Critical Reading
Master Program of Literature
Study on Translation
Gunadarma University
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this lecture, EXPECTEDLY students will:
• Better understand what critical thinking
and critical reading are
• Know why critical thinking and critical
reading are important
• Have some knowledge of model of critical
thinking and elaboration on critical reading
• Accept the challenge to think critically in
reading text
Part 1:
The use of the term “critical”
• “Critical” in this context means
– “to analyse and evaluate” –
• It does not mean
– “to make unkind remarks”
“Disciplined,
self-directed
thinking . . . ”*
The National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking, 1987.
“ (Thinking) . . . which exemplifies the
perfections of thinking. . .”*
The National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking, 1987.
In “everyday” language:
• Thinking “outside” the box
• Thinking about thinking
• “Unlimited” thinking
• Divergent thinking
“The intellectually disciplined
process of actively and skillfully
conceptualizing,
applying,
analyzing,
synthesizing,
and evaluating information.”*
* The National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking, 1987.
“Critical thinking is the art of analyzing
and evaluating thinking with a view
to improving it.”*
*The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking:
Concepts And Tools, 5 ed. The Foundation for
Critical Thinking, 2008.
“Critical thinking is . . .
• Self-disciplined
• Self-monitored
• Self-corrective thinking.”*
*The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking:
Concepts and Tools, 5th ed. The Foundation
for Critical Thinking, 2008.
It concerns itself with 8 elements of thought
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Point of view
Purpose
Questions at issue
Implications and consequences
Information
Interpretation and Inference
Concepts
Assumptions
*The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking: Concepts
and Tools, 5 ed. The Foundation for Critical Thinking, 2008.
Point of View
What are the . . .
– Frames of reference
– Perspectives
– Orientations
And how do they influence “point of view”?
Purpose
What are the
• Goals
• Objectives
And how do they relate to point of view?
What does critical thinking involve?
• Making logical inferences
(based upon the information presented)
• Drawing logical conclusions
(based
upon the information presented)
• Higher levels of thinking,
such as . . .
• Conceptualizing—
• Conceptualizing
• Applying—
• Applying
• Analyzing—
• Analyzing
• Synthesizing
• Synthesizing—
• Evaluating
developing a
“mind picture”
putting conceptual info to
use
closely examining,
tearing apart or breaking down to
really look at
in a welllogical way
pulling
organized
things together
• Evaluating—making decisions
about; reviewing; assessing; rtc.
ACTIVITIES
Why is Critical Thinking
Important?
TIME PERMITTING, WORK THROUGH ACTIVITIES
IN YOUR BOOKLET.
BE SURE TO THINK CRITICALLY!
WhyCritical
Is Cthinking
ritical
Important?
helps T
us hinking
develop:
• Intellectual Humility
 •. . Intellectual
. it underlies
Autonomy the basic elements of
•communication
Intellectual Integrity
• Intellectual Courage
Perseverance
•. .Intellectual
. it plays
an important part in social
• Confidence in Reason
.
•change.
Intellectual.Empathy
• Fairmindedness
 . . . it is a path to freedom from half. truths
. . traits important
the development of a multi-cultural
and todeceptions
world view and the diminishing of irrational thought!
Characteristics of “cultivated” critical
thinkers
Goal: to become cultivated critical thinkers
Cultivated critical thinkers .
..
By :
A
well
cultivated critical thinker . . .
--raising vital questions
•
--formulating questions clearly and
precisely
Raises
vital questions and
problems, formulating them
clearly and precisely;
Raise vital questions
Formulate questions
and problems clearly, precisely
•Gather information
•Analyze and assess it
• Evaluate it
By:
--gathering information, then
• Gathers and
assesses
relevant
--assessing
it and determining
what itusing
means and
what it is ideas to
information,
abstract
worth
interpret it effectively,
•
By:
--drawing conclusions from the information
presented
Comes
to well-reasoned
--finding possible,
plausible solutions and
testing them with relevant criteria
conclusions and solutions,
testing them against relevant
criteria and standards;
Draw conclusions
Find solutions
Use relevant criteria
to test them
Keep an open mind
By
--maintaining an open mind
Network w/others;
keep lines of communication open
• Communicates
effectively
with
By networking with
others and maintaining
openin
lines
of communication
with them
others
figuring
out solutions
and others.
to complex problems.
To become a cultivated critical thinker:
Dare to think outside the
box!
• Develop a sense of observation and curiosity
• Become interested in finding new solutions
• Share ideas
• Ask pertinent questions
• Assess statements and arguments
• Seek understanding and information
Also . . .
• Examine beliefs, assumptions, and
them against truth
opinions; wei gh
• Listen to others, think about what they say,
give feedback
• Become an open-minded listener and reader
Part 2:
reading: a differentiated practice
No text is neutral. All texts position readers to accept certain
views of the world. Readers, however, have the reciprocal
power to counter that positioning.
1. Dominant: reading in agreement with the
text.
2. Alternative: reading in mild disagreement
across the text.
3. Resistant: reading in opposition to the text.
Johnson (2001) & Moon (2001)
Good Reader vs. Poor Reader
• Read with purpose
• Read and assimilate
thought
• Read critically and ask
questions to evaluate the
author arguments
• Read a variety of books
• Enjoy reading
• Read aimlessly
• Get loss in the muddle
of word
• Swallow everything
• One tracker reading
• Hate to read, reading is
boring
What is “critical reading?”
• Preface – “Critical” is not intended to have a negative
meaning in the context of “critical reading.”
• Definition: An active approach to reading that
involves an in depth examination of the text.
Memorization and understanding of the text is
achieved. Additionally, the text is broken down into
its components and examined critically in order to
achieve a meaningful understanding of the material.
Passive vs. Active Reading
• Passive Reading: - (4 traits)
• 1. Largely inactive process.
• 2. Low motivation to examine the text critically or at
an in-depth level.
• 3. Important pieces of data and assumptions may be
glossed over and missed.
• 4. Data and assumptions that are perceived by the
passive reader are accepted at face value or are
examined superficially, with little thought.
Passive vs. Active Reading
• Active Reading: - Active reading involves interacting
with the text and therefore requires significantly more
energy than passive reading.
• Critical reading ALWAYS involves active reading. The
active reader invests sufficient effort to understand the
text and commit important details to memory.
• The active reader identifies important pieces of data,
the assumptions underlying arguments, and examines
them critically. They rely on their personal experiences
and knowledge of theory to analyze the text.
What Is Critical Reading?
• To non-critical readers, texts provide facts. Readers gain
knowledge by memorizing the statements within a text.
• To the critical reader, any single text provides but one
portrayal of the facts, one individual’s “take” on the
subject matter. Critical readers thus recognize not only
what a text says, but also how the author convey the
message.
Critical Reading
The critical reader acknowledges that writers
make choice; the critical reader makes
judgments about the text.
– Content: e.g., evidence, examples, details
– Language: e.g., “politicians” or “senators”
– Structure:e.g., comparison/contrast, analogy
A critical reader
• attempts to understand and analyse the
reasoning in the text
• evaluates the evidence offered
• recognises assumptions
• takes a challenging and questioning attitude
towards the text
A critical reader doesn’t
• accept the authority of the text without
question
• take a passive and purely receptive role
towards the text
• ‘write off’ the text immediately if the
writer’s meaning is not immediately clear
• quickly dismiss the text because the views
do not match his/her own
To what extent do these everyday reading tasks
require a critical reading approach?
• reading the instructions to set the thermostat on your
• heating boiler
• reading a local newspaper report about an attack on an Asian
shopkeeper
• reading a primary school prospectus for your child
• reading a course outline
• reading descriptions of 2 sofas in different furniture
catalogues
• finding out the train times on a website
Critical Reading
So all texts, to a certain extent, require critical
reading. It is not about criticising everything
you read - it’s about asking questions about
the text: its purpose, the claims made and the
evidence presented.
Some general questions to think about
• Can I believe everything I read?
• Are experts always right?
• What makes me take more notice of one
academic writer and less of another?
• What makes a scholarly, rigorous piece of
research, and what makes research findings weak
or strong?
Some questions to think about when surveying a
text
• Who is the writer writing for?
• Who is the publisher?
• Is it in the interests of the author/publisher to make a
particular claim?
• Which sources has the writer cited?
• What sort of adjectives are used?
• How does the writer rely on authority?
• What does the writer present as fact?
• How does the writer select evidence?
Some questions you can use to interrogate the
text…
Does this follow? How do you know?
Where is your evidence?
Who exactly said this and when?
Is this a fact or an opinion?
Why? Why not? What exactly?
Are you assuming x is true here?
Where can I check this out?
What’s been missed out?
Interacting with the text
You don’t have to fully agree or disagree with
what the writer is saying but you can raise
questions about the claims that s/he makes
based on the evidence there is to support you.
Part 2.1.
Goals of Critical Reading
1. to recognize an author’s purpose
2. to understand tone and persuasive elements
3. to recognize bias
More specifically;
1. recognizing purpose involves inferring a
basis for choices of content and language
2. recognizing tone and persuasive elements
involves classifying the nature of language
choices
3. recognizing bias involves classifying the
nature of patterns of choice of content and
language
On Recognizing
Author’s Purpose
• Understanding the way a passage is organized
may help you determine the author’s purpose.
• Consider the italicized introduction, the main
idea, and the tone; by examining them together,
you may discover what the author’s purpose is.
• Think about what point the writer is making, how
he or she organizes ideas, and the words used,
which will reveal tone (attitude/possible
feelings).
!
On Recognizing Attitude, Mood,
and Tone
1. The terms attitude, mood, and tone often
refer to the author’s slant on a subject, or
the author’s emotions or feelings.
2. Attitude and tone are related in that the
tone of a selection often reflects his or
her attitude.
3. Think about how “tone of voice” reflects
feelings and attitude.
Tone
• Tone is often described as the way an author
feels about both the topic and the reader.
• The tone in a selection can be formal, casual,
playful, serious, sarcastic, or any other attitude
one can imagine.
• Connotative and denotative language is a very
useful tool for expressing attitude and tone.
• Writers use words on purpose to create a
desired effect.
Helpful Hints
 Pay attention to the author’s choice of details. The
author has a purpose, and the reader must
determine what that purpose is.
 The author’s purpose can be found in the choice of
details which reveal attitude or tone.
 In order to fully understand author’s purpose, it is
important for the reader to recognizing the details
provided by the choice of words the author uses.
 As stated before, purpose and tone are closely
related, so if you immediately recognize the author’s
purpose, you may easily identify his/her tone.
Typical Attitude, Mood, and Tone
Questions:
1. What is the author’s attitude about this
subject?
2. Which description best portrays the author’s
feelings?
3. Which of these words adds to the mood
(tone/attitude) of the selection?
4. What is the author’s overall tone in the last
paragraph?
A few more important notes about
Critical Reading Questions
• Some of the passages are short, some are long,
and some are paired.
– If you take the time to read a long passage, try to
answer all the questions for that passage. (Time
management!)
– It may be easier to preview the questions when
approaching a shorter question because you will
hopefully recognize the answer quickly.
– When given two passages together, try this strategy:
• Read the first passage, and answer the questions for that passage.
• Then, read the second passage, and answer the remaining
questions, some of which will deal strictly with the second passage
and some of which will deal with both passages.
• Preview the questions might help as well!
One Last Thing…
• Always annotate the text:
–
–
–
–
–
Circle tone words
Underline important details
Note transitional phrases/words
Circle definitions provided
Write summary phrases after each paragraph
On Recognizing Bias
Good critical readers must be aware
of their own biases
and the biases of others.
A bias is a strong leaning in either
a positive or negative direction.
A bias is very similar to a prejudice.
Sometimes writers simply state their biases;
however, most biases are implied by the writer.
53
Subjective material generally places more emphasis
on opinions than facts,
and it is more likely to display a strong bias.
A critical reader will study the author’s line of reasoning,
notice whether opinions are supported by facts and reasons,
and then decide if the author’s bias
has hindered the making of a good argument.
54
As you are reading textbook material,
keep in mind that the authors also have biases.
Their biases will influence the way they present the material.
Although textbooks primarily deal with factual material,
authors must decide what facts to include and omit,
and what facts to emphasize.
Pay attention to the author’s tone and choice of words
to determine if a bias is present.
Such caution is especially important
when the material deals with a controversial issue.
55
Denotative and Connotative Language
When you look a word up in the dictionary,
you are determining its exact meaning
without the suggestions or implications
that it may have taken on.
This is called the denotative meaning of a word.
56
The connotative meaning of a word
refers to the ideas or feelings suggested by the word.
Words that have the same denotative meaning
can have much different connotative meanings.
The connotation of a word can tell you a lot about
what the speaker of the word means by it.
Not all words have connotative meanings.
57
Words that are heavily connotative
are often referred to as
“loaded” or “emotionally charged.”
Writers who have a particular point of view
and want to persuade you to accept that view
often make use of loaded words or phrases.
Thus subjective material is more likely
to rely on connotative,
rather than denotative, language,
and it is more likely to display a strong bias.
58
Euphemism
The word euphemism
is derived from the Greek word euphemos,
meaning “to use a good word
for an evil or unfavorable word.”
The Greek prefix
eu means “good,”
and
phemi means “speak.”
59
When someone substitutes an inoffensive word or phrase
for one that could be offensive to someone,
they are using a euphemism.
Most of the time euphemisms are used to be polite
or to avoid controversy.
Euphemisms can also be used
to purposely mislead and obscure the truth.
60
Propaganda Devices
Webster’s dictionary defines propaganda as
“a systematic effort to promote a particular cause
or point of view.”
Thus by definition, propaganda is not evil or deceptive.
However, some of the techniques used are questionable because they
appeal primarily to our emotions
rather than to our intellect.
61
Slogans
The slogan is equally effective
in advertising
and political campaigns.
In the latter, it usually takes the form of a chant
that can unite large crowds into one common emotion.
62
Name-Calling
Name-calling is a device used widely
in political and ideological battles
as well as in commercial advertising campaigns.
It tries to make us form a judgment
without examining the evidence on which it should be based.
Propagandists appeal to our instincts of hate and fear.
They do this by giving bad names to those
individuals, groups, nations, races, or consumer products
that they would like us to condemn or reject.
63
Glittering Generalities
Glittering generalities are broad, widely accepted ideals
and virtuous words that are used to sell a point of view.
Like name-calling, glittering generalities urge us to
accept and approve something without examination.
64
Transfer
Some advertisements
use symbols of authority, prestige, and respect
that arouse emotions to sell a cause,
a candidate, or a consumer product
through the process of subconscious
transfer or association.
65
Testimonial
A testimonial
is an endorsement
of a product
or an individual
by celebrities
or
other well-respected persons.
66
Plain Folks
The plain-folks device
creates the impression
that
the advertisers
or
political candidates
are just ordinary folks
like you and me.
67
Card Stacking
Card stacking is the technique by which
facts, illustrations, and statements
are carefully selected
to make the maximum impact
and
sometimes give misleading impressions.
The cliché that
“statistics don’t lie, but you can lie with statistics”
applies to this technique.
68
Bandwagon
The bandwagon device is based on the idea that
“if everybody else is doing it, so should you.”
“Jump on the bandwagon,”
“follow the crowd,”
“be the first in your neighborhood,”
and
“don’t throw your vote away by voting for a loser”
are clichés associated with this device.
The psychology behind this technique
makes political polling important at election time.
The fact that each candidate needs to project the image
that he or she is a winner often leads to some conflicting polling results.
69
Sex Appeal
We don’t ordinarily think of sex as a propaganda device,
but it sells products in many ways.
In recent years, emotional appeals based on sex
have been used more and more in product advertising.
Sex appeal is used to stimulate emotions
and sell consumer products to both sexes.
70
Music
The last device in our list is also seldom thought of
as a propaganda device,
yet it is one of the most effective techniques
in radio and television commercials.
Music is an excellent tool for creating specific moods,
and it can be used effectively for product identification.
71
Part 3
Three types of reading and analysis:
• Non-critical reading is satisfied with recognizing what a
text says and restating the key remarks.
What a text says – restatement
What a text does – description
What a text means – inference
Inference: Reading Ideas as Well as Words
Consider the following statement:
“The Senator admitted owning the gun that
killed his wife.”
What can be inferred from this statement?
•
•
•
•
•
•
There is a Senator.
He owns a gun.
He is married.
His wife is dead.
That gun caused her death.
The Senator admitted owning that gun.
“The Senator admitted owning
the gun that killed his wife.”
Now, what can’t be inferred?
• We do not necessarily know if the
Senator's admission is true.
• We do not really know whether the
Senator is in any way responsible for his
wife's death, nor do we know that she
died of gun shot wounds.
• We do not even know if it was murder—it
might have been suicide or an accident.
Read the following story.
A man and his son are driving in a car. The
car crashes into a tree, killing the father and
seriously injuring his son. At the hospital,
the boy needs to have surgery. Upon
looking at the boy, the doctor says (telling
the truth), "I cannot operate on him. He is
my son.“
How can this be?
Analysis and Inference: The Tools
of Critical Reading
• A critical reader know what to look for
( analysis ) and how to think about what to
find ( inference ) .
• The first part —what to look for— involves
recognizing those aspects of a discussion that
control the meaning.
• The second part —how to think about what you
find— involves the processes of inference, the
interpretation of data from within the text.
Correlation to Student Performance
Correlation between poor critical reading skills and:
• Poor performance on legal writing assignments – critical
reading ability influences analytic, critical thinking, problem
solving, and writing skills
• Poor performance on traditional multiple choice questions
• Poor performance on analytical examination questions
Critical Reading Process:
Four steps to read efficiently and proficiently
A.
Place material to be read into context.
•
•
B.
C.
D.
Determine why material is being read -What is the purpose of the
material within the class or subject being approached?
Use other parts of reading material to determine context (table of
contents, chapter headings, definitions for unknown words)
Skim material
Actively read material, taking notes, looking up words and
concepts for basic understanding
Complete post-reading exercise to confirm understanding
Classroom Strategies
Teaching students to read efficiently and proficiently
A.
Pre-reading Techniques: Context
1. Discuss the reason that the material exists, the source
and who created it
2. Discuss different ways information could
have
been presented or is available to reader
3. Understand where reading materials fits
with
course or subject matter objectives
4. Gather information to prepare for active reading
Classroom Strategies
Teaching students to read efficiently and proficiently
B.
Reading Techniques: Skimming
1. Students skim material to get
overview/overall sense of material
2. Encourage multiple reviews of material at different depths
C.
Reading Techniques: Active Reading
1. Students read and annotate material
2. Focus on content and language of text
3. Students clarify unknown meanings with resources
4. Students annotate by underlining, questioning and outlining
material, including briefing
Classroom Strategies
Teaching students to read efficiently and proficiently
D.
Post Reading Techniques
Reinforce understanding through objective examination and
subjective written exercises
a. Summarize
b. Evaluate
c. Synthesize
d. Hypothesize
Goal of critical reading is to make material
• Claims:
• Logic:
• Evidence:
• Analysis:
• Rebuttal:
CLEAR
• What are the claims and issues?
• Is presentation/organization
logical?
• Do facts support the argument?
• Is analysis sound and based on
legal reasoning?
• Are there counter-arguments
and counter-evidence?
Techniques of Critical Reading
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Previewing
Writing
Critical Reading (at least two times)
Summarizing
Forming a Critical Response
Finding a Focus for Your Paper
Previewing
• Form meaningful expectations about the reading.
• Pace yourself – decide how much time you will
dedicate to the reading.
• Skimming.
–
–
–
–
–
Look for Title, Section Headings, Date
Expectations about the Author (previous works)
Define the important vocabulary words
Brief summaries of chapters
The goal is to obtain a general grasp of the text
Writing
1. Writing While Reading
a. Margin
b. Divided Page Method
c. Landmark/Footnote Method
d. Reading Journal
e. Online Documents
Writing - Margin
• Mark, highlight, or underline parts of the text
that you think are very important.
Option 1 - Write a few words in the margin that
capture the essence of your reaction.
Option 2 – Write a few words that will help you
to remember the passage. This is useful for
learning definitions or parts of a theory.
Divided Page Method
• On a separate piece of paper, divide your page
into two columns.
• Label one column “text” (meaning from your
reading) and the other “response” (meaning
your response).
• Write down a part of the text you think is
important in the “text” column and then write
a reaction to it in the other column.
Landmark/Footnote Method
• On a separate piece(s) of paper or in your reading
journal, dedicate an adequate amount of space to an
article, book, chapter, etc, you are reading.
• Highlight, mark, or underline a critical part in your
reading. In the margin, indicate that you are going to
write a footnote. For example, write a 1 or a (or
whatever you want).
• In your reading journal, write a ‘1’ or ‘a’ (or whatever
symbol you chose) and then write your critical
response.
Reading Journal
• In addition to the other uses described above, use the
reading journal to track what you are reading and to form
critical responses to articles, chapters, etc you have read in
their entirety.
• Try to summarize the entire article, describe the main
points, define key terms, and express your reactions.
• Remember, do NOT refer back to the text until you
absolutely have to! Give your memory a workout! Force
yourself to learn the material as you read and be able to
write it down clearly afterwards.
• Also, put concepts into your own words.
• A general rule is 3-5 pages of notes per 100 pages of text.
Online Documents
•
Two ways to write while reading online
documents…
1) Reading Journal
2) Cut and Paste in Word Processor, then insert
comments
• For example…
Read #1
• Read in an environment where you will be free from
distractions.
• Read steadily and smoothly. Try to enjoy the work.
• Write notes, but do so sparingly.
• What works best for you?
• We suggest avoiding your cell phone, television,
computer, and most music (besides instrumental).
Read #2
•
•
Re-read the material more slowly than
during your first read.
The two most important objectives are:
1. Understand the content of the material
2. Understand the material’s structure
3 Responses to Texts
 Restatement- Restating what a text says;
talking about the original topic.
 Description- Describing what a text a does;
identifies aspects of text.
 Interpretation- Analyze what a text means;
asserts an overall meaning.
Summarization
• Summarization: Pull out the main points of
the text and write them down.
• The summary’s complexity and length will
vary according to the complexity and length of
the text you have read!
Forming Your Critical Response
•
•
•
•
Analysis
Interpretation
Synthesis
In forming your critical response, you will now
go beyond what the author has explicitly
written to form your impressions of the text.
Analysis
•
Analysis is the separation of something into
its parts or elements, which helps to
examine them more closely.
• To analyze reading, you can take at least
these two approaches:
1) Choose a question to guide analysis.
2) Look at the author’s argument structure.
Analysis (continued)
• Examine the argument structure.
• Claims: Statements that require support by
evidence.
• Assumptions: The writer’s underlying beliefs,
opinions, principles, or inferences that
connect evidence to the claims.
Analysis (continued)
• Types of evidence
– Facts: Verifiable evidence.
– Opinion: Judgments based upon facts.
– Expert Opinion: Judgments formed by authorities on a
given subject.
– Appeal to Beliefs or Needs: Readers are asked to accept a
claim in part because they already accept it as true
WITHOUT factual evidence or because it coincides with
their needs.
– Appeal to Emotion: A claim that is persuasive because it
evokes an emotion within the reader, but may or may not
rely on factual evidence.
Analysis (continued)
• To judge the reliability of evidence, look at the
following areas:
– Accuracy
– Relevance
– Representativeness
– Adequacy
Analysis (continued)
• Logical Fallacies: Errors in reasoning.
• Examples:
– Red herring-introduction of an irrelevant issue in an
argument.
– Non sequitur- linking two or more ideas that have no
logical connection.
– Making broad generalizations without proven empirical
evidence.
• Learn to identify logical fallacies by visiting:
http://www1.ca.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/index.html
Interpretation
• After breaking down the text into its components
and examining them, ask yourself about the
conclusions you can draw from this evidence.
• What claims does the author make?
• What evidence supports these claims?
• Can you infer anything beyond what the author has
explicitly written that either strengthens or weakens
the claims made by the author?
• See Critical Reading Checklist Handout
Synthesis
• Now that you have broken down the text into its
parts, analyzed them, and interpreted it all, you
should make new connections with what you know.
• Ask yourself again: What are the main points of this
text? Were my expectations for this article met? If I
“read in between the lines” do I learn anything else
about what the author is saying? Overall, what can I
conclude from this text?
Delivering Your Critical Response
• By this point, you will have everything you
need to create a critical response.
Finding a Focus for Your Paper
If you are delivering a critical
response in the form of a written
paper, here are some tips for finding
a focus for your writing and getting
started.
Step 1:
Finding Your Focus
•
•
•
•
Start early. Give yourself enough time.
Understand the assignment requirements.
Know the material.
Choose a topic that interests you & has potential
future value.
• Make sure the topic is relevant and researchable
(appropriate available research).
• Develop a controlling idea that is congruent with
your angle on a topic or what you read.
Step 2:
Developing your angle and establishing a
controlling idea
• Developing an angle and establishing a
controlling idea is important for every type of
paper.
• Be as specific as possible.
• Use it to focus & direct the paper.
• Make a statement instead of a question
• State a point that you can further develop,
explain, or substantiate.
Developing Your Focus:
Examples
Angle
Homelessness.
Controlling Idea
The causes of homelessness
Cultural bias in testing.
Problems, solutions, & the
clinician’s role
Professional Ethics.
Bridging the gap between
professional ethical
standards and personal
morals
Step 3:
Getting Started
Start-up Styles:
• Outline: Intro, body, conclusion
• Brainstorm: Write down points & ideas you have
regarding your topic.
• Find relevant research & writing regarding your topic
and highlight important quotations.
• Start writing & organize it later.
Different strategies work for different people!
The Writing Process
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•
•
•
•
Rough Draft
Final Draft
Edit
Edit Again
If you need assistance you can bring your
paper to the Academic Support Center (room
631) for review.
Bibliography
Adler M. J., & Van Doren, C. (1972). How to read a book.
York.
Touchstone: New
Barbara Glesner Fines, Preparing for Class, available at
http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/profiles/glesnerfines/Success2.html (visited
June 1, 2010)
Chitra Varaprasad, Some Classroom Strategies: Developing Critical Literacy
Awareness, 35 Eng. Teaching Forum Online 24 (July-Sept. 1997)
Critical Reading Checklist: http://unilearning.uow.edu.au/critical/2b.html
from the Unilearning site (an Australian website on academic skills) – a useful
list of questions
Critical Reading Skills Sheet, compiled by Craig M. Klugman,
www.unr.edu/homepage/cmk/cread.htm (visited June 1, 2010)
Critical Thinking: An Introduction. Alec Fisher CUP 2001 – an easy- to-read
overview
Bibliography continued
Fowler, H. R., & Aaron, J. E. (2001). The little, brown
Longman: New York.
handbook.
General advice on reading academic texts, including questioning:
http://www.lancs.ac.uk/celt/sldc/materials/reading/reading.htm
Godfrey, A., & Krauss, P. (2006). The art of essay writing: back to basics.
Presented in March and July, 2006.
The Chicago School: Chicago.
Kurland, D. (2000). How language really works: The fundamentals of critical
reading and effective writing. Retrieved 5 July 2010 from
http://www.criticalreading.com
Mather, Peter and Rita McCarthy. (2005). The Art of Critical Reading. Ohio: The
McGraw-Hill Companies
Reading Academically: University of Southampton 2003 Section 5 Being a
Critical Reader: Find the link on this page:
www.studyskills.soton.ac.uk/studytips/reading_skills.htm
Stover, A. (2005). An introduction to critical reading.
2005 and March, 2006. The Chicago School: Chicago.
Presented October,