FM Transmitter
FM Modulation using VCO
fout
 i   c  c f mt 
 t    t t  c f mt dt  c


SPM  Ac cos  c t  c f mt dt

[1]

Vin
 c - Free Running Frequency of VCO
Corresponding DC bias
Cf
- Gain of VCO
Block Diagram
Input

DC Bias
Vcc/2
VCO
PA
Chipset
• 4046 Phase-Locked Loop
• LM7171 Wide-Band Power Amplifier
• 741 Op Amp
4046 PLL
Only use the VCO
4046 VCO Characteristic
C1>=100pF
Schematic
PCB Layout Considerations
• The signal traces should be short and wide to lower
the impedance.
• The width of the signal traces has to satisfy current
driving capacity.
• Any used board area should be shorted to ground to
reduce AC noise.
• Sockets and pads will induce extra capacitance, so
components should be directly soldered to board.
• Surface mount components are preferred over
discrete ones for less lead inductance.
PCB Layout
Measured Results
• Carrier Frequency: 15MHz
• Bandwidth: Controllable
• Output Power: 500mW
FM Receiver
FM Demodulation using PLL
[2]
K p K v F s 
f

i
s  K p K v F s 
1
 f  K v Ve
s
Ve 
sK p F s 
s  K v K p F s 
s i  Cf mt 
in
PFD
LF
i
VCO
Ve
Loop Filter Design
L  4 n

n
2
n 
R2C  0.7
K p Kv
N R1R2 C
[3]
VCO Design
• VCO free running frequency = Carrier Frequency
• VCO Frequency Range is no smaller than
Bandwidth
• Large VCO gain will increase PLL natural frequency
n and thus improves PLL tracking capability
Block Diagram
BPF
LNA
PFD
LF
VCO
Amp
Chipset
• 4046 PLL
• CLC425 Wide-band LNA
4046 PLL
Schematic
PCB Layout
Superheterodyne FM
Receiver
Block Diagram
Input
Matching
Mixer
IF Amp +
IF Filter
LO
FM
Demodulator
Amp
Chipset
• TDA7000 – FM Radio
• LM3875 – Audio Power Amplifier
TDA7000
[4]
IF Filter
Quadrature Demodulator
H s  
1
R2 1  j R1  R2 C 
Vout
fin
IF Harmonic Distortion
RF  75 kHz
IF=70kHz
2IF  IF   IF  IF  IF  15kHz
IF Distortion Suppression
FLL
Correlator
To suppress interstation noise
• Not Modulated
• Lightly Modulated
• Heavily Modulated
Schematic
PCB Layout
Monolithic FSK Transmitter
[5]
Block Diagram
PLL
Reference
Frequency
Dual Modulus
Prescaler
Digital
Input
Analog
Input
A/D
Converter
Shift
Register
Clock
Data
Sampling
Rate
Output
Inverter
NAND – 2 Input
NAND – 3 Input
NAND – 4 Input
NOR – 2 Input
XOR
Transmission Gate
Edge-Triggered D Flip-Flop
D Flip-Flop with ‘CLEAR’
Voltage Comparator
8-to-3 Encoder
A/D Converter
Parallel-Serial Shift Register
Phase-Frequency Detector
VCO
Dual Modulus Prescaler
[6]
Output Driver
To drive capacitive load with minimum delay

A0 Wn ,W p


A1 Wn ,Wp

N  ln

AN 1 Wn ,W p
CL
Cin
1
N
C
A   L 
 Cin 

Capacitor Driving Capability
CL=100p
f=50MHz
Synthesizer
Synthesizer Response
ADC and SR Response
Chip Layout
Digital Switching Noise
[7]
Noise Mechanism
• Digital switching injects current into substrate through
various kinds of capacitance, which propagates through
the substrate and affects analog circuits.
• Digital switching draws current from power supply rail
with impedance and thus creates voltage drop on power
supply rail.
Digital Switching Noise in PLL
• PLL is a typical mixed-signal integrated circuit
PFD
LF
VCO
Noise Coupling
/N
Simulation Results
Error Voltage
VCO output
Noise Reducing Techniques
• Use Differential Topology
• Separate Power Supply Rails
• Use guard rings
• Multi-chip Module
• Heterogeneous integration
Test Structure 1
PFD
LF
VCO
/N
All building blocks share power supply rails
Chip Layout 1
Test Structure 2
PFD
LF
VCO
/N
The counter uses separate power supply rails
Chip Layout 2
Test Structure 3
PFD
LF
VCO
/N
• The counter uses separate power supply rails
• The PFD and VCO are shielded and ring guarded
Guard Ring
p+
Sink the coupling
P-type Substrate
p+
On-Chip Shielding
Metal 3
Via2
Via1
Contact
Ohmic Contact
ICs
Radiation
Chip Layout 3
Test Structure 4
PFD
LF
VCO
/N
• The counter uses separate power supply rails
• Use guard rings around PFD and VCO
• Implement LC VCO
LC VCO
Lower Phase Noise than Ring Oscillator
Oscillator Basics
• Positive feedback of 2n phase shift
• Unity loop gain
rp
- Tank Loss
1
0 
gm 
Q
[8]
LC
1
rp
rp
V1
g mV1
rp
 0L
• Phase noise is reverse proportional to Q
L
C
Chip Layout
Electromagnetic Coupling
Microstrip Line Coupling
4
3
L
W
1
S
2
[9]
Electric Field Distribution
Even Mode
Odd Mode
Impedance Matrix
cot l




j
Z

Z
oe
oo

2

cot l
  j Zoe  Zoo 
2
Z
csc l




j
Z

Z
oe
oo

2

csc l
 j Z oe  Zoo 
2

cot l
2
cot l
 j Zoe  Z oo 
2
csc l
 j Zoe  Z oo 
2
csc l
 j Z oe  Z oo 
2
 j Zoe  Zoo 
csc l
2
csc l
 j Z oe  Zoo 
2
cot l
 j Z oe  Zoo 
2
cot l
 j Z oe  Z oo 
2
 j Zoe  Z oo 
Zoe - even mode characteristic impedance
Zoo - odd mode characteristic impedance
 - propagation constant
    2   c2
csc l 
2 
csc l 

 j Zoe  Zoo 
2 
cot l 
 j Zoe  Zoo 
2 
cot l 

 j Zoe  Z oo 
2 
 j Z oe  Z oo 
Different Configurations
Low Pass
Band Pass
Band Pass
Band Pass
Experiment Setup
f  100MHz  2.9GHz
P  0dBm
Signal
Generator
Metal (Copper) Line 1
Coupling
Metal (Copper) Line 2
FR-4 Substrate
Ground Plane
Spectrum
Analyzer
f ?
P ?
Results
The coupling depends on L, W, S, and 
Integrated Inductor Coupling
• Coupling between integrated spiral inductors
• Coupling from spiral inductors to transistors
[10]
2.5D Integrated Inductor
[11]
Interference Effects on PLL
Performance
[12]
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Jerry D. Gibson, Principles of Digital and Analog Communications
Floyd M. Gardner, Phaselock Techniques
Roland E. Best, Phase-Locked Loops – Theory, Design, and Applications
W.H.A. Van Dooremolen and M. Hufschmidt, A complete FM radio on a chip
R. Jacob Baker, Harry W. Li, David E. Boyce, CMOS Circuit Design, Layout, and
Simulation
6. J. Navarro Soares and W.A.M. Van Noije, A 1.6-GHz Dual Modulus Prescaler
Using the Extended True-Single-Phase-Clock CMOS Circuit Technique, IEEE
Journal of SSCC, Vol.34, No.1, Jan 1999
7. Patrik Larsson, Measurements and Analysis of PLL Jitter Caused by Digital
Switching Noise, IEEE Journal of SSCC, Vol.36, No.7, July 2001
8. Dan H. Wolaver, Phase-Locked Loop Circuit Design
9. E.M.T.Jones and J.T.Bolljahn, Coupled-Strip-Transmission-Line Filters and
Directional Couplers, IRE Trans on Microwave Theory and Techniques, 1956
10. A.O.Adan, M.Fukumi, K.Higashi, T.Suyama, M.Miyamoto, M.Hayashi,
Electromagnetic Coupling Effects in RFCOMS Circuits, 2002 IEEE MTT-S Digest
11. Jaime Aguilera and Joaquin De No, A Guide for On-Chip Inductor Design in a
Conventional CMOS Process for RF Application
12. Murat F. Karsi, William C. Lindsey, Effects of CW Interference on Phase-Locked
Loop Performance, IEEE Trans on Comm, Vol.48, No.5, May 2000