F. W. Dickson, Emeritus Research Professor of Geochemistry
Department of Geological and Engineering Sciences
University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557
E-mail fdickson@mines.unr.edu
Home: 2220 Seawall Boulevard
Galveston, Texas 77550
Phone: 409 770-0390
GSA 2008
Concepts
Advances in science, mostly by Henri Poincaré and Ilya Prigogine, and insights from
petrologic studies at Papoose Flat and deductions from my experimental work were
convincing that nature follows rules of disequilibria, turbulence, and chaos, commonly
produces metastable fractal forms, minerals and life.
Concepts were applied to migration of energy and mass in earth in following:
Dickson, F.W., 2005, Role of liquids in disequilibrium processes of earth and
replacement in Papoose Flat pluton, California, in Rhoden, H. N., Steininger,R. C., and
Vikre, P. G., eds., Geological Society of Nevada Symp. 2005: Window to the World,
Reno, Nevada, May 2005, p.161-178.
This Addendum includes figures and statements documenting conclusions in my
abstract presented at 2008 National Meeting in Houston of Geological Society of
America in power point format:
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Henri Poincaré’s revision of concepts
of Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein
Poincaré in the 1890s mathematics and phase space concepts showed that
calculating paths of perturbed three bodies was impossible, the slightest
differences in initial conditions led to unpredictable results. Newton’s laws were
shown to be not universal.
Newton and Einstein principles are used for cases in which equilibrium is
approximated and direction of time does not matter.
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20th Century Advances
Lars Onsager:
Perturbed systems close to equilibrium return to equilibrium by laws of physics and
chemistry (linear behavior).
Ilya Prigogine:
Far from equilibrium reactions are unpredictable, irreversible, and follow paths set
by nature. Fluctuations of molecules in space described by non- linear equations
are independent of scale, ranging from local to galactic.
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Ilya Prigogine’s Insights
Theoretical and experimental work that showed that disequilibria prevail in
universe and in earth. Excess energy in systems drives irreversible processes
along gradients of T, P, concentration (X), and gravity.
Processes are not reversible. Time passes in one direction. Reactions far
from equilibrium follow bifurcating paths set by nature according to his
theories and experimental work.
Ordered products, metastable persistent self-similar fractals, independent of
scale, are produced by chaotic, turbulent, disordered processes. These
include minerals, life forms, star systems, galaxies.
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Prigogine’s Experiments
X = Time or concentration
versus λ = concentration.
Thermodynamic branch is
close to equilibrium in linear
range.
Stable: Persistent in time, such
as life forms.
Unstable: Transforms to
stable, persists short times.
Experimental bifurcations set
by nature do not reverse,
indicating time’s direction.
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Replacement of Igneous Minerals in Papoose Flat pluton
Fluid-coated, medium-grained, subhedral igneous minerals under stress at close of
entry of Papoose Flat pluton rearranged to orthoclase and quartz megacrystals.
Excess energy of stress cycled in local dissolution and precipitation reactions, existing
minerals were replaced with metastable minerals with favorable growth kinetics under
extreme augen gneiss conditons.
Led to considering mechanisms of cycling excess energies in regional replacement
and passive entry of granitic rocks.
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Patterns of Minerals in Space
Nature patterns large volumes of self-similar stable and metastable matter (fractals)
that are independent of scale, ranging from microscopic to galactic.
Metamorphic mineral facies are world-wide sets of minerals in large volumes that
share characteristics.
Nature controls properties of observable products ; in minerals are set textures,
sizes, shapes, crystal forms, and twinning.
Nature follows reaction kinetics as functions of temperature, pressure, chemical
potential, and effects of electromagnetic and gravitational fields.
Nature’s patterns are necessarily observed in field, and are best understood by
mathematical, theoretical, and experimental approaches.
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Cross section to mantle
Upper crust
magma chamber
Upper mantle
Upper crust
Mass mobilized by excess energy in lower
crust and upper mantle as diapirs and
reaction cells.
Diapir and reaction
cell conduit
Lower
Lowercrust
crustmagma
magma
chamber
chamber
Lower crust
•
•
•
•
•
•
Magmas
Dikes
Intrusives
Volcano
Geothermal systems
Near-surface earthquakes
Upper mantle
Diapirs and reaction
cells
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Implications and speculations
Fractals of nature are independent of scale.
Local replacement of minerals of Papoose Flat pluton was by cycling excess energies
of stress in endothermic dissolving and exothermic precipitating reactions at mineral
surfaces. Excess energies of plutons cycle similarly in crustal scale replacement.
Plutons contain excess energies of liquefaction that cycle in earth gradients.
Reaction cells that do so; excess energies of liquefaction at cell tops dissolve roof
rocks by endothermic reactions, minerals crystallize below by exothermic reactions,
and released energies migrating upward by convective overturn in liquid zones to
reaction zones at tops.
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Natural Liquids
Excess energies build in liquids generated in rocks on increase in temperature and
pressure where insufficient energy is lost by diffusion of heat. Excess energies are
consumed in consolidation of magma.
Rocks have complex compositions and natural liquids formed from them can not be
pure; they obey laws of solubility in separating phases that depend on gravity and
reaction kinetics as functions of temperature, pressure, and chemical potential.
Magmatic bodies in gravitational fields are unstable and rise as diapirs and
replacement of cover rocks by reaction cells.
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Classic phase diagram in terms of solubility
Shows stability fields of melts, saturated and unsaturated solutions, and solid phases as
functions of T and concentration, at 1 bar
SYSTEM KAlSi2O6 – SiO2
(1 BAR)
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Replacement of calcite (CaCO3) by pyrite (FeS2)
Solutions supersaturated with pyrite exchange energies at surfaces,
minerals differ in composition balanced chemical reactions not relevant
.
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Replacement by solutions
Required are: supersaturated solutions; paths to and from reaction sites; transport
in and out by flow and diffusion; favorable kinetics of nucleation and growth.
Faces of minerals replaced diminish in volume equal to solids deposited.
Constant volume restraints (equilibrium) do not hold. Unconsumed energy and
matter migrate out. Balanced chemical reactions in open systems are not possible
or meaningful without knowledge of sources and sinks.
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Reaction Cell
Disequilibrium reactions prevail in
earth gradients of TP and gravity.
Destabilized country rocks
dissolve regardless of lithology
and composition.
Energy lost by deep cells is
mostly to entropy gains, other
factors are small or
compensating.
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2008
Frontiers
Remarks on Reaction Cells (RCs)
Excess energies of liquefaction of RCs (plutons, magma bodies) in earth’s gradients cycle in
dissolving and precipitating reactions that emplace volcanic and igneous systems.
Disequilibrium (chaotic, turbulent) reactions prevail in earth operate in RCs.
Country rocks dissolve at tops of RCs and absorb energy.
Minerals precipitate at bases of RCs and release energy.
Freed energy migrates upward by convective overturn in central liquid zones.
Deep RCs, excess energy loose energy mostly by entropic gains.
Energetic factors are negligible (heat exchanges, work done on and by), or compensating
(energies of dissolving and precipitating).
RCs rise chemically in gravitational fields much as water flows down hill.
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Remarks on Reaction Cells (RCs) continued
Liquids of individual RCs evolve in composition toward granitic upward, and basic downward,
and enrich in fugitives.
Fluidity (viscosity), density and compositions of RCs modify during ascent.
Country rocks dissolution adds components, compositions shift, mantle and crustal constituents
are incorporated.
Repeated transit of cells form paths along which emplaced passively multiple plutons of
batholiths.
RCs loose energy, at close of entry, liquids shrink to intergranular coatings of minerals.
Minerals coated with liquids in newly emplaced plutons are highly reactive, respond to physical
and chemical perturbations.
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Study of Papoose Flat Pluton, Inyo Mountains, Calilfornia
Research at Papoose Flat in1950’s began as part of a UCLA group.
Nearly entirely exposed pluton was sampled and observed on grid.
Pluton passively emplaced, transecting regional structures and sedimentary rock
units. and subjected to gravitational oversteepening on the west.
Megacrystals of orthoclase and quartz grew in pluton, foliated aureole, and country
rocks.
Timing of growth was after passive entry of pluton.
Inculuded was marginal emplacement of aplite dikes and quartz veins.
Ductile deformation on north formed pytgmatites and misshaped trilobite fossils.
misshaped; ductile deformation increased intensity toward west, where country
rocks retained stratigraphic sequences, were thinned to 1/20th original thickness,
and border rocks strongly foliated; and in gently foliated pluton.
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Orthoclase crystals record of growth conditions
At Papoose Flat and in more than 12 quartz monzonitic plutons in western U. S., orthoclase
crystals closely resemble one another in texture, color, forms, habit, size and shape.
Crystals of orthoclase greatly differ because of wide range of environments.
Closely similar features require common short ranges of TPX values during growth.
Plutons and country rocks with fluid coated minerals at late stages of entry respond to
perturbations. Megacrystals of orthoclase and quartz form under extreme augen gneiss
conditions.
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Orthoclase crystals of Papoose Flat-type
Are gray and white in color.
Typically about 2 cm long, but exceptionally range to 10 cm and longer.
Associate with gray bipyramids of quartz about 1 cm long.
Are simple combinations of crystal forms (basal and side pinacoids and prism).
Shapes are slightly elongated, boxy, and crooked.
Tough crystals weather out whole, litter surface of ground, and break easily from matrix.
Rough outer surfaces with pits and projecting tiny crystals observed in face sectors below.
Monoclinic under microscopic and by X-ray examinations, and triclinic (crooked) in outer shapes.
Rarely associated with microcline; at Papoose Flat, as a few borders on orthoclase formed under weak
stress, and as streaks in foliated rocks formed under stronger stress.
Oscillating Ba and K concentration of concentric layers parallel to outer surfaces.
Contain preferentially included oriented tiny crystals in face sectors (hour glass textures).
Larger subhedral grains of same minerals occur in pluton.
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Papoose Flat Valley, Inyo Mountains, California
View East Toward Waucoba Mountain From Western Foliated Border
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Papoose Flat Pluton
Location, Regional Geology and Cross Sections
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Geology of Papoose Flat Pluton
On east pluton transects regional features; on west It occupies
wrap-around plunging anticline of thinned Cambrian rocks;
on north and west, pluton is ductily deformed.
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Petrologic Conclusion: Crooked Orthoclase Porphyroblasts In
Papoose Flat-Type Quartz Monzonitic Plutons Do Reveal
Mechanisms Of Local And Regional Replacement In Earth.
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Typical Papoose Flat quartz monzonite, in center of pluton on west.
Illustrates medium grained
matrix with crystals of quartz
and orthoclase.
This orthoclase crystal is
unusual in having fractured.
Crackled gray quartz
bipyramids are in matrix .
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Typical Monoclinic Orthoclase Crystals From Papoose Flat
Clinging to surfaces are tiny crystals of minerals observed in face sectors below
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Orthoclase Crystal From Coxcombe Mountains, California
One of more than 12 localities in quartz
monzonite plutons in western United States.
Crystals are mostly 5 cm, but range to greater
than 12 cm, most unusual.
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Crooked orthoclase crystal, Coxcombe Mountains, California
Viewed down, onto face (001), face(010) on left and face (100) on top
87 degrees
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Orthoclase Crystal
With Zones and Hour Glasses
Center cut parallel to (010). Left: Unstained; Right: Stained red for barium. Rough
outer surfaces with crystal shaped pits and clinging crystals that are in face
sectors below.
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Orthoclase Crystal From Papoose Flat
Center-cuts, parallel and perpendicular to (010).
Stained red for barium.
3-D view of zones and hour glasses.
Rough outer surface with clinging tiny crystals.
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East Border Papoose Flat Pluton
Inclusions of country rocks,
partly digested, cross cut by
orthoclase crystals and
seams.
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Boulder in wash at east end of pluton
Inclusions of country rocks
and digested remnants,
transected by orthoclase,
with seams converted to
crystals.
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NW contact of pluton with hornfelsed country rocks
Assistant Walter Dibble
viewing contact of pluton, and
undigested remnant of
inclusion of country rocks.
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Pluton on NW, passively emplaced
in Pre-Cambian sedimentary rocks
Medium grained granite with
aplite seams and orthoclase.
Subjected to mild post-seam
stress that triggered growth of
porphyroblasts of orthoclase.
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Passively emplaced Papoose Flat pluton on NW
not affected by sliding
Sets of intersecting
aplites in pluton with
orthoclase crystals; not
thinned and foliated as
western border rocks.
Pluton initially entered
passively, emplaced
dikes and veins, and
north and western
portions underwent
ductile deformation.
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Outcrop of weathered granite with projecting whole
crystals
Orthoclase crystal do not fall
apart or break easily.
Growth under stress may
anneal, and eliminate flaws
normally present in Kfeldspars.
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Western foliated granite-aureole border rocks adjacent
to thinned sedimentary rocks.
Gneissic border zone.
Mixed aplite dikes, quartz
veins, and granitic rocks
foliated during sliding.
Orthoclase crystals grew
during and later than
foliation event.
Crystals are concentrically
zoned, and with hour glass
textures.
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Orthoclase crystals in foliated border rocks
Orthoclase crystals grew
during and after sliding event.
Concentric zones parallel outer
shapes from centers to
margins.
Partly converted to white
microcline, rare at Papoose
Flat.
Evidences of locally
concentrated stress.
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Orthoclase porphyroblast 30 m from
pluton on north side
In zone of intermediate ductile
deformation.
Cambrian graywackes recrystallized, developed
pytgmatic folds and quartzo-feldspathic layers.
At base of figure, white feldspathic layer is
overlain by black deformed layer, and underlain
by thin seams of black partly digested layers.
Reorganization during sliding included
replacement by crystals and generation of
quartzo-feldspathic layers deformed to
pytgmatic folds.
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Papoose Flat Pluton
Locality PF154 at far SE Corner
Contact with metamorphosed Cambrian
graywackes replaced by megacrysts of
white orthoclase and bipyramids of βquartz.
Pluton to right contains orthoclase and
quartz crystals with same properties.
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Metamorphic minerals in Cambrian country rocks
at SE corner of pluton
Slab polished, stained red
for barium, 10 cm wide.
Orthoclase is typical of
Papoose flat -type: zoned,
with hour glass textures.
β-Quartz bipyramids, gray,
euhedral, unzoned, to 10
mm in diameter that grade
to sugary groundmass,
crackled, ragged borders.
Orthoclase and β-quartz
persist metastably.
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Conclusions
In my opinion, science is the most remarkable achievement of human beings, its methods guarantee
progress despite our tendencies to resist change.
James Hutton in the 18th century early developed scientific approaches now used by scientists. He
insisted on answering questions from sound concepts and his observations. He saw in quarries that
granites cut former sediments, hardened into rocks with signs of heating, deduced hot liquid entered
from below as did volcanoes . He believed that a benevolent God had kindly converted ocean
sediments to rock bodies, uplifted and weathered them to make rich soils that grade laterally to hard
rocks. He developed his great cycles of nature, uniformitarism, and long times required. These led to
great controversies and dissent. His approaches became standard, his concepts are part of science
and accepted by most people..
The origin of granite has been discussed since Hutton’s time; geologists agreed with his observations in
quarries, but troubling observations of strong evidences of regional features of passive entry, that
granite somehow had substituted for crustal matter. How was space occupied? What was the fate of
disappeared rocks? Where were sources of energy needed to liquefy and recrystallize such large
volumes? These questions could not be answered by prevailing igneous concepts. However,
mysterious mechanisms of science came into action. General scientific understandings have steadily
increased since Hutton. We recognize that earth systems are open, gradients everywhere guide
disequilibrium reactions, energy in excess in magma bodies drives cyclic processes that passively
replace crustal rocks.
Science as it is in the 21st century, and my observations, bear on mechanisms of transfer of mass and
energy in earth and origin of granite. I hope they prove sound under challenge by methods of science.
GSA 2008