serving the environment. It should also probe the managers of previous Ecological Funds and prosecute offenders if the need arises. On the other hand, the Government should evolve a suitable Birth or Population Control Measures in the Country at least for the sake of the environment. i. Also, Government should stop the procrastination of Action on Gas flaring. The Country looses a great fortune annually to gas flaring which on the other hand, contributes to climate change. Therefore, the Government should embark on this Associated Gas Reinjection to save both the planet and the country’s economy. ii. More importantly, the Government should rise to it’s fundamental duty of protecting lives and property by squarely addressing the menaces of Boko Haram, Kidnapping for ransom and other related security challenges in the Country. The creation of accessible quality education for all; as well as adequate job opportunities for Nigerian youths can help in this direction. Conclusion In summary, the effects of global climate change in Nigeria has become conspicuous with the deluge that has become a daily occurrence in several states in the Country. This affects all; ~ 172 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 therefore, every hand must be on desk in the fight for a Sustainable Environment in the Country. References Abu, F (2012) Nigeria Population to Hit 367 Million in 2050-UN (www.punchng.com) Assessed on 22nd August 2012 Adesina, A (2012) Council Seeks Greener Environment, The Nation, August 1, 2012. Amusan Bukola (2012) Environmentalists Accuse Fed. Govt. of Abandoning UNEP Report. The Nation, August 6, 2012. Ecological Internet Action Alerts (www.climateart.org) Assessed on 11th August 2012 Eco-sustainability Projects (www.ecosustainable.com.au/project) Assessed on 14th August 2012 Environmental Rights Action (www.essentalaction.org) Assessed on 16th August 2012. Haub, C. (2002) World Population Data Sheet. Heather Lilley, Population Reference Bureau Insecurity: NCF Decries Killing of Her Staff in Taraba (www.ncfnigeria.org) Assessed on 22nd August 2012. International Union for Conservation of Nature (www.iucn.org) Assessed on 14th August 2012. World Climate Conference (www.en.wikipedia.org) Assessed on 11th August 2012. Nigerian Environmental Study/Action Team (www.unep.org) Assessed on 12th August 2012. United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (www.en.wikipedia.org). Assessed on 11th August 2012. UNEP Climate Change Network Nigeria (www.unep.org) Assessed on 13th August 2012. Nigerian Conservation Foundation (www.ncfnigeria.org) Assessed on 14th August 2012. Nigerian Youth Environmental Network (NYEN) (www.orgs.tigweb.org) Assessed on 13th August 2012. Nwankwo C. and Oluwole, J. (2012) Senate Moves Against Reckless Use of N199.3bn Ecological Funds (www.punchng.com) Assessed on 21st August 2012. Okpala A.O (1990) Nigerian Population Growth and the Implications for Economic Development (www.cabdirect.org) Assessed on 21st August, 2012 Okonkwo, C. (2005) Ecological Footprints: Evaluating sustainability in Nigeria (www.nigeriavilliagesquare.com) Assessed on 10th August 2012. Philip,S(2000) Ecological Sustainability. (Philip.sutton@greeninnovations.asn.au) Assessed on 20th August 2012. Sheffield Jill and Nierenbery, D (2012) Rio +20 and the Role of Nigerian Women in Sustainable Development. (dailytimes.com.ng) Assessed on 12th August 2012. Udodinma, E (2012) Let Fight Climate Change with Trees”. The Nation, August 1, 2012. UNESCO 1978. Tbilisi Declaration on Environmental Education. (www.unep.org) Assessed on 14th August 2012. World Wildlife Fund International (www.panda.org) Accessed on 11th August 2012. ~ 173 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Searching for Excellence in Science Education: The African Experience Daso Peter Ojimba Department of Technical Education, Ignatius Ajuru University of Education,Port Harcourt, Rivers State Nigeria Doi:10.5901/mjss.2012.v3n13p174 Abstract This paper seeks to enumerate the search for excellence in Science Education, using the African experience as its focal point. Science education in independent sub-Saharan Africa has been shaped by policies and practices which owe allegiances to the colonial masters. All these nations strive to achieve scientific and technological knowledge. There is need to shift from the moribund, dogmatic and unimaginative curricula to alternatives that have definite and dynamic objectives based on the child as a potential citizen and a skilled individual. Scientific knowledge has gone through several stages and revolutions from time immemorial up to these modern times. An understanding of the growth and changing nature of scientific ideas helps to clarify some of the problems confronting Science education in modern times especially in Africa. Scientific knowledge has increased both in quantity and in quality, so that old patterns of thought have been modified in ways that have caused profound changes in people’s views of natural phenomena. The search for excellence in Science education started with the desire for scientific literacy advocated by the use of good Science education programmes in Africa. The aim was to ameliorate the unscientific culture imbibed traditionally. Hence, the paper harped on education in Africa, objectives of education in Africa, objectives of science education in Africa, emergence of modern science education in Africa, attendant problems of science education, and the need for relevant agencies to strive for excellence in science education in Africa. Keywords: Excellence, Science Education, African Experience. Introduction Science teaching and learning in Africa had for long time been ‘patch work’ that quickly falls apart leaving the system bare as before. Science subjects have always been looked at as mysterious and difficult to learn. In fact, many people in Africa have always thought that science is learned only by specially clever students. Lassa (1984) in an illumination account on mathematics education in Nigeria pointed out that students have always expressed their feelings that they dread mathematics. It has been observed that in most cases, this fear was passed to the pupils by the teachers and this fear stayed with them for the rest of their education. This fear for science subjects leads to all sorts of attitudes, mostly negative attitude towards the subject and this subsequently affects the performance of the learner in the particular subjects. Anthony (1983) revealed that students with favourable attitude to science (specially, physics, Chemistry, Biology), achieved higher mean scores and those with low scores may be caused by negative attitude to science. In the GCE – bound countries of West Africa, it has been observed that students generally perceive Biology as a relatively easy subject. Apparently, being under compulsion to offer at least one science subject before they leave secondary school, candidates find Biology the ~ 174 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 best option because they assume it is easy to pass. But reportedly, this most popular subject is the most failed. Soyibo (1982) in his study remarked that pupil’s attitude to Biology as an easy subject appears to be one main factor contributing to their observed poor performance. Certain stereotypes about Africa’s attitude towards science and technology also account for the bad state of affairs in the continent. The world view is that Africans are unscientific in their ways and very superstitious in their attitudes. With this backdrop, the ingenuity of the African is being marked by the rush to consume the fruits of Western education and technology. The technological ingenuity required traditionally from man’s quest for food, shelter and clothing; the functional education of transmitting from one generation to the other; and the moral and ethics of the people are overlooked in favour of educational expansion and the use Western technology whether they are appropriate or not. Since independence, many African nations have been calling for relevance in their educational system; relevance to the problems of local communities; relevance to national and the world economics order; relevance to aesthetics and the morality of growing complex and complicated lifestyles and advance to the job market. In many African nations today, science is recognized as a means towards economic survival and as a new magic for achieving modernity in a short space of time. With this has come a heavy demand in science education which is a gateway towards scientific knowledge. The role of modern science education in Africa is to treat science not as an accumulation of facts but as an experience in investigation and discovery. It aims at stimulating an inquiring and analytical mind in the learner so as to aid understanding of the changing nature of the environment and rational powers. Gabmanja (1999) had posited that this demand in science education to rationalize the supposedly non-scientific culture in Africa cannot be overemphasized. The trend in this direction has been to develop scientifically literate citizens who can manipulate their environment in national terms so as to reap the fruits of their natural resources. Africa is no doubt rich in raw materials which had been exploited by expatriate experts largely because the manpower potential in science in Africans had been lacking. Apparently, one major role of science education in Africa had been to stress the potential of science to promote the development of intellectual qualities and skills rather than knowledge of particular scientific facts and theories as has been the statusquo. There is the need for the search for excellence in science education using Africa as a pivot. The Search for Excellence Harping more on scientific literacy, Gbamanja (1999) advocated the use of good science education programmes in Africa in order to ameliorate the unscientific culture imbibed traditionally. He reiterated the need for good science education programmes and opined that it is a major factor for developing positive attitudes towards national and meaningful change. However, numerous bottlenecks hampering progress in this direction exist. First, in West Africa, it has been observed that every year, more and more students who take the final examinations at the end of their secondary school education fail the science subjects. Several factors have been identified as causes of the mass failure or under – achievement in science in West Africa and Nigeria in particular (Ahiakwo, 2006). Earlier, STAN (1986) at its annual convention outlined some of the causes of failure in science subjects; cognitive and socio-economic attitudinal problems of teachers’ administrative problems of policy makers; and psychometric problem of the examination. Another major problem identified in science education in Nigeria and other places is the linguistics background of the students ~ 175 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 (Fafunwa, 1983). Scientific terms and concepts, it is believed are difficult enough by themselves and the fact that African children have to learn them in a second language compounds the problem. Science and mathematics have specialized language not only in respect of terminology but symbols and the writing style. It has been noted (Rogoff, 1981) that school language whether in the mother tongue or a second language is formal and therefore different from the usual spontaneous language of student. Furthermore, Bojuwoye (1985) reported that certain language usage and vocabulary are responsible for the swing away from science by secondary school pupils in Nigeria and Africa in general. Apart from the fact that English is a second language for students, scientific language then becomes a third language which may frighten the learner. A close examination of the way science exists in the schools system in Africa, especially at the primary and secondary school levels, reveals that only one aspect of scientific literacy is pursued, that is, science used as a weapon for economic advancement. Other relevant aspects such as understanding the rational powers are usually ignored. Arguing further, Gabmanja (2002) posited that science is used as weapon for personal economic development whereby the importance of examinations cannot be over emphasized in the system. This concern for using examinations primarily as a criterion for college entrance and for obtaining a suitable job creates curricula and syllabuses based upon materials and criteria that are examinable but not necessarily useful for the individual or for society. It also obstructs the presentation of science as an exciting way of looking at phenomena and of accounting for events in rational terms. The study of science as an exciting discipline in solving our everyday problems is not advocated by the school curricula. The existing senior secondary school curricula does not expose the student to the realities of his environment. Really, science educators must explore possible scientific thought and practices in the local environment and try to build upon them to blend with Western scientific explanations. In this way, explanation of natural phenomena would be clearer. Presently, as practiced in African classrooms, teaching most of the time neglects explanation of real life relationships. The learner is taught to refine, cram, and pass examinations, but necessarily to understand the real scientific concepts and thus, transfer of knowledge and application are usually not easily possible in the processes. This didactic method of teaching is what predominates in most of the science classrooms in Africa and this hinders or delays excellence in science teaching and learning. We proceed to consider two exploratory surveys. Exploratory Surveys Gabmanja (1983) conducted exploratory surveys to uncover some of the main reasons science – able secondary leavers in Sierra Leone and Nigeria choose not to pursue science beyond the secondary school level, even though they have the ability and capacity to study advanced science. Four hundred first – year undergraduate students were chosen from higher institutions of learning (universities and colleges of education offering degrees) in each of the two countries. In Nigeria, five Southern states, namely, Rivers State, Cross River State, Anambra State, Imo State and Bendel State were used for the study, while in Sierra Leone, the entire country was used. Data for the two research works were collected using structured questionnaires and personal tape – recorded interviews with science and non-science students in the institutions and with some science teachers. Students involved in the research were those who had taken integrated science in the Junior Secondary School and then later had to study for the General Certificate of Education/West African ~ 176 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 School Certificate (GCE/WASC) in their Senior School. In some of the colleges of education in both countries the same students were found studying integrated science again even after their GCE/WASC. The teachers involved in the study had either taught integrated science before or were teaching it during the time of the study. The findings of the two studies across cultures were very similar. One probable reason for the similarity in the findings is the fact that both countries have similar colonial orientations. In both cases, it was found that non-science students decided to pursue disciplines other than science because they were discouraged by the methods of teaching used in the General Certificate of Education (GCE) classes, specially forms four and five, and were not satisfied with the GCE syllabus and examinations (which essentially define the curriculum for the Secondary School). At the Junior Secondary level, in both countries, the students took integrated science which an average 98% for each country said they enjoyed well. However, in Sierra Leone students study the “Core science project”. The philosophy and methodology for the two programmes are similar. In each of the cases over 75% of the students said they would have loved to see integrated science being taught to them at the senior secondary level. In fact, over 80% of the respondents in each case said that the writers of the integrated science programme should extend the programme up to GCE level. The council for scientific policy, when reviewing science education in Britain (Turner, 1972), concluded that the structure of the curriculum is closely related to choice for or against science. According to the council, the key problem is the isolation of the science from one another and from other subject areas. They reported that “the teaching of science as traditional disciplines prevents the pupils for appreciating the inter-relationships within science and between science and technology”. He further reiterated the need for school science to be presented in a human life and society. This is one major characteristic of integrated science programmes, examples of which are the core course integrated science in Sierra Leone, Nigerian Integrated Science project and others. These programmes emphasize the unity of knowledge and thus the importance of inter-disciplinary teaching in science. Secondary school science in Africa needs a curriculum that has definite and dynamic objectives based on the values of the society and on the child as a potential citizen and a skilled individual. This but perspective does not necessarily militate against examinations eliminates methodology of teaching which advocates the textbook type of learning and rote memorization. It will also encourage the use of local materials so that the common cry for more expensive and in assessable materials will be minimized. This is a positive move to achieve excellence in science teaching and learning in Africa. The Demand for Science Education in Africa In many African nations today, science is recognized as a means toward economic survival. With this has come a heavy demand on science education which is a gateway toward scientific knowledge. The role of modern science education in Africa is to treat science not as an accumulation of facts but as an experience in investigations and discovery. The colonial masters in many parts of Africa, did not concern themselves much with the teaching of science in the schools. The main objective of the educational system in the British – oriented countries for example was to train catechists. As they attained their independence, many Africa nations commenced innovative curriculum programmes geared toward the development of their societies. Educational authorities realized that the education system established by the colonial masters was not relevant to the indigenous societies. There was then a vigorous need for curriculum ~ 177 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 changes to suit the need of the indigenous societies. Awareness emerged in this regard that knowledge of science would play a very important role in the development of nations. Hence, science curriculum development became one of the first concerns in the education systems. Early in the 1970’s, education authorities found it necessary to utilize more meaningful and functional ways of teaching the subject. The demand for massive science education programmes geared in this direction became inevitable. The demand on science education to rationalize the ever existing superstitions and the ultra structural scientific knowledge already in Africa’s traditional practices and occupations cannot be over emphasized. The trend in this direction has been to develop scientifically literate citizens who can manipulate their environment in rational terms so as to reap the fruits of their rich natural resources. Nigeria and Sierra Leone for example are rich in raw materials which had been exploited by expatriate experts largely because there were no African experts to recognize and utilize such resources. Apparently, one major role of science education in Africa had been to stress the potential of science to promote the development of intellectual qualities and skills. Essentially, there is a high demand for the establishment of scientific literacy in Africa as a whole. Relevant and functional science education must be accomplished in Africa in order that people might be more rationally involved in scientific and technological activities. Knowledge and understanding of science is an indispensable element in fields like medicine, agriculture, engineering and economic planning. One major objective of many African countries today is to achieve self-reliance and self – sufficiency in these areas mentioned. The building of a good science education to give the acquired education in these fields is thus justifiably evident. There is an over whelming emergence of high technological gadgets flooding Africa’s markets. The transfer of technology has been a major concern for educators. Scientific literacy is an essential ingredient for the processes of transferring technological know-how. Moravesik (1976) envisaged that the best way of building science and technological knowledge and allied transfer of technology in a nation is to strengthen science education. Thus the demand for science education in Africa therefore, is a necessary factor to achieve scientific literacy. Objectives of Science Education in Africa Generally, the primary objectives of school science has been to develop skills in young people which would enable them to make rational choices in problem situations relating to their environment. This major purpose is in response to the statement that “the present content of education in Africa is not in line with either existing Africa conditions, the postulate of political independence, the dominant features of an essentially technological age or the imperatives of balanced economic development involving rapid industrialization. Furthermore, African educational authorities should revise and reform the content of education in the areas of curricula – textbooks, and methods, so as to take account of the African environment, child development, cultural heritage and the demands of technological progress and economic development especially industrialization. Arising from these demands, therefore, the objectives of science education in Africa include the following: To rationalize curricula and render them more relevant for the African environment. To establish scientific literacy among the populace so as to minimize or abandon colonial exploitation. To debunk myths and superstitions so as to rationalize people’s ideas and practices in the African environment. ~ 178 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 To demystify science and encourage more youths to pursue science related endeavours. To effect change in philosophy, methodology and materials in science classrooms. Through the use of local material the learner should be able to inquire into natural phenomena and rationalize his traditional practices. These objectives are also in line with the objectives of science education in general as outlined by Renner and Stafford (1972). These authors claim that if these objectives are achieved, scientific literacy will be the result. Emergence of Modern Science Education in Africa Science education in Africa has gone through general revolutions right from the inception of Western type of education till now. Bajah (1982) recalled that at the inception of the Church Missionary Society (CMS), schools in some parts of West Africa in the late 1800s introduced some rudiments of science in form of Nature Study. The study of nature study was geared towards learning about the environment by observing plants, animals and non-living things outdoors. In the 1920s practically every teacher training college in some West Africa States had science of one form or the other in the curriculum varying from Nature Study, Rural Science, Hygiene and Agriculture. Furthermore, nature study and Rural Science persisted for a very long time even up to the 1960s both at primary and secondary school, though at the secondary school, General Science was the major focus of science taught. But with increased knowledge in science and the persisted demand for the discipline in modernizing nations and improving living conditions of people, it became evident that Hygiene, Nature Study or General Science were inadequate. Thus, a vigorous change in the science curricula became inevitable. The change was even universal. It started in the United State of America and Great Britain, and thereafter spilling to most Anglophone countries including those in Africa. As a general universal trend, the focus of these science programmes was to promote understanding of natural phenomena, the environment, through the spirit of science. To this end, science teaching and learning was to be inquiry/discovering – oriented. In Africa, a number of factors were responsible for the involvement in this new awakening to the development of new science programmes. Firstly, many African countries had just had their independence and had emerged into new awareness. It becomes evident that the existing curricula were irrelevant to the needs of the African Society and so there was need for change. The universal trend sweeping through Britain and the U.S, evoked a new technological era and it became obvious that science was necessary to achieve industrialization and technology. To this end, African leaders started meeting at seminar, conferences and workshops to discuss and plan for the new change. The search for excellence in science education necessitated the emergence of the following organizations. They are: African primary Science Programme (APSP), science education programme for Africa (SEPA) Nigerian Educational Research Council (NERC), Science Teachers Association of Nigeria (STAN) and the West African Examinations Coucil (WAEC). However, other bodies or organizations such as the forum of African Science Educations (FASE) were born. Furthermore, the United Nations Educational Scientific and cultural organization (UNESCO) had over the years contributed regular financial and moral support to various African countries for science curriculum development projects. For example, UNESCO sponsored a workshop in 1975 to discuss the teaching of integrated science in West African Secondary Schools. Since those curriculum innovations efforts, African countries have continued to receive moral and financial aids from various international agencies to promote curriculum development particularly in science; for instance, the International Council of Association for Science Education ~ 179 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 (ICASE), the British Council, United States International Development Agency (USAID), United Nations Children’s fund (UNICEF). The ford foundation, and a host of others, has continued to supply funds, reading materials, laboratory materials and other instructional materials to strengthen science education and other curriculum efforts in Africa. This has also facilitated the development of several new curriculum projects in various parts of Africa. The new programmes intensify their efforts to introduce alternative teaching strategies as these differ from traditional practices. Primarily, they emphasize a shift from rote learning to inquiry and discovery teaching and learning strategies. Problems of Science Education in Africa Gbamanja (1999) had posited that problems in science teaching in Africa vary from place to place. What may be a problem in one country or even locality may not be a problem for another country or locality. But it is also true that certain problems may be common to various places. The following resolutions taken at the forum of Africa Science Educators (FASE) conference in Harare (1982) showed some of the common concern of African countries: Whereas we are aware of the goal of education to produce human beings who are selfreliant, we are aware of the failure in many ways of our current science education programs to prepare the school leaver, be it at the secondary school level or at the primary schools level, for useful living. We observe that most Africa governments have in no way positively supported and sustained action programmes to make science education functional with a view to replacing or complementing academic preparation. We recognize that our curricula are rather deficient of technology, and in particular appropriate technology, for the transformation of rural life. We recognize that our examination system is inadequate, to say the least, and yet has its strong hold on the educational system. We note with regret that governments often times institute far-reaching changes in curricula or educational system at relatively short notice and sometimes without professional opinions. The above problems enumerated are not exhaustive. In fact, one major problem that has been emphasized by educationists is that the entire education system in Africa is so examination – oriented that meaningful learning of concepts is not well achieved. This concern for external examinations has also led to all kinds of ill-advised and sometimes unhealthy preparations for the examination. The primary focus of schooling is on passing these final examinations at the expense of meaningful educational objectives. Other very obvious problems in science education include the following: Lack of adequate relevant textbooks to reflect the local environment. Where the textbooks are available they may be written with a foreign background so that reading difficulty is common. Ill-equipped and sometimes unavailability of laboratories. Lack of funds to process science equipment and materials Inadequate preparation of teachers to teach the new programmes. Poor implementation procedures for the new programmes. Clear – cut science education policies are hard to come by. Where they are available, they are mostly lip-service and political and they are hardly implemented. However, in many parts of Africa, the teaching profession is the least attractive. When governmented funds are depleted, it is the teachers whose salaries are delayed or never paid. ~ 180 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Science teachers in some countries are promised some amount of financial inducements in lieu of the extra work put in to prepare for laboratory work. But this remains lip-service for many people and school authorities actually do not give such inducement. In the mist of all these frustrations – a teacher cannot be completely blamed if he is not efficient on the job. Invariably, if the teacher has not taught, the child will not learn. This phenomenon is more pronounced in the sciences and other technical subjects. Conclusion The search for excellence in science education under the ambit of the African experience has been enunciated above. A critical examination of the journey of science education in Africa had shown myriads of loopholes and attendant problems. Most prevalent among the problems is inadequate funds made available and improper utilization of these funds by the authorities concerned. While levels of development of science education vary from country to country, the metamorphosis has reached an advanced stage. Issues that border on science education policies and implementation should be given adequate priorities by the governments concerned. While organizations like the UNESCO, STAN, CESAC, FASE, USAID, UNICEF, ACO, SEPA and APSP should be encouraged for their efforts towards the development of science education in Africa, stringent measures should be taken by relevant authorities and government of African countries towards the search for excellence in science education. References Ahiakwo, M. J. (2006). Science, Science Education and Scientific Literacy. Inaugural Professional Lecture, Series 17 (4). Anthony, A (1983). Attitude of Nigerian Secondary Students towards school and their Academic Achievement in Science, Journal of Nigeria Education Association. 3(1), 11-17. Bojuwoye, O. (1985). Crisis in Science classroom – Poor Enrolment of Secondary School Students in Science subjects and its implications for science Teachers. JSTAN, 23 (1 & 2). Fafunwa, B (1983). Science and Technology in the mother tongue. Being a keynote address. SRAN 24 th Annual Conference on Integrated Science Education. University of Jos. Gbamanja, S.P.T. (1983). Factors influencing the choice of science versus non-science subjects by science-able students in Higher Institutions of learning in the Southern states of Nigeria. NJ PS6 1 (University of Port Harcourt). Gbamanja, S.P.T.C (1999). After that WAEC/GCE, No more science for me: The swing Away from Science in Sierra Leone. Africana Journal Bulletin (University of Sierra Leone) 11 (2). Gbanmanja, S.P.T. (2002). Modern Methods in Science Education in Africa. Paragraphics, Port Harcourt. Lassa, P.N (1984). The sorry state of Mathematics Education in Nigeria. An inaugural lecture delivered at the university of Jos, Nigeria. Renner, K and Stafford W. (1972). New Trends in Integrated Science Teaching 1 Edited by P. E. Richmond, Paris: UNESCO. Rogoff, b. (1981). Schooling and the Development of Cognitive skills. In Handbook of Cross-cultural psychology vol. 84, edited by H. C. Triandis and A. Heron. Boston, Allyn and Bacon, Inc, 233-224. STAN (1986). Science Teachers Association of Nigeria. Integrated science: A course for the junior forms of Nigeria secondary schools. P. E. Richmond, Paris: UNESCO. Soyibo, K (1982). Attitude and Achievement in Biology, Journal of Science Teachers Association of Nigeria, Vol 20 (2), 26 – 32. Tanner, L. N. (1972). The swing Away from Science. Educational Forum vol. 36, 229 – 238. ~ 181 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Improving Teachers for Public Examination Administration in Nigeria for 2020 Challenges M. O. N. Obagah Department of Educational Psychology, Guidance and Counselling, Ignatius Ajuru University of Education, Port Harcourt,Nigeria Doi:10.5901/mjss.2012.v3n16p176 Abstract The improvement of the teachers for public examination administration, sees the teachers as the insider and fulcrum around, which the pendulum of teaching, learning and examination revolves. The myriad of problems besetting the conduct of the public examination can greatly be reduced when the (loce-in parenti) of the examination is adequately prepared to solve the institutionally grown problems of public examination. The malpractices that pervade the conducts: the endemic problems of funding, shortage of staff, large enrolments in examination, poor instructional facilities, and many more notwithstanding, the teacher when sufficiently endowed and empowered can surmount the gargantuan and hydra-headed problems of public examination administration as we approach the 2020 vision challenges. Some solutions as a way forward were proffered in this study. Introduction The unending crisis that pervades the administration of public examination s in Nigeria has reached a crescendo. It is so threatening that no-one including foreigners wants to take any Nigeria graduate seriously any more. The likes of Akanbi (1999), Ayoola (1997), Johnson (1978) and Fagbongbe and Talabi (1985), Obagah (2000) were all unanimous in their various studies, when they concluded that the quality of the product of any examination exercise is premised on the validity and reliability of the conduct and administration of that particular assessment endeavour. The products of any examination exercise are the highly needed raw materials to be fed-back or deployed into the school systems as future graduates, teachers, invigilators, lectures, civil servants, armed forces, politicians, private businessmen and many more. When the administration of public examinations are flawed like the periodic rigging in Nigerian general elections, the results are very retrogressive as we observed in Nigerians inability to develop in every facets of its National endeavours. The annual cancellation of students results in publicly conducted examinations in the West African School Certificate (WASC), the Senior Secondary School Certificate (SSCE) the National Technical Certificate or the National Business Certificate (NTC/NBC). The National Examination Council (NECO), the National Business and Technical Examination Board (NABTEB), the Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board (JAMB) are very clear signs that all is not well with the administration of public examination in Nigeria. The outright rejection of the direct admission of the jambites into our universities without going through the Post-Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examination (UTME) is another indictment for our publicly administered examination in Nigeria. The teachers are at the centre of this gargantuan problem, who should be adequately equipped and empowered through several academic fora since ~ 182 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 they wear different caps on several occasions as teachers, parents, lecturers, invigilators, supervisors, co-ordinators, custodians and so on. No wonder (JAMB, 2010, UTME) warned sternly that “increasingly, candidates, examination officials and other persons are yielding to the temptation to cheat in examination. Cheating (aiding or abetting cheating) in examinations is a criminal act punishable in law. The Examination Malpractices Decree 1999 provides penalties for persons convicted of examination malpractice. Punishment provided included imprisonment for 3 – 5 years or a fine of N50,000 or more or both prison sentence and fine”. The decree also regarded the followings as the criminal acts:Cheating, stealing of question papers, impersonation, collusion with others with intent to cheat or secure unfair advantage for self or for another, disturbance and examination misconduct in the course of an examination, failure to obey lawful orders of supervisors, invigilators or agents of the examination body, forgery of result slip, breach of duty, conspiracy, aiding and abetting etc. Nowadays, improving the teachers for modern days administration of public examination has gone beyond the precepts of the scholars like Ibraheem and Kolo (1996) enumerations thus: ensuring - (i) Environmental conditions such as sitting, lighting, and ventilation (ii) Appropriate invigilation to minimize cheating (iii) Clear instructions with reference to time allotted and number of questions required to be attempted. (iv) Provision of examination materials. The burgeoning and awesome problems of administration of public examination have gone so bad that Ogunniyi (1994) had to remark that the teachers as the invigilator could not afford to loose sight of the following: (i) Checking the students and materials to ensure that no incriminating objects is brought into the examination hall. (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) Avoiding nonchalant attitude to invigilation by using unauthorized substitute. Colluding with students to cheat. Leaving the examination hall Reading of Newspaper, and outright lateness to examination centres or Absence from examination hall. These and many more which will soon be unfolded are some of the numerous reasons why the public examination administration would need immediate up-grading to a more comfortable pedestal in our educational provision. Problems Of Public Examination Administration In Nigeria It is most necessary to approach the presentation of this problem from its tripartite nature in the first place. It will look it at from what obtains in the primary, secondary and tertiary academic levels. Examination Malpractice This is one of the most endemic problem of public examination administration in Nigeria. Examination malpractice is the act of breaking the rules governing the conduct of an examination in ~ 183 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 order to gain some advantages. According to Ojerinde (2003) examination malpractice has remained a nightmare not only to WAEC, but also NECO, JAMB and others. The Daily Trust Editorial (2008) observed that government functionaries school authority, invigilators, examiners, teachers, parents and students are also guilty of the iniquitous trend of examination malpractice. The following is a catalogue of malpractices at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels which must be avoided to allow for smooth management of public examination in Schools. I. At the Primary Schools we have what is called – (a) Teaching Malpractice – where the teachers engage in petty trading instead of the normal teaching. (b) Continuous Assessment Malpractice: Here the teachers misrepresents continuous assessment grade of pupils either by omission or commission as noted by Adeyegbe (2000). (c) Aiding and Abetting – Helping pupils to cheat during tests. Teachers do this to give a false impression of the results of their teaching efforts. (d) Common Entrance Malpractice: The practice where parents, teachers, supervisors, or invigilators aid, abet or collude with pupils to pass entrance, examinations into JSS I (e) Automatic Promotion Malpractice: The practice of moving all pupils from one class to the next irrespective of performance in preceding classes. This is the best way to encourage laziness among pupils as well as discourage hardwork (Obagah, 2000). II. At the Secondary School Level the poor management of the public examination manifests as follows: (a) Admission malpractice – this is always through the backdoor by parents with enough money to pay or spread of influence. (b) Teaching malpractice, as in primary schools. (c) Continuous Assessment malpractice. (d) Mass promotions. (e) Malpractice in JSC examinations. (f) Illegal Registration of Candidates – Some principals of post primary schools make illegal registration of outsider candidates for SSC examination. A fee is always attached for the principals. (g) Impersonation: Often mercenary students (university undergraduates) are paid to impersonate other candidates. This is what leads to the Post UTME exams in Universities (Obagah, 2000). (h) Bringing in foreign Materials (i) Leakage of question papers before date of examination. (j) Assault and intimidation: This is a situation where students harass, assault, intimidate or blackmail supervisors or invigilators. Between 1992 and 1996 WAEC reported 10,372 cases nationwide (Exam Ethics Project, 2003). (k) Collusion and Mass Cheating. (l) Malpractice involving Practical: Many schools collude with the candidates to rig result of experiments that wherever conducted. Such schools easily ascertain what practical will come up from the samples they are asked to prepare by the body responsible for the conduct of the examination. III. At the Tertiary Levels, we have the following problems: ~ 184 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 IV. V. VI. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 (a) Sale of Admission: This is rampant in Universities, Polytechnics and Colleges of Education. Professional courses like medicine and law with very high demand are particularly vulnerable. (b) Teaching malpractice: where lecturers abandoned their classes and students for other engagements. (c) Sale of Handouts: the forceful sale of lecturers handout to students before they can pas the course is unacceptable. (d) Malpractice involving Projects/Thesis: These are conditions where students pay their lecturers or their surrogate consulting outfit to write their project. (e) Sandwich Course malpractice: Sales of marks to students who do not spend quality time in Universities to learn qualitatively is a sad malpractice. (f) Accreditation Malpractice: A situation where a tertiary institution gets accreditation to offer a particular course even thought it, lacks the materials and human resources for the cause. Sometimes, equipments and facilities are borrowed for the duration of the exercises. (g) Assaults and Intimidation: This is the stock in trade of members of campus cults. These students spend their time on cult related activities only to intimidate lectures into awarding them grades for examination they never prepared for. It is even worse to know that some lecturers also patronize these cult groups whom they are also members. (h) Sale of Grade: A situation that involves the award of marks or grade to students by lecturers in return for monetary or material favours is quite unacceptable. (i) Irregular Activities in Exam Halls: Exam Ethics Project (2003) survey of seven tertiary institutions by the project showed that between 1992 and 1996, 727 students were sanctions for irregular activities in exam halls. These include outright disobedience of invigilators instructions, complete disregard of rules and regulations of exams, violent behaviour, possession of copied materials, chewing and swallowing of evidence when challenged etc. (j) Sale of Honourary Degree: In May, 1998 the Federal Government of Nigeria; observed, that the practice of honouring deserving persons with honourary degrees/diplomas and fellowship etc. was being abused. This was a situation where awards were being given to those who are not honourable at all, but could afford to pay for them with ill-gotten wealth”. The government then banned public officers from receiving honorary degrees. This is 2010, the last but one award that was done nationally was questionable in so many respects. Shortage Of Teachers In Schools The dearth of highly qualified teachers in schools has further increased the problems of administration of public examination in schools. There is a growing lack of teachers in all schools to meet the increasing needs to staff all schools adequately. The few that are available are overworked. Large Candidature for Examination The annual turn out of candidates for public examination in Nigeria comes out in millions for a skeletal teacher and invigilators to manage in crowded halls. This is a problem on its own. Only a manageable size of candidature with the needed modern facilities can make public exams administration worthwhile. Poor Instructional Facilities in Schools ~ 185 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 In most schools there are no instructional facilities to cope with the teaming number of students, some schools do not have halls, benches and tables. To mention laboratory with the requisite equipments for the sciences is a big luxury. VII. The Funding of examination Bodies to Pay Staff/ Invigilators The general funding of the examination bodies to pay for the public examination is too poor. Teachers/invigilators/supervisors are easily bought over when they are enticed with money, because what they get as honoraria is comparatively too small. A situation where a supervisor or invigilator gets a feeding allowance of N100 a day for an examination that will last the whole day is quite unimaginable. The final take-home pay for a three-day exercise for JAMB exams supervision may not be more than N5,000. VIII. Shortage of Trained/Committed Examination Experts/ Supervisors To become a committed examination officer, some level of education is needed for all the teachers. The basic training for current assessment need cannot be over-stressed. Ayodele, Adegbile and Adewole (2003) remarked that teachers that are not adequately equipped with the nuance of educational evaluation theories and practices will always not deliver well. These and many more are among those problems that have be-deviled the proper administration of public examination in Nigeria. Consequences Of Poorly Managed Public Examination In Nigeria The poorly managed public examination in Nigeria has a lot of devastating consequences. It has prevented thousands of youth and adult from identifying and pursuing their true talents. It has promoted the habit of laziness in some people. It has rendered most certificate useless as the only basis for assessing their skills and capabilities. The poorly managed examinations plants in people, the seed of fraudulent behaviour and starts people on the route of corruption crimes, cover-ups and brigandage. Malfeasance in examination distorts and thwarts the concept of academic excellence. Poorly managed public examinations promotes the culture of fraud and corruption in schools and the society. It negates the ideals of the Institution as a place for transmission of moral and ethical values to youths. The institution is easily turned into an academy for breading recruits for fraud syndicates. The mediocre in the system are afforded the opportunity to rise to power and authority with the aims to plunder the nation with impunity. It leads to the breakdown of laws and order, and manifest in immoral and unethical standards in the society. This promotes low and wayward professional ethics among the various professions. It produces leaders who rise to the top through cultist arranged mechanism, who are totally lacking in integrity. The promotion of very low quality labour force is extolled. Poorly administered examination also leads to the production of an armies of unemployable graduates. It leads to increased unrepentant criminals. ~ 186 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 It constitutes an effort and impediment to the realization of organizational or national goals, policies and objectives. The current rejection of our graduates in foreign companies nationally and international are some of the consequences of this bad practice. The current perpetuation of international crimes like arms-deals, importation, moneylaundering, drug-trafficking, pipeline vandalize-tion are the pastime of these fraudsters. The Way Forward to Meeting The Challenges of 2020 Vision 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) Application of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) to the operation of Public Examinations: The gradual change from the manual writing of exams to the use of computers assisted exams in some designed centers will minimize the problem associated with teachers qualified or not. Regular and Continuous Training of Staff and Examination Functionaries/Teachers: Teachers should be trained in organized workshops and seminars on the conduct of public examination. Areas to be covered in such workshops include: Item-writing, script checking, validation of test items, supervision of tests, operation of continuous assessment, and moderation of public examinations. Appointment of Teachers as Invigilators and Supervisors to be supervised by the Examination Bodies and the various Ministries so that only teachers with Integrity are so appointed and trained. The swapping of teachers from place to place depending on the mood of the Ministries and the examination bodies must be allowed to remain a regular feature for proper administration. Prompt Replacement of compromised teachers/supervisors/ Invigilators. Review of Supervisors/Teachers Remunerations must be made a regular practice for all examinations. Training of more teachers/invigilators and supervisors: This is to ensure a steady supply of dedicated teachers to do the work of invigilators/supervisions. There must be Steady Feedback/Correction to the Teachers/ invigilators/Supervisors of their strength and weaknesses of their performance so that they can continue to improve in what they are doing. The extant Laws Governing the Administration of Public Examination must be applied to the letter so that criminals would be discouraged. Conclusion This study examined the issues of improving teachers for public examination administration in Nigeria as we prepare for the 20 – 2020 vision challenges. The problems of public examination administration in Nigeria are myriad and difficult to overcome in a short time. The malpractices that are found at every facet and levels of our educational offerings are daunting. The institutional and the societal drawbacks like poor funding, over-enrolments in schools, shortage of manpower, shortage of qualified teachers and invigilators, the much greed on the part of Nigerian to get everything at expense of others notwithstanding there is good hope that the teachers when adequately trained and empowered will reduce the crises of public exams administration in Nigeria before 2020. ~ 187 ~ ISSN 2039-9340 Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 3 (13) November 2012 Adequate funding, workshops, seminars, training, regular feedbacks of the strength and weakness to supervisors, invigilators and teachers as well as increases in teachers remunerations must be made a regular feature. Therefore, the reality of the 20, 2020 vision can be assured. References Adeyegbe, S. O. (2000) Teachers Falsify Continuous Assessment marks. The Guardian (Nigeria) September Akanbi a. O (1990) Towards a Crisis free Examination Management in Nigerian Colleges of Education. PDF. Public Towards A Crisis Free Examination Management in Nigeria. www.naere.orgl File format PDG Adobe acrobat. Ayodele, S. O. Adegbile J. A. & Adewale J. G. 2003, Evolution studies. Powerhouse Press and Publishers, Ibadan. Ayoola L. M (1997) An Examination of some Factors hindering Education of Women in Nigeria and the way forward. A paper presented at the 19th National Conference of the Nigerian Association for Educational Media and Technology (NAEMT) May 7th – 10th, 1992. Exam Ethics Project (2003): Every Students Ethic Compliant Excel Handbook. How to excel in Exams State Ministry of Education Federal Republic of Nigeria. Ibraheem, L. A., Kola Z. N (1996) Measurement and Evaluation in the Classroom,. Ilorin Gbenle Press 1 Obagah M.O.N. (2000): Internship Design, Organisation and Evaluation Across Educational, Scientific and Social Sciences Curriculums, Owerri, Springfield Publishers. Ogunniyil B. (1994) Guidelines for Examination, A paper presented at the Seminar. Examination Workshops on Examination Management of college of education (T) Lafiagi Dec. 1st, 1994. ~ 188 ~
