Supporting Sentences
Supporting sentences contain specific statements that support the main idea of the
paragraph.Supporting sentences will contain relevant and thoughtful details that add to the
subject and do not get "off track."
Example:
(1) Mexico offers visitors a world of contrasts. (2) Its pyramids and ancient ruins are part of
ancient history, while its modern cities provide us with the best of today's technology. (3) Its
mountains offer cool weather and rocky peaks, while only a few miles away, its beaches tempt
us with brilliant sun and white sand. (4) Its fancy restaurants serve the most sophisticated
continental cuisine, and sidewalk vendors sell the simplest of native foods.
o
Sentence 1 states the main idea of the paragraph.

o
The main idea is that Mexico has many examples of contrasts (differences).
Sentences 2 through 4 are supporting sentences.



The old pyramids and the new cities are an example of contrast.
The cool mountains are in contrast to the warm beaches.
The fancy restaurants are very different from the simple street food vendors.
Comment on Lesson
Enriching Ideas
Authors of all kinds use language to enrich or support the ideas they are trying to express. Two of the
most common ways they do this are with descriptive details and factual details.
Descriptive Details
When an author describes a landscape as having purple wildflowers and yellow daisies, or if
she tells you a character has piercing blue eyes and a hooked nose like an eagle, the author is
using descriptive details. Sometimes the details do not necessarily help the author make a
point, but they add to the atmosphere or feeling you get about the overall story. Without
descriptive details, the stories we read would be pretty boring! The details help us picture the
story in our heads.
Factual Details
Nonfiction books and articles mostly use factual details to support ideas. A history book, for
example, might give you names and dates having to do with a famous event in history. Or an
article about dolphins might tell you where you are most likely to find them, and how long
they usually live. Factual details help support the main idea an author is expressing. They help
convince us that the author knows what he or she is talking about and is not just expressing an
opinion. We are more likely to believe an author if there are factual details to back up what he
or she is saying.
Inferences
Inferences are evidence-based guesses. They are the conclusions a reader draws about the unsaid based
on what is actually said. Inferences drawn while reading are much like inferences drawn in everyday
life. Making an inference is the same thing as drawing a conclusion or making a generalization.
Tips for Drawing Inferences
1. Make sure your inferences rely mainly on the author's words rather than your own feelings or
experience. Your goal is to read the author's mind, not invent your own message.
2. Check to see if your inference is contradicted (proven wrong) by any statements in the
paragraph. If it is, it is not an appropriate or useful inference.
3. If the passage is a difficult one, check to see if you can actually identify the statements that led
you to your conclusion. This kind of close reading is a good comprehension check. It will also
help you remember the material.
examples:
 If your mom tells you to put your rain coat on before leaving the house, you can infer (or make
an educated guess) that it is raining outside.

Read this sentence: He is known as the president with the beard and the black top hat who led
us through the Civil War.
You can infer that the president being spoken of in the sentence is Abraham Lincoln.
Theme
The theme, or moral, is a message that the reader gets from a story. It could be a short lesson about
life. It tells how the author feels about life or human nature. Because the theme is a message, it must be
expressed in a complete sentence.Sometimes the author doesn't tell you what the theme is. You may
have to figure it out from the text.
Some Common Themes Found in Literature:

Man is man's worst enemy.

Good is stronger than evil.

A person grows by facing obstacles.

Treat others the way you want to be treated.
Notice that the themes aren't describing particular events or characters. They are broad ideas
that can apply to all people.
example:
The Fox and the Grapes
by Aesop
One afternoon, a fox was walking through the forest. The fox saw a bunch of grapes
hanging from over a branch.
Just the thing I need when I'm thirsty, the fox thought.
Taking a few steps back, the fox jumped and just missed the hanging grapes.Again, the fox
took a few steps back and tried to reach the grapes but still failed.
Finally, giving up, the fox said, "They're probably sour, anyway." Then, the fox walked
away.
Question: Which of the following best describes a theme of the passage?
A. It is easy to dislike what you cannot have.
B. It is easy to find food for tall animals.
C. Many animals like to eat fruits.
D. A fox always knows when grapes are sour.
Explanation: In the above story, the fox is trying to eat the grapes, but he or she cannot reach
them. When the fox fails after trying, he or she says the grapes must be sour. One theme, or
message, of this passage is, "It is easy to dislike what you cannot have."
Tips for Identifying Theme:


Look closely at the title. Sometimes you will find a clue about the theme.
Look for ideas that are repeated more than once.

Look for lessons that the character learns.

Think about what happens in the story and how it can apply to life. For example, if the main
character must survive an approaching tornado, the theme may be, "Nature is at war with
mankind."
Summarization
A summary is a shorter way to tell about a passage. It tells the most important details or events of a
story or article. It does not tell all of the details of a passage. Look at the passage and its summary below
for an example.
Tiny TV
Many Americans wear wristwatches every day. It is important to keep track of the
time. Special watches might show the date and time of other cities around the world. Some
watches are waterproof and nearly impossible to break. Now, you can watch TV on your
watch!
The new TV-watch is about $200. The screen is only 1½ inches. This makes a portable
DVD player seem huge. The screen displays the time as well as TV shows. It is a flat panel
screen. Earphones are plugged into the watch to carry the sound. The battery lasts for about
one hour. At least one show can be watched in that time.
The TV-watch is one of the smallest portable TVs. It is still very large compared to other
watches. The reception is also weak. This means you cannot really move around while
watching a show. You have to stay in one place to be sure you can watch and hear the
show. The color of the screen is amazing, but do not expect to get a good picture if you are
riding in a car.
Summary of Passage
A new type of watch will now allow people to watch television from their wrist. The
small TV-watch shows the time and a TV show, but the picture is not good because of weak
reception.
Character Analysis
You can understand stories better when you understand characters. This is called character
analysis. When you analyze characters, think about the following items.
Trait:
a special quality or something special about someone's personality.
examples:
 hair color, eye color, height, weight, age, beliefs, likes, dislikes, opinions, behavior

"Andy was a nice boy of medium height with brown hair and eyes. He liked rock music,
baseball, and pizza. He was a loyal friend and a great athlete. He always told the truth and
gave the right answer in class."
Motivation:
what causes someone to act in a certain way. It can be an emotion, desire, need, etc. A
motivation is the reason we do something.
examples:
 "Sara was motivated to win the game because she plays hard and had lost the last game to the
other team."
 "Tim went to the grocery store because his kitchen was empty and he was very hungry."
 "Kim acted rude to Carrie because Carrie did not invite her to a birthday party."
Conflict:
when characters have different interests or goals.
examples:
 "My mom and I had a fight because I put a dent in the car and didn't tell her. Now I feel bad
when I come home from school."
 "Jim and Steve are fighting because they like the same girl."
 "There is a conflict between people who think school should be year-round and those who
don't."
Point of View:
the side from which a story is told. It can affect how facts are shown and how we look at the
characters.
examples:
 "Because Tina told the teacher her version of the story first, I got punished even though it
wasn't my fault."
 "Because a story is told from the side of a little brother, the big sister character may look bad
even though she is a nice girl."
Relationships:
the connection of people in friendship, family, work, school, or other activities.
examples:

mother, sister, friend, teacher, neighbor, father, boss, etc.

"Tickets for the Super Bowl sold out two weeks ago, but I was able to attend the game since
my father is head coach for one of the teams."
Think about how all these character traits affect the story. A character's traits or relationships might
affect his or her point of view. Motivation affects action and changes. When we understand all of these
things, a character becomes easy to understand. When writing your own characters, think about all
these things. You'll be on your way to making an interesting and deep character.
Plot
The plot is the sequence of events that happen in a story. It shows how characters meet and resolve a
conflict—a problem or struggle. Every plot is made up of a series of causes and effects.
A plot is like a long line of dominoes. When a finger tips the first domino, the first domino
causes the second domino to fall, the second domino causes the third domino to fall, and so
forth. The finger has caused a sequence of events.Similarly, every event that happens in a
story causes another event to happen.
Sample Story
A woman’s voice came over the loudspeaker. "Flight 546 to Dallas, TX, has arrived. We
will begin boarding in 15 minutes."
"It’s about time," I muttered. My dad and I had been waiting for over three hours for our
plane. Apparently, some storm in Florida had delayed our flight.
To pass the time, I had been playing video games and listening to music. I don’t know what
I would do without portable electronics.
As I entered the final stage in Link’s Corner, my father said, "Hey, Jeremy, I’m going to
run to the restroom. Will you stop playing that game for a minute and watch our things?"
"Okay, Dad," I said. "Hold on. Let me just finish this level." I glanced up and saw that he
was already gone. Shrugging my shoulders, I reasoned that our stuff would be fine. I could
still see our things from the corner of my eye. I couldn’t stop playing. I was too close to
defeating Graken. I just had to capture the blue stone.
"Jeremy! Where’s my camera?! I told you to stop playing that game!" My dad’s voice
broke my concentration.
Oh no, I thought. I paused my game and looked up. My father stood frantically searching
through our things. I remembered seeing his camera on the seat beside me, but sure enough, it
was no longer there.
"I’m sorry, Dad! I was watching our things from the corner of my eye!"
"Well, obviously, you weren’t! My camera is gone!"
My father began questioning some people nearby, but no one had noticed anyone
suspicious. Someone had been awfully sneaky. I couldn’t believe that someone had stolen the
camera right under my nose. I felt like an idiot.
"We will start the boarding process with group A. Group A, you may now board," the
woman announced.
My father shook his head as we gathered our things and moved to the end of the line. He
wouldn’t even look at me. I felt awful. That digital camera had cost my dad $500. It also had
all of our vacation pictures on it.
"I’m REALLY sorry, Dad," I said. "I promise I’ll make it up to you."
My dad snorted, "You bet you are."
That summer, I worked like I’d never worked before. I mowed lawns, pulled weeds,
cleaned garages, and painted fences. By the end of August, my dad had a brand-new camera,
and I had hands full of blisters.
Sample Questions
1. What is the plot of the story?
While waiting to board an airplane, Jeremy gets distracted playing his video game and loses his
father’s camera. He works hard over the summer to buy his dad a new one.
2. What is the narrator’s main conflict?
Jeremy loses his father’s camera.
3. How does the narrator solve his main conflict?
Jeremy works over the summer to buy his father a new camera.
4. What causes Jeremy and his dad to gather their things and stand in line?
The woman tells group A to board.
5. What happens when Jeremy’s dad goes to the restroom?
A thief steals his camera.
Setting
Setting is the time, place, and circumstances in which a story takes place. It tells the reader where and
when the story occurs.
The main components of setting include the following:

place (geographical location)

weather

social conditions

mood (atmosphere)
The setting is essential to the development of the characters and the plot of a
story. Sometimes, the setting provides details about the mood of the story.
Examples:
A story set in a haunted house would probably be filled with suspense and horror.
Other times, the setting may actually be part of the conflict in the story. This is common in
adventure stories in which characters become trapped or lost in forests, avalanches, etc. The
setting may also provide the way in which the conflict is resolved. In such instances, a
character uses a feature of the setting to his or her advantage.
The setting of the story can also determine who the antagonists (characters that oppose the
main character) of the story will be.
If the story is set during a war, the antagonists would probably be the enemy soldiers.
Idioms
An idiom is an example of a type of figurative language that authors use to make their writing more
exciting. The intended meaning of an idiom is not the same as the literal meaning of the words.You have
to memorize the meanings of idioms or figure out their meanings by using context clues.
Examples:
"Under the weather" is a common idiom or idiomatic expression. You might miss a day of
school because you feel "under the weather." The meaning of the expression has nothing to do
with the weather. It means you feel ill.
"You got up on the wrong side of bed" is another example. It doesn't really mean there is a
wrong side of bed. It means that you woke up cranky or angry.
SAMPLE STORY
That morning, Margie talked Pam into going on a hike with her. She told her it would be
fun. Three hours later, Pam wasrunning out of steam. She had pebbles and rocks inside her
shoes. She was hot and sweaty, her legs ached, and they still had another two hours of hiking
to go. The other people in their group lagged behind. Some of them quit.
"Keep your chin up!" Margie said. "We're almost there, Pam!"
Pam tried to fool Margie into thinking that she was having a good time, but the hike was
too hard.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. What does the idiom running out of steam mean in this passage?
A.
running out of water
B. feeling great anger
C. almost out of energy
D. in an excited mood
Explanation: The sentences that appear after the idiom show the reader that Pam feels
uncomfortable and tired. She can’t wait until the hike is over. Like an engine, "running out of
steam," Pam is almost out of energy. The correct answer is C.
2. When Margie says, "Keep your chin up," she is telling Pam to
A.
remain happy in a tough situation.
B. look straight ahead at all times.
C. lift her legs as high as possible.
D. ignore all the people behind her.
Explanation: The sentence that appears after the idiom shows the reader that Margie is still
feeling good about the hike.She says, "We’re almost there, Pam!" Also, Pam answers by
trying "to fool Margie into thinking that she [is] having a good time." It makes sense that
Margie is telling Pam to remain happy in a tough situation. The correct answer is A.
Connotation and Denotation
Denotation is the literal dictionary meaning of a word. Connotation, however, is the emotional
suggestion of a word.
Words express more than just their dictionary definitions, also known as denotation. Words
can bring up pictures or stir feelings in the reader. Authors use connotation to influence their
readers and support their point of view. For example, look at these two words below that have
the denotation "different from the ordinary."
strange
extraordinary
Which word has a positive connotation? Which one has a negative connotation? If you wanted
to give a classmate a compliment on a painting she created, would you say, "Your painting
is strange," or would you say, "Your painting isextraordinary"?
Although the two words mean the same thing, strange has a negative connotation. Therefore,
your classmate may not takestrange as a compliment. Below are more examples of positive
and negative connotation:
Negative:
Kate was an immature woman who giggled a lot.
Positive:
Kate was a youthful woman who giggled a lot.
Negative:
Mr. Lambert tells everyone that his son is the mayor of Avalon. He is a haughty father.
Positive:
Mr. Lambert tells everyone that his son is the mayor of Avalon. He is a proud father.
Poetry
A poem is a type of writing designed to convey experiences, ideas, or emotions in a vivid and imaginative
way. Poems are characterized by literary techniques such as meter and rhyme.These, and other terms,
are defined below.
Alliteration
The repetition of the beginning sounds of words is called alliteration. For example, he's a lilylivered landlubber.
Assonance
The repetition of vowels without repetition of consonants is called assonance. For example, it's
a holy stony pony.
Ballad
A narrative poem (a poem that tells a story) that is intended to be sung; it is made up of simple
stanzas and usually has a refrain that is repeated.
Cinquain
(pronounced sing-KANE) A five-line stanza of syllabic verse, the successive lines containing
two, four, six, eight, and two syllables. The cinquain is based on the Japanese haiku.
Couplet
Two lines with end words that rhyme.
Haiku
(pronounced HIGH-koo) A Japanese form of poetry, also known as hokku. It consists of three
unrhymed lines of five, seven, and five syllables. See the example below.
Internal Rhyme
A rhyme in which at least one of the rhyming words is somewhere within a line of poetry and
both rhyming words are often in the same line. For example, a spatter a scatter a wet cat a
clatter. Spatter, scatter, and clatter all rhyme and all are in the same line.
Metaphor
A figure of speech in which a word or phrase that ordinarily designates one thing is used to
designate another, thus making an implicit comparison, as in "a sea of troubles" or "All the
world's a stage" (Shakespeare).
Meter
The rhythmic pattern of a stanza, determined by the kind and number of lines. The number of
syllables in each line of a stanza can determine the meter.
Onomatopoeia
The use of words such as buzz or moo that imitate the sounds associated with the objects they
refer to.
Repetition
Sometimes, writers want to make sure that you get the point of a certain sentence or idea, so
he or she repeats certain words or groups of words. Pay attention to words that are
repeated. Sometimes, repeated words can help you figure out what's coming next in a piece of
writing.
Rhyme
Rhyming words are two words that sound alike. Run and done rhyme with each other.Many
of the poems that you read are rhyming poems.
Rhythm
Rhythm is a pattern of sounds that makes a poem sound musical. It is the up-and-down, highand-low sounds the syllables in words make when they're written out in lines. If each line in a
poem has the same number of syllables, the poem most likely has a rhythm. Words in rap
songs have a certain beat or "flow" very similar to the words in poems.
Simile
A figure of speech in which two essentially unlike things are compared, often in a phrase
introduced by like or as, as in "How like the winter hath my absence been" or "So are you to
my thoughts as food to life" (Shakespeare).
Sonnet
A sonnet is a form of poetry written in fourteen lines and ending in a couplet. Sonnets also
have a specific rhythm the poet must follow.
Stanza
A division of a poem made by arranging the lines into units separated by a space, usually of a
corresponding number of lines, and a recurrent pattern of meter and rhyme. A poem with such
divisions is described as having a stanzaic form. See the example below.
Examples
Below is a poem written by Emily Dickinson; it is a rhymed poem with three stanzas. The
rhyming words are in bold, and the text in red represents one of the three stanzas.
Out of the Morning
by Emily Dickinson
Will there really be a morning?
Is there such a thing as day?
Could I see it from the mountains
If I were as tall as they?
Has it feet like water-lilies?
Has it feathers like a bird?
Is it brought from famous countries
Of which I have never heard?
Oh, some scholar! Oh, some sailor!
Oh, some wise man from the skies!
Please to tell a little pilgrim
Where the place called morning lies!
The two examples of haiku below both have unrhymed lines of five, seven, and five syllables.
Springtime in the woods
A little white snake went in
The pond very fast.
The buds on the vine
explode in blossoms of pink
an unseen dog barks.
Point of view refers to the way a story is told, the perspective or angle of vision, or the position from
which the events are narrated for the reader. Sometimes the author "tells" the story; sometimes one of
the characters does so. Sometimes this narrator knows all about everything; sometimes the narrator is
limited in her or his knowledge and outlook. These methods of storytelling and the examples of point of
view are detailed below.
First Person
First-person point of view uses "I" or "we." First person is often used when someone is
stating an opinion or sharing a feeling.
example:
 I like my freshly-painted bedroom so much that I want to jump for joy!
Second Person
Second-person point of view uses the word "you." Second person is a good choice when
giving directions or anytime you're speaking directly to someone. Second person is almost
never used to tell a story.
example:
 "You should really come and join the group because you would probably like it a lot."
Third Person
Third-person point of view uses "he," "she," or "they." Sometimes, "it" is used when talking
about a thing instead of a person.
example:

Sally rode home as fast as she could. Then she jumped off her bike and ran into the house
to see what was going on.
Third-Person Limited
In third-person limited point of view, the narrator is a non-participant but only knows the
thoughts and feelings of a single character. In other words, the narrator's knowledge of the
situation is limited only to one character.
example:

Marco felt like he had done something good for the community. He felt like a helper and
wanted to do more good things to assist those in need. But how did everybody else feel? How
did Hannah and Zach feel about their work? He would have to talk to them to find out.
Third-Person Omniscient
In the third-person omniscient point of view, the writer is a non-participant but is able to see
into and have unlimited knowledge about any or all of the characters. From this angle, the
author can roam anywhere, see anything, and comment on or interpret events at will.
example:

Marco felt like he had done something good for the community. He felt like a helper and
wanted to do more good things to assist those in need. Marco wouldn't know it until he talked
to them, but Hannah and Zach felt the same way, too. Hannah had not been able to sleep. She
was excited at the thought of expanding their project. She was sure they could provide even
more toys for the children next year! Zach was already planning ways to raise more money and
get more people involved. He had even had a dream about how to do it!
Compare/Contrast Information
When we are presented with two passages, they may be similar or different. It is important to recognize
these similarities and differences.
Comparing Information
When we compare two types of information, we are looking for similarities between them. In
other words, we want to see how the two are alike.
For example, Batman and Spider-Man are similar in the respect that they are comic book
superheroes.
Contrasting Information
When we contrast two types of information, we are looking for differences between
them. Contrasting means showing how two things are different.
For example, Batman wears a bat costume, drives the Batmobile, and has an arch-nemesis
named The Joker.Spider-Man wears a spider costume, swings from buildings with spider
webbing, and has an arch-nemesis named The Green Goblin.
ompare and Contrast
There are almost endless ways two stories or passages can differ. It's up to you to notice
how. Here are a couple of definitions to get you started.
Scope - the range of observation, extent, time frame
Example: The scope of the Star Wars Trilogy is wider than that of
just Star Wars itself.
Treatment - the manner of treating a subject in literature
Example: The treatment of this passage is light and simple:
I say it's time we give our brother the whale a break, folks. Let's stop
hunting them for our amusement parks and just let them live a long
prosperous life in the big ocean.
Organization - the structure, or order, of a passage
Example: Is the passage chronological (arranged in order of occurrence
through time)?
At dinner, I talk over my day with my family. After that, I finish my
homework and reading for the next day. Next, I watch about an hour of
TV or play on the computer. Finally, I brush my teeth, put on my
pajamas, and get into bed.
Example: Is it ordered according to highlights?
The best part of the vacation was the skiing. After a cold day outside,
however, the next best thing was the great food and hot tub. Finally, I
enjoyed the huge fireplace at the lodge.
Example: Is it ordered by cause and effect?
When I run every day, I feel much more energized than if I sit around. If
I don't get any exercise, I find that I get sick more often. It's the same
thing with food. If I only eat junk food, I just don't feel good.
Story Variants - the small details in the texts which change the meaning or offer new
information
Theme -the subject, topic, or recurrent focus
Example: Sometimes two passages can be about completely different
people or events and still share a theme. To discover this, think about
what the two selections might be trying to communicate to you. What is
the theme of the story?
Reading Standards for Informational Text
Main Idea
The main idea of a passage is the idea that most of the passage covers. It is the basic point that the
author wants to convey to the reader. The sentences that explain, describe, or support the main idea are
called supporting details.
Think about the last book or article you read. When you are looking for the main idea of a
passage, ask yourself these questions:


Why did the author write this passage? What is the point he or she is trying to make?
What is the passage mostly about? What idea is conveyed in the passage?
Once you think you have the main idea, check it against the passage. Look at the supporting
details. If they all support, describe, or explain your possible main idea, then you are right. If
not, look again. See what idea the details do support or explain.
One important thing to remember is that a main idea and a topic are not the same thing. The
main idea is a specific point the author is making, while the topic is the general idea of the
passage. For example, a passage with the main idea that hybrid cars are helping to fight
against global warming has the topic of hybrid cars. It is just like a research paper. Your
teacher might give you the topic of Abraham Lincoln. You might choose to write your paper
about Lincoln's effectiveness as president. Lincoln is the topic and his effectiveness as
president is the main idea.
Example
March 2 was a great day at the New York Public Library. 250 first and second graders
wore red-and-white striped stovepipe hats. They were celebrating The Cat in the Hat’s 50th
birthday. Dr. Seuss’ The Cat in the Hat picture book has been published for 50 years now. The
famous feline danced with children racing around him. At the same time, pink, purple, and
white confetti rained down.
Serena Williams, the tennis champion, read The Cat in the Hat to second graders. They sat
on brightly colored rugs around her. Two lucky second graders from PS 152 in Manhattan sat
next to Williams on a big red chair. Pink and purple umbrellas hung from the ceiling. The
students giggled while Williams made her voice change from deep to high for the many
characters in the story.
After reading the book, Williams shouted, "Tip your hat to the Cat!" The students took off
their hats and waved them excitedly.
What is the main idea of this passage?
The New York Public Library celebrated The Cat in the Hat's 50th anniversary with a huge
party for children.
This article is mostly about a celebration at the New York Public Library. It celebrated the
50th anniversary of the publishing of Dr. Seuss' The Cat in the Hat. This is the main point that
the author wants to show to the reader. The supporting details in the passage include what
happened at the party (a reading by Serena Williams and a dance with the Cat), when the party
took place (March 2nd, the anniversary of the first publishing of the book), and who was at the
party (250 first and second graders).
Technical Meanings
Jargon is language specifically used in a particular field, profession, or group. When you
work in a particular field, you will have advanced knowledge about the subject.You will know
the definitions of words commonly used in that field. People who are not familiar with the
field may have a hard time understanding the jargon. They will have to use context clues to
determine the meanings of unfamiliar words.
Jargon is used in virtually every field, profession, or group. Some classifications of jargon
include:







computers/technical
medical
legal
sports
meteorology
business
naval/army
You already know the definitions to some jargon just from reading, watching TV and
movies, and noticing things in the real world. For example, if you like to watch a medical
drama television show, you probably have heard words like “stat,” “hypoxic,” “coronary,”
and “saline.” You are hearing medical jargon and learning what each word means by context
clues.
You should know some jargon from different fields just by using your knowledge of the real
world. Below are some examples of jargon and technical words that you should know. Think
about the definition of each word. Where have you heard these words used before? If you
are not sure about the definition, you can always look it up in the dictionary.
Computers
Wi-Fi, URL, virus, desktop
Meteorology
cirrus, cumulus, stratus, dew point
Business
CEO, cubicle, benefits, deductible
Naval/Army
port, starboard, reveille, battalion
Tone
Tone is the reflection of an author's attitude toward his or her subject.
Have you ever been in a conversation with someone, and you were able to tell if that person
was angry, sad, or happy? Usually, the person talking to you will give hints about how he or
she is feeling with gestures like a frown, a smile, or a nervous twitch.
Authors give the same hints when they write. An author's tone gives the reader an idea about
how the author feels about a certain subject. They aren't hints that can be seen like the hints in
a conversation; however, things like word choice and attitude can be recognized in
writing. For example, pay close attention to the author's tone in the passage below.
I love to swim, and I miss the community swimming pool very much. Last week, when I
heard that the city closed the pool, I felt depressed. There are not that many safe activities that
we kids can do during the summer. Swimming at the pool was something fun that my friends and
I could all do and feel safe. Now all our fun times are only memories. Please reopen the
community swimming pool as soon as possible so that we can stop moping around. Let me and
my friends know what we can do to help raise money that the city needs for the pool.
In this passage, the author does not like that the city closed the community swimming
pool. Think about how the author uses language to show how sad he or she is about the pool
being closed:
 In the first sentence, the author says that he or she misses the pool and that he or she "felt
depressed." These are ways of expressing that the author feels sad.
 When the author states that his or her "fun times" at the pool are "only memories," this shows
that the author is sentimental and sad.

In the next sentence, the author says that the pool should be reopened so that his or her friends
"can stop moping around." This adds to the author's sad tone by painting a gloomy picture.
Sensory Language
A good piece of fiction should let you see, hear, smell, taste, and, most importantly, feel what's going on
in the story. Authors do this by choosing specific words that paint a picture of what they want to portray.
For example, an author could simply say . . .
Jacob is athletic.
But if the author really wanted to provide more detail about exactly how athletic Jacob
is, he or she would say . . .
Jacob is a muscular boy who plays sweaty outdoor sports, and he has won athletic awards in
football, baseball, and soccer.
The difference between the first example and the second is that the first one tells you simply
that Jacob is athletic. The second example provides more information about the sports that
Jacob plays. In the second example, the author lists the sports in which Jacob has won
awards. When reading that Jacob is "muscular" and "plays sweaty outdoor sports," the reader
can see and smell Jacob being athletic.
Text Structure
When you understand how the writer has organized information, you will understand and remember the
text better. Writers organize text in several different ways.
Cause/Effect
The text shows that one event causes another thing to happen. Look for words like "because,"
"then," "since," and "as a result."
example:
 It rained for the first few days of the camping trip. As a result, most of the campers were
restless and wanted to go home.
Comparison/Contrast
The text shows how ideas or things are alike or different. Look for words like "best," "more,"
"better," "less," "worse," "easier," and "than."
example:
 The best time to visit the Rocky Mountains is early fall. The weather is cooler in the fall than in
the summer. You will see fewer people and more animals. The fall colors are more beautiful.
Description
When you want to paint a picture with words, use description to organize your ideas. To make
the picture come alive in your reader's mind, use a lot of adjectives and describe what you
would see, taste, smell, feel, or hear.Adjectives are words like "pretty," "sweet," "smooth," and
"loud."
example:
 The cellar was cold, damp, and dark. It smelled musty and old.
Problem/Solution
The text is split into two parts: One part presents a problem, and the other part gives the
solution to the problem. Look for words like "problem," "solution," "solve," and "plan."
example:
 The city of Taylor has fifteen public swimming pools. In the past, plenty of lifeguards have been
available for staffing the pools throughout the summer. Most of the lifeguards were teenagers
out of school for the summer. This year, however, not enough lifeguards have signed up to
work. The city has started asking healthy, retired people to be lifeguards. They will be trained
by the city for free if they will agree to work 10 hours per week at a city pool. They will be paid
$8 an hour for their work.
The problem: Taylor doesn't have enough lifeguards to staff its city swimming pools.
The solution: Encourage retired people to become certified lifeguards and work at the pools.
Question/Answer
The writer presents a question and then tries to answer it.
example:
 Many schools are thinking about this question: Should students be made to wear uniforms? I
believe they should not. First, clothing is a very important way that kids express themselves . . .
Sequence
The writer places events in the order in which they happen. Sequence is also known
as chronological order. Look for words like "first," "then," "next," "finally," "a few minutes
later," "before," "afterward," "meanwhile," and "last year."
example:
 First, Rhett was late getting to school. Then, he lost his homework. A few minutes later, the
teacher asked him to clean out his desk. Now, Rhett thinks it will be a bad day.
Classification
This type of structure can be very helpful when writing research reports. All of the information
is organized by like groups. The text may start out with a broad subject and then talk about
more specific parts of the subject.
examples:
 You are writing a paper about the food pyramid. One paragraph is devoted to the benefits of
fruits and vegetables. One paragraph is devoted to the benefits of breads and carbohydrates,
and so forth.

You are writing a paper about sports cars. You start off telling about sports cars in
general. Then, you tell about some specific types of sports cars.
Concept/Definition
The text defines a difficult term or idea. The definition is stated and expanded with examples
and restatements. Look for bold or italic words to emphasize new vocabulary.
example:
 The pharaoh was the ruler of ancient Egypt. The pharaoh was believed to have been the
human form taken by the gods. One of the best known pharaohs is Tutankhamun, who ruled
during the 18th dynasty.
Author's Attitude
When reading, it is always important to figure out the author's purpose and attitude. Since the
author may not come right out and say his or her purpose, the reader must look for hidden
meanings. A good reader must evaluate underlying assumptions and recognize bias, emotional
language, or propaganda that the author uses to make his or her point. When possible, it is also
helpful to think about the author's life and what events might have made him or her feel a certain
way.
Questions to ask yourself about the author's attitude:
1. What is the author's purpose in writing? (to entertain, inform, persuade, direct)
2. Has the author presented all sides of an argument or issue?
3. If so, is the article balanced toward all points of view or biased toward one point of view?
4. Are there enough facts to support each side?
5. Can you trust what the author says?
6. Is the author being fair?
7. Does the author use words that seem angry or overly excited?
Author's Purpose
When reading, it is always important to figure out the author's purpose and attitude. Since the
author may not come right out and say his or her purpose, the reader must look for hidden
meanings. A good reader thinks about the words an author uses to make his or her point. When
possible, it is also helpful to think about the author's life and what events might have made him
or her feel a certain way.
Questions to ask yourself about the author's attitude:
1. What is the author's purpose in writing? (to entertain, inform, express, or persuade)
2. Has the author presented all sides of an argument?
3. If so, is the article balanced toward all points of view or biased toward one point of view?
4. Are there enough facts to support each side?
5. Can you trust what the author says?
6. Does the author use words that have a lot of emotion?
What is writing purpose? Writing purpose is the reason that an author writes a certain piece. A
writer might write a piece to entertain readers. A writer might write a piece to give readers
information. Sometimes a writer writes just to express a thought or feeling. And sometimes a
writer writes to try to influence readers to think, feel, or act a certain way.
Here are some hints that will help you decide what the purpose of a passage is.

Entertain: Does the writing make you laugh? Tell you stories? Keep you interested? Talk about
imaginary people and events?
 Inform: Does the writing give you information? Does it answer questions that you have? Does
it contain facts?
 Express: Does the writing share a belief or opinion with you? Does it use feeling words? Does
it use the word "I"?
 Persuade: Does the writing try to make you think a certain way about a topic?Does it ask you
to change your mind, support an idea, buy something, or act in a certain way?
example:
Read this short passage and decide what its purpose is.
Tricia laughed while she watched her big brother Devon kick the vending machine. "You're
making the same kind of growling noises that Rover makes!" Tricia exclaimed.
Devon sighed and stopped kicking the machine. "Rover doesn't eat lemon cookies, but I think
this machine just ate our money," he said.
Tricia clutched her stomach and laughed even harder.
The author has not written this passage to inform the reader with facts or to influence the
reader to think a certain way about a topic. Although the author uses descriptive language, he
or she does not use the word "I" and does not share an opinion. The purpose of this passage is
to entertain, because it tells a story about fictional people and events.
Supporting an Argument
The more you improve your skills in developing an argument, the better you will be at thinking
critically, reasoning, making choices, and weighing evidence.
When you hear the word argument, you probably think of two people loudly fighting over
something. Actually, we all use argumentation every day! Let's say you want to spend the
night at your friend Josh's house, but you don't think your parents will go for it. You'd want to
think up a good argument to convince them that you should be able to go.
Arguments come in all shapes and sizes, but they usually have these things in common:
1. They state a position or opinion clearly.
2. They back up the position with evidence of some sort
3. They show the benefits of that particular position.
To make an argument stronger, sometimes a counterargument is also used.For example, you
might anticipate your parents' reaction by saying, "You might think if I go over to Josh's, I
won't get my homework done and just play video games. But Josh's folks won't even let him
play until he's done all his homework, so that's the first thing we're gonna do."
Like a lawyer, an essay needs to present a good argument.
Arguments in writing usually consist of a main idea, often called a claim orthesis statement,
backed up with evidence that supports the idea. When writing an argument or opinion paper,
remember these things:
First, state your opinion about something.
 example:
Cloudy days are better than sunny days for rollerblading at the park.
Next, back up your opinion with a logical list of reasons or evidence.
Use personal experience, other people's experience, facts and statistics, or a combination of
these.

example:
When I rollerblade on a hot, sunny day, my clothes get all sweaty in a matter of minutes. Also,
the sun reflected off the pavement can really be blinding. A sunny day really draws the crowds,
too, and who wants to be tripping over all those people when you're going for a speed record!
Finally, show the benefits of your position.
 example:
If I wake up and see a cloudy sky, I grab my blades and head straight for the park because I
know it will be nice and cool, and I won't have to wear dark sunglasses just to see my way
around the track. But best of all, I know I'll have the place to myself, free to race around to my
heart's content.
Proposition
A proposition is a plan to change something. In most cases, the plan has to be voted on before
the change is accepted. All good propositions must be supported with facts and relevant ideas.
You and your friends want to have a longer lunch period at school, so you decide to make a
proposition to your principal. Your proposition should include the following:
Why the change needs to be made:
 After waiting in the long lunch line, many students don't have time to eat their lunch. All
students should have enough time to finish their lunch so that they will not be hungry the rest of
the day.
The consequences of NOT making the change:
 If students are hungry, they are distracted and unable to learn.
Your opponents' argument:
 Some people think a longer lunch period is a bad idea because it wastes time that the students
could be learning.
Why you disagree with your opponents' argument:
 When they are finished eating, students will have time to do their homework or study for their
next class.
Facts or statistics supporting your proposition:
 Studies show that rushing through a meal makes digestion more difficult. Poor digestion can
lead to headaches, fatigue, and stomach problems. All of these problems prevent students from
learning to their highest potential.
When hearing or reading a proposition, it is important to read all of the facts and arguments
carefully. Always ask yourself why the author says things the way he or she does, or what
motives he or she has in offering a certain fact or opinion.Think logically and clearly. Do not let
other people's or your own emotions get in the way. Do not be afraid to form your own
opinion. Most people will always listen to and respect a logical argument!
Here are few words that can help you locate an argument in a passage or proposition:
 should

must

ought

necessary

necessarily
Here are few words that can help you locate supporting statements in a passage or
proposition:
 since

because

for the reason that

as

for
Writing Standards
Introductory and Concluding Sentences
A good piece of writing has a beginning, a middle, and an end.
Most people spend the majority of their time on the body of their writing (the middle part), but it is just
as important to spend as much time on the introduction (the beginning) and theconclusion (the end).
Introduction
The introduction sets the tone for the rest of your story, paper, or report. The audience is able
to tell from the introduction if the rest of the paper will be formal or informal.
A good introduction can also get the audience interested in what you have to say.That being
the case, a bad introduction can make the audience uninterested in what you have to say.
One way to ease your audience into the introduction is to use transitional words. Transitional
words can be dependent clauses placed at the beginning of an independent clause or the
introductory statement. It's like building a house.When you build a house, you put brick on top
of brick, but you also use mortar to cement the bricks together and cushion them. Using the
example, transitional phrases and words like first, in the beginning, at present time, right
now,currently, and to start with are the mortar that cements and cushions the sentences to one
another.
Introductory statements can pose questions, state opinions (without evidence), present
arguments, offer definitions, outline a problem, tell a story, or provide background
information.
examples:
 To begin with, the idea that teens need a curfew is ridiculous.

At present time, there is no cure for cancer.

Currently, the definition for abuse is the physical or emotional mistreatment of others.

In the beginning, the crime rate for the city was too high to ignore.
Conclusion
Conversely, the conclusion brings everything in your writing to a natural end. A conclusion
doesn't offer any new evidence or information. It ties everything from the introduction and
body together, and it encourages the audience to think about what has been said.
Concluding statements function similarly to introductory statements in that they can use
transitional words and phrases to ease the reader into the sentence, but they use different
transitional words and phrases such as in conclusion, finally,lastly, to sum up, to summarize, in
short, therefore, and as I have demonstrated.
Concluding statements can restate the thesis (the main point or argument of your paper),
summarize your main points, recommend actions or solutions, predict the future, or use a
quotation.
examples:
 In conclusion, I believe the only way to achieve peace is through dialogue.

Finally, for us to continue to support the seatbelt law can only be beneficial.


To sum up, cooperation is the key because as Ben Franklin said, "There is no I in team."
In short, the test is ridiculous because it's not current and it doesn't offer any real benefits.
Supporting Sentences
Supporting sentences contain specific statements that support the main idea of the
paragraph. Supporting sentences will contain relevant and thoughtful details that add to the
subject and do not get "off track."
Example:
(1) Mexico offers visitors a world of contrasts. (2) Its pyramids and ancient ruins are part of
ancient history, while its modern cities provide us with the best of today's technology. (3) Its
mountains offer cool weather and rocky peaks, while only a few miles away, its beaches tempt
us with brilliant sun and white sand. (4)Its fancy restaurants serve the most sophisticated
continental cuisine, and sidewalk vendors sell the simplest of native foods.
o
Sentence 1 states the main idea of the paragraph.

o
The main idea is that Mexico has many examples of contrasts (differences).
Sentences 2 through 4 are supporting sentences.



The old pyramids and the new cities are an example of contrast.
The cool mountains are in contrast to the warm beaches.
The fancy restaurants are very different from the simple street food vendors.
Graphics are figures that give information through pictures and shapes. Learn about different types of
graphics below.
Road maps
A road map helps travelers find their way from one place to another. Some road maps show
only interstate highways, while others show roads, streets, and important places.
Bar Graphs
A bar graph uses bars to show information. The bars can reach from left to right or from
bottom to top. The heights or lengths of the bars show an amount or number of something.
Line graphs
A line graph use lines to show what happens over a certain length of time (e.g., growth of a
plant).
Pie Charts
A pie chart show how the sizes of the parts compare to each other and to the whole.
Tables
A table is a drawing or plan. It is a way to organize information in boxes using rows and
columns. A row is made up of boxes that go left and right while a column is made up of boxes
that go up and down. The first column is the main subject of the table. The other columns give
more information about the subject in the first column. Each row has all the information for
one subject. The table below gives information about different teachers at Valley Middle
School.
Facts About Teachers at Valley Middle School
Name
Grade
Level
Subject
# of Years
Teaching
Favorite Subject
when in Middle School
Ms. Luu
8
English
6
English
Mr. McAdams
7
Science
15
Math
Mr. Phillips
7
Social Studies
3
Science
Facts About Teachers at Valley Middle School
Mrs. Torres
6
Math
1
Math
Schedules
A schedule shows what is going to happen or what needs to happen at a certain time.
Bulging Pectorals Gym - Class Schedule
Class
Time
Hot Yoga
8:00 - 9:00 am
Zumba
9:15 - 10:15 am
Pilates
11:30 am - 12:30 pm
Spinning
12:45 - 1:45 pm
Water Aerobics
2:00 - 3:00 pm
Power Sculpting
3:15 - 4:15 pm
Turbo Kick
4:30 - 5:30 pm
Muscle Blast
5:45 - 6:45 pm
Venn Diagrams
A Venn diagram is a graphic organizer that compares and contrasts two or more subjects. A
Venn diagram is made up of overlapping circles. Each circle represents a subject. The place
where the circles overlap contains information that applies to all of the subjects. Most Venn
diagrams have only two overlapping circles and compare only two subjects, but they can have
more than two circles/subjects. Read the passage below, study the Venn diagram, and answer
the question that follows.
Chinese
Chinese is the language that is spoken by the most people in the world. The written Chinese
language dates back to 14th century B.C. It is a very unique language and does not resemble
Japanese, the Germanic languages like English, or any of the Romance languages. Also, the
Chinese language has only 400 syllables, which are only a tenth of the syllables in the English
language.Because of the lack of syllables, Chinese has a tonal system. The meaning of a word
or syllable depends on the tone the speaker uses when pronouncing the syllable. There is a
Chinese poem composed entirely of one syllable—shi. Shi is pronounced as "shur" and can
mean many different things depending on the tone. The written language consists of individual
characters representing single words. Unlike the letters in the English alphabet, the Chinese
characters are not related to sounds. The characters are written from top to bottom and from
left to right.
Another way in which Chinese is different from many other languages is the way it is
spoken among friends and family members. Chinese people leave out polite words like
"please" and "thank you" when they are speaking to close friends and family members. In the
Chinese culture, it is offensive for a good friend to use words like "please" and "thank you"
because it creates formality and a sense of distance.
Which item belongs in place of X?
A. uses polite words in all conversation
B. letters are related to sounds
C. uses a tonal system
D. origin dates back to 5th century A.D.
Explanation: The X is in the part of the Venn diagram that describes Chinese.The
information that tells about Chinese is "uses a tonal system."
Headings
When you turn in your homework, you are often asked to put aheading on your paper. The
heading tells your name and the date when you finished your work. It may also tell which subject
you are studying and the type of homework it is. In other words, the heading gives your teacher
the information he or she needs to grade the assignment. Writers use headings in a very similar
way.
Helpful hints about headings:
 Headings give the reader clues about what he or she will find in the text below it.



If the reader is trying to locate a specific fact, he or she can look at the headings to figure out
where to find the information. That way, he or she does not have to read the entire article to find
the information he or she needs!
If a writer is covering a lot of information, headings can be helpful in organizing that
information.
Think of headings as "titles" and subheadings as "mini-titles."
Transitions
Transitions are words or phrases that show relationships between ideas. Transitions, sometimes called
signal words, give the reader a clue about what comes next in a passage. Using transitions in your own
writing will make your ideas flow from one to another.
Learn about the many different types of transitions.
Signal Time or Sequence
Words such as: first, second, finally, last, next, afterward, after, earlier, during, while, before,
then, previously, now, until, etc.
 Example: Previously, I studied Spanish, but now I'm taking French.
Signal Additional Information
Words and phrases such as: in addition, furthermore, moreover, and, also, another, etc.
 Example: My teacher Mrs. Jenkins is doing an excellent job. Furthermore, she deserves to get a
raise.
Signal Examples or Illustrations
Words such as: for example, for instance, to illustrate, such as, including, etc.
 Example: There are many kinds of snacks to eat that are healthy for you. For example, an
orange would be a healthy snack because it has vitamins and fiber.
Signal Comparison
Words and phrases such as: likewise, similarly, in the same manner, just as, as well, etc.
 Example: Jerry plays the electric guitar in his friend's band. Similarly, his sister Gina plays the
keyboard in her friend's band.
Signal Contrast
Words and phrases such as: however, although, but, yet, nevertheless, whereas, in contrast, on
the contrary, on the other hand, instead, etc.
 Example: Our town had severe weather this week, including thunderstorms and tornado
watches.However, we have clear sunny skies in our forecast for next week.
Signal Cause and Effect
Words and phrases such as: as a result, consequently, thus, therefore, because, accordingly,
since, so, etc.
 Example: Mrs. Kelly was bitten by a dog when she was a little girl. Therefore, as an adult, she's
afraid of dogs.
Signal Endings or Closings
Words and phrases such as: in conclusion, all in all, in brief, in summary, as indicated above,
etc.
 Example: In conclusion, every student in our school could greatly benefit from our new arts
program.
Sample Questions
1. What would be the best transition word or phrase to connect the ideas in this sentence?
I have an English paper that is due next week; _______ , I need to do some research at the library.
A. whereas
B. therefore
C. for example
D. previously
Explanation: The best answer choice is "therefore" because it is a transition word that
signals cause and effect. In this example, the speaker needs to go to the library to
research (effect) because he or she has an English paper due soon (cause).
2. In the following sentence, what does the transition phrase "in the same manner" signal?
Katrina studied hard in college and later became a lawyer; in the same manner, her cousin Martin
made excellent grades in school and became a doctor.
.
closing
A. illustration
B. comparison
C. time
Explanation: In this example, the phrase "in the same manner" signals comparison. The
speaker is comparing Martin's college experiences and career with Katrina's.
Go with the Flow
Knowing when to use a transition and which one to use is
important. If using a transition makes your paper sound too choppy, you're probably using the
wrong one. Try different transitions until the sentences flow together smoothly.
Sentence Structure and Type
Every complete sentence contains two parts: a subject and a predicate. The subject is what (or who) the
sentence is about, while the predicate tells something about the subject. A sentence begins with a capital
letter and ends with a period, a question mark, or an exclamation point. The different types of sentences
are identified by how they are constructed and by how they express thoughts. Good writers use a mixture
of different sentence structures in their writing. Varying sentences makes writing more colorful and
interesting.
Simple Sentence
A simple sentence contains one independent clause.
Example:
The dog barks.
Compound Sentence
A compound sentence contains more than one independent clause.
Example:
The dog barks, and then it goes to sleep.
Complex Sentence
A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.
Example:
After the dog barks, it goes to sleep.
Compound-Complex Sentence
A compound-complex sentence contains more than one independent clause and at least one
dependent clause.
Example:
After the dog barks, it goes to sleep, and then it wakes up.
Declarative Sentence
A declarative sentence makes a statement and always ends in a period.
Example:
The moon reflects the light from the sun.
Imperative Sentence
An imperative sentence gives a command or an order. Imperative sentences differ from
conventional sentences in that their subject, which is always "you," is understood rather than
expressed.
Example:
Stand on your head.
Interrogative Sentence
An interrogative sentence asks a question.
Example:
Who won the game last night?
Exclamatory Sentence
An exclamatory sentence expresses strong feelings or emotions. It is a more forceful version
of a declarative sentence only with an exclamation point at the end.
Example:
I hate when that happens!
Transitions and Flow
When you write, you should try to connect your ideas as smoothly as possible. Some people like to call
this "writing flow." Just like water flows in a river, your ideas should flow in your essay. Certain words or
phrases can help connect your sentences and paragraphs.
Here are some ways to connect your ideas:
Use word patterns like first, second, and third.
example:
 It's easy to make brownies. First, you have to read the recipe.
Use words for time or place (before, earlier, after, here, to the right, next to, nearby, far
away).
example:

He raked the leaves and mowed the lawn. Earlier, he had swept the porch and cleaned his
room.
Use words that show how things are alike (like, in the same way, in a similar way), or
different (but, however, on the other hand).
example:
 Mrs. Connor always checked to see that everyone understood the problem before she taught
us how to do another one. In the same way, Mrs. Smith made sure we were ready to go on.
Use pronouns for the second sentence instead of the name in the first sentence.
example:
 John liked to ride his bike. He rode it every day.
Use words that show examples (for instance, for example).
example:
 My dad loved to play pranks. For example, he planted corn seeds in Mom's flower bed.
Some other transitional words and phrases are: indeed, in fact, of course, and, again, also, in
addition, too, altogether,finally, in short.
Combining Sentences
Combining sentences can also help improve the way your ideas "flow." Below is an example
of combining two sentences into one longer sentence.
(1) Cold wind blew off the Hudson River. Billy blinked tears out of his eyes. (2) Though
his tears came from the cold, his great-grandparents must have had real tears in their eyes as
their ship sailed into New York Harbor. (3) What did they think when they saw the giant
statue standing in the harbor? (4) How did they feel about the kind-looking lady welcoming
them to their new home?
(5) Billy knew plenty about the giant, kind-looking lady, since he'd visited her home on
Liberty Island many times. (6) She was none other than the Statue of Liberty. (7) She stood
151 feet tall atop a 154-foot-tall pedestal. (8) Her mouth was 3 feet wide. (9) Each eye was 2
½ feet wide. (10) Her fingers were about 8 feet long. (11) That was about 2 feet longer than
his dad was tall!
(12) Billy tilted his head back as the ferry neared Liberty Island. (13) He could just see the
tablet she held in her left hand, but he'd need eagle's eyes to read "July 4, 1776" written on
it. In her right hand she held a torch, a symbol of the light of freedom. (14) Billy's greatgrandparents had crossed the Atlantic from Ireland. (15) They'd come for the opportunities
America offered, but he knew other kids whose ancestors had come for freedom.
How can sentences 8 and 9 be combined to improve the flow of the text?
Her mouth was 3 feet wide, and each eye was 2 ½ feet wide.
Sensory Language
Descriptive words or adjectives are words that make your writing more exciting and more
lively. Descriptive words help the reader to picture exactly what is going on in a story. Descriptive words
are also known as sensory language because they describe how things look, sound, taste, smell, and
feel.
Writing Tip:
When writing an essay, ask yourself questions over each of the five senses.
What did the place look like? (pretty, sunny, bright)
What did the food taste like? (salty, sweet)
What did things feel like? (good, soft, rough, cold)
How did it smell? (smoky, like cookies baking)
How did things sound? (loud, quiet)
Writing Tip:
Make sure not to confuse descriptive words with abstract words, clichés, or vague words. These may
seem like descriptive words, but they really are not.
Abstract/Vague Words
example:
He looked at her with love.
Abstract and vague words aren't specific enough. The vague word in the example is "love."
This is vague because the word "love" means different things to different people. To make the
phrase more specific, you could add a simile or adjectives so it reads . . .
He looked at her like she was the queen of the Earth.
OR
He looked at her with big, puppy dog eyes.
Clichés
Another trap in writing descriptive words is confusing description with clichés.Clichés are
sayings that have been around for so long that they have lost their original meaning.
example:
The moment was bittersweet.
The cliché is "bittersweet," but the problem is that it is not specific enough. When something
is bitter and sweet, it helps if there is something to connect it to since bitter and sweet mean
different things to different people. To make the phrase more specific, turn it into a simile:
The moment was as painful as a trip to the dentist.
By changing it this way, you get a better sense of how the moment felt since a trip to the
dentist can be painful and sweet—painful because there's a chance the dentist might have to
physically poke and prod your teeth, but sweet because most people get a treat when the visit
is over.
Which sentence below is the most descriptive?
My aunt and I had a picnic on a bright and sunny Saturday.
My aunt and I had a picnic on a Saturday.
The first sentence is more descriptive because it uses the adjectives "bright" and "sunny."
From the description, you know that the Sun was shining on their Saturday picnic. From the
second sentence, you cannot tell whether the day was cloudy or sunny.
Precise Language and Sensory Details
Have you ever met someone who talks too much? He or she may use too many
unimportant words to say something simple or to explain something that only needs a
few words to describe. Some people "talk too much" when they write, too.
When you write, it is important to fill your work with rich and colorful details, but it
is important to be precise when you do. "Being precise" is another way of saying "don't talk
too much when you write." For example, instead of saying that elephants are "really, really,
really big," you could say that elephants are "giant." Being precise means using the right
words to say what you want to say. Below are more examples of how to keep your writing
precise.
1. Remove extra words that do not add meaning.
Any place is fine with me.
is better than
Any kind of place is fine with me.
2. Change phrases into single words.
The brown-haired girl smiled.
is better than
The girl with brown hair smiled.
3. Use active verbs.
Jerry opened a gift.
is better than
A gift was opened by Jerry.
4. Use powerful words (a thesaurus can help you).
The puppy was not obedient.
is better than
The puppy did not behave very well.
Being precise means using the right words. It does not mean writing
Remember: less! Precise writers always get their point across. They just do it with the
most powerful words they can.
Appropriate Language and Writing
Purpose
It's important to choose your words carefully when you write and speak. Think about who is going to
read and hear your words (your audience). School reports, speeches, and letters to adults should sound
more formal than notes to your friends. A good way to make sure your language is appropriate is to
avoid usingslang and jargon.
Informal Language
Slang is words and phrases that are considered very informal and are generally used only by
one age group or other specific group of people.
examples:
 tight

cool

sweet

y'all

you guys

chill

bomb

dog

ain't
Appropriate Language
Here are examples of how sentences might be changed to make them appropriate for an article
in your school paper.
INAPPROPRIATE
APPROPRIATE
The football team was totally clutch.
The football team performed well.
Our debate team is wicked smart.
Our debate team is very smart.
The new parking lot is sweet.
The new parking lot is very nice.
To conclude, Holes rocked.
To conclude, Holes was a great movie.
Jargon
Jargon is words or expressions used within one group, profession, or business.Jargon is often
used as a "shortcut" to convey information quickly, with just a few words.
example:
 Gabriella Sabatini aced her opponent with her powerful first serve.
(An "ace" in tennis means a serve that's so fast or well-placed that the other player can't even
touch it with his or her racket.)
It is important for you to be able to write for many differentpurposes, or reasons. Some different
purposes for writing are listed below.

Describe: Some writing describes something or how to do something. For example, the
directions that come with a new toy have the purpose of describing how to put the toy
together.
Inform: Some writing has the purpose of informing. Most news articles in the newspaper are
written to inform. A biography (a book written about the life of a person) usually has the
purpose of informing the reader about the person's life.
Persuade: Some writing is written for the purpose of persuasion. A good example of
persuasive writing is the writing found in advertisements. Advertisements are designed to
persuade you to buy a certain product. Speeches by politicians are also examples of persuasive
writing.
Narrate: Narration has the purpose of telling a story. The narrator relates a series of events.
Entertain: Some writing has the purpose of entertaining. The comic strips in the newspaper
are there to entertain the readers with humor. A mystery novel and a fairy tale are also good
examples of writing that have the purpose of entertaining.




Prewriting
To be a good writer, you should organize your thoughts before beginning to write. There are many ways
in which you can organize your thoughts on paper before you begin writing.
Brainstorm
Brainstorming is a prewriting technique designed to help you bring ideas from your mind onto
paper. It's a good technique to use when you know a general subject you're interested in
writing about but don't exactly know what aspect of the subject you want to pursue. When
brainstorming, you write down every idea you have, no matter how bad an idea you think it
is. You want to get as many ideas down on paper as you can. You can sort through the ideas
later.
example:
o Subject: soup
 chicken

eat it when you're sick

soup recipes

dinner

water quality and its effect on flavor of soup

Web site for soup

cultures

Mediterranean soup with beans

vegetable soups

soup spots on clothing

soup etiquette

side or point of spoon in mouth

stone soup children's story

new diet craze
Outline
Many writers use an outline to help them think through the various stages of the writing
process. An outline is a kind of graphic scheme of the organization of your paper. It indicates
the main ideas of your paper as well as the subtopics under each main idea. Outlines range
from an informal use of indenting and graphics (such as --, *, +) to a formal use of Roman
numerals and letters. Regardless of the degree of formality, however, the function of an
outline is to help you consider the most effective way to say what you want to say.
example:
o My dog Sparky

Physical characteristics

Black fur

Long ears

Black nose

Short tail

Skills

Runs fast

Swims well

Rolls over

Personality

Very friendly

Likes kids

Wags tail
Semantic Map
A semantic map is a web-shaped diagram that is a good way to help you assemble ideas for
your writing. In the center of the web, you place your most general topic. The arms of the web
contain more specific information about your main topic. In the example below, the eye
disease trachoma is the main topic.The words on the arms of the web describe characteristics
of trachoma that you could write about.
example:
Concept Map
A concept map is a special form of a web diagram for exploring knowledge and gathering and
sharing information. A concept map consists of nodes or cells that contain a concept, item or
question and links. The links are labeled and show direction with an arrow symbol. The
labeled links explain the relationship between the nodes. The arrow describes the direction of
the relationship and reads like a sentence.
example:
Clustering/Webbing
Clustering is a nonlinear activity that generates ideas, images, and feelings around a stimulus
word. As you cluster, your thoughts tumble out, enlarging your word bank for writing and
often enabling you to see patterns in your ideas.
example:
Sequence of Events Chain/Story Map
A sequence of events chain is used to describe the stages of something (the life cycle of a
primate); the steps in a linear procedure (how to neutralize an acid); a sequence of events (how
feudalism led to the formation of nation states); or the goals, actions, and outcomes of a
historical figure or character in a novel (the rise and fall of Napoleon).
example:
evising
Once a rough draft is finished, you should try to set it aside for a few moments, and then look at it
again. You’ll bring a fresh mind to the process of polishing a paper and be ready to try some of the
following strategies. The outline below lists tips and strategies for evaluating your writing.
Review your organization

Read the paper aloud
If we read the paper aloud slowly, we have two senses—seeing AND hearing—working for
us. Thus, what one sense misses, the other may pick up.

Check the thesis statement
Write down your thesis on a piece of paper if it is not directly stated in your essay.Does it
accurately state your main idea? Is it in fact supported by the paper? Does it need to be
changed in any way? On that piece of paper, list the main idea of each paragraph under the
thesis statement. Is each paragraph relevant to the thesis? Are the paragraphs in a logical
sequence or order?

Check the paper's development
Are there sufficient details? Is the logic valid?

Check the paper's coherence and unity
Are the major points connected? Are the relationships between them expressed clearly? Do
they all relate to the thesis?
Consider your audience

Remember that you are writing for others
No matter how familiar others may be with the material, they cannot "get inside" your head
and understand your approach to it unless you express yourself clearly.Therefore, it is useful
to read the paper through once as you keep in mind whether or not the student or teacher or
friend who will be reading it will understand what you are saying. That is, have you said exactly
what you wanted to say?

Check your diction
Remember that others are reading your paper and that even the choice of one word can affect
their response to it. Try to anticipate their response, and choose your words accordingly.

Original: The media's exploitation of the Watergate scandal showed how biased it was
already.
 Revision: The media's coverage of the Watergate scandal suggests that perhaps those in the
media had already determined Nixon's guilt.
 In addition to being more specific, the revision does not force the reader to defend the
media. In the first example, though, the statement is so exaggerated that even the reader who
is neutral on the issue may feel it necessary to defend the media.Thus, the writer of the
original has made his job of persuading the reader that much harder.
Review your writing

Check for abstract subjects
Pay close attention to the abstract subjects that are combined with passive verbs.Try
substituting concrete or personal subjects with active verbs.
 Original: More attractiveness is sometimes given an act when it is made illegal.
 Revision: When an act becomes illegal, some people find it more attractive.

Cut out wordiness wherever possible
 Original: They are desirous of . . .
 Revision: They want . . .

Use active verbs
Since verbs tend to carry the meaning of your sentences, use the most precise and active ones
possible. Thus, avoid constructions using the various forms of the verb "to be."
 Original: Inflation is a threat to our economy.
 Revision: Inflation threatens our economy.

Avoid using stretcher phrases
Don't use phrases like "It is" and "There are," unless they are needed for emphasis. Remember
the need for strong verbs.
 Original: There were several reasons for the United States' entrance into the war.
 Revision: The United States entered the war for several reasons.

Replace colloquialisms with fresh and more precise statements
Because colloquialisms tend to be used so often, they also are not very precise in meaning. A
hassle, for example, can be an annoyance, an argument, or a physical fight.
 Original: Her behavior flipped me out.
 Revision: Her behavior stunned me at first.

Review your rhythm
Be sure that no parts of the paper are "short and choppy"; be sure that the rhythm of your
paper is not interrupted, except for a good reason, like emphasis. A good way of smoothing
out such a problem is to try combining sentences, and in so doing showing the relationship
between them.
 Original: The best show in terms of creating a tense atmosphere is Jeopardy.This is probably
the most famous of all games shows. It is my favorite show.

Revision: The best show in terms of creating a tense atmosphere isJeopardy, which is also
probably the most famous of all game shows and happens to be my favorite.
Proofreading/Editing
Once a rough draft is finished, you should try to set it aside for at least a day and come back to your
paper with a fresh mind. That way, you'll be able to catch the errors in your paper more easily.The
outline below lists tips and strategies for proofreading your writing.
No matter how many times you read through a "finished" paper, you're likely to miss many of
your most frequent errors. The following guide will help you proofread more effectively.
General Strategies
1. Begin by taking a break. Allow yourself some time between writing and proofing.Even a fiveminute break is productive because it will help get some distance from what you have
written. The goal is to return with a fresh eye and mind.
2. Try to s-l-o-w d-o-w-n as you read through a paper. That will help you catch mistakes that you
might otherwise overlook. As you use these strategies, remember to work slowly. If you read
at a normal speed, you won't give your eyes sufficient time to spot errors.
3. Read aloud. Reading a paper aloud encourages you to read every little word.
4. Read with a "cover." Sliding a blank sheet of paper down the page as you read encourages you
to make a detailed, line-by-line review of the paper.
Personalizing Your Proofreading
You won't be able to check for everything (and you don't have to), so you should find out what
your typical problem areas are and look for each type of error individually. Here's how:
1. Find out what errors you typically make. Review instructors' comments about your writing
and/or review your paper(s) with a Writing Lab tutor.
2. Learn how to fix those errors. Talk with your instructor and/or with a Writing Lab tutor. The
instructor and the tutor can help you understand why you make the errors you do so that you
can learn to avoid them.
3. Use specific strategies. Use these strategies to find and correct your particular errors in usage
and sentence structure, and spelling and punctuation.
For subject/verb agreement:
1. Find the main verb in each sentence.
2. Match the verb to its subject.
3. Make sure that the subject and verb agree in number.
For pronoun reference/agreement:
1. Skim your paper, stopping at each pronoun. Look especially at "it," "this," "they," "their," and
"them."
2. Search for the noun that the pronoun replaces. If you can't find any noun, insert one before
the pronoun or change the pronoun to a noun. If you can find a noun, be sure it agrees in
number and person with your pronoun.
For parallel structure:
1. Skim your paper, stopping at key words that signal parallel structures. Look especially for the
following: and, or, not only . . . but also, either . . . or, neither . . . nor, both . . . and.
2. Make sure that the items connected by these words (adjectives, nouns, phrases, etc.) are in
the same grammatical form.
For spelling:
1. Examine each word in the paper individually. Move from the end of each line back to the
beginning. Pointing with a pencil helps you really see each word.
2. If necessary, check a dictionary to see that each word is spelled correctly.
For compound sentence commas:
1. Skim for conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.
2. See whether there is a complete sentence on each side of the conjunction. If so, place a
comma before the conjunction.
For introductory commas:
1. Skim your paper, looking only at the first two or three words of each sentence.
2. Stop if one of these words is a dependent marker, a transition word, a participle, or a
preposition.
3. Listen for a possible break point before the main clause.
4. Place a comma at the end of the introductory phrase or clause (which is before the
independent clause).
For comma splices:
1. Skim the paper, stopping at every comma.
2. See whether there is a complete sentence on each side of the comma. If so, add a coordinating
conjunction after the comma, replace the comma with a semicolon, or divide into two
sentences.
For fragments:
1. Look at each sentence to see whether it contains an independent clause.
2. Pay special attention to sentences that begin with dependent marker words (such as
"because") or phrases such as "for example" or "such as."
3. See if the sentence might be just a piece of the previous sentence that mistakenly got
separated by a period.
For run-on sentences:
1. Review each sentence to see whether it contains more than one independent clause. Start
with the last sentence of your paper, and work your way back to the beginning, sentence by
sentence.
2. Break the sentence into two sentences if necessary.
For left-out words:
1. Read the paper aloud, pointing to every word as you read. Don't let your eye move ahead until
you spot each word.
2. Also, make sure that you haven't doubled any words.
Research Resources
We live in an information age. It's easier than ever to become well informed on a variety of
subjects. Now, most questions can be answered conveniently with the click of a computer mouse or with
a visit to the local library. Here is a list of various research resources.
Almanac
An almanac is an annual publication composed of various lists, charts, and tables of
information in many unrelated fields. The almanac is full of statistics on population, past
events, and weather.
Artifact
An artifact is an object made by humans, especially an object remaining from a particular
period in history.
Atlas
An atlas is a book of maps.
Autobiography
An autobiography is a written account of a person's life by himself or herself.
Biography
A biography is a written account of another person's life.
Books
Books are good sources because they go into great depth about one subject. Like with all
resources, it's important to double-check the information you find in books because the
information could be outdated —especially if the book was printed several years ago.
CD-ROM
A CD-ROM is a storage disc containing information, games, learning tools, or computer
software.
Diary
A diary is a first-person account of an event. People write their thoughts, feelings, and
observations in diaries. Many years later, historians can read the diaries to gain more
information about a historical event.
Dictionary
Use the dictionary to find the definition of a word or to learn its spelling or pronunciation.
E-mail
E-mail is short for electronic mail, an excellent communication medium found on computers
via Internet access. In addition to traditional notes, you can also attach documents to messages
to be printed out by the recipient.
Encyclopedia
An encyclopedia is a comprehensive reference book that has information on a wide variety of
subjects.Encyclopedias are good for summary reports on a great many topics.
Field Trip
A field trip is a trip to a particular location or museum for learning purposes.
Footnote
Footnotes are found at the bottom of the corresponding book page. These notes explain which
outside source the author used. Footnotes can also be used to expand upon information in the
paragraph. When found at the end of a book, these notes are called end notes.
Glossary
A glossary is found at the back of a textbook. This resource is an alphabetical list of terms and
definitions, specific to the book.
Index
An index is found at the end of a book. This alphabetical resource lists terms, people, or
pictures found in the book and their corresponding page numbers.
Journal
A journal is a collection of articles written by scholars and experts. Journals cover one subject,
like the New England Journal of Medicine.
Library Catalogue Database
The library catalogue database is a searchable resource at the library found on computers. It
helps a person find a book, a magazine, a video, or other media by title, author, or subject. The
database is often accessible online.
Magazine
A magazine provides detailed information on a particular subject or person of
interest. Magazines can be a good resource because they often offer interesting slants, or
perspectives, on different subjects, events, and people.
Newspaper
A newspaper is a daily publication of articles. The articles cover current events. A local
newspaper will be a source of information for local issues and events.
Online Newspaper Archives
Old newspaper articles are stored in online archives.Libraries and well-established newspaper
companies should have an archives section on their Web sites.There, people can easily find
old articles by searching by date and subject.
People
People are an excellent research resource when they provide stories, personal experiences, or
professional knowledge. Librarians are an exceptional resource for research.
Periodicals
Newspapers and magazines are called periodicals.Newspapers give some of the most up-todate information available, and a majority of the information you find can be trusted as
fact. Because they cover a lot of information and topics, newspapers can't go into as much
detail as other print sources like magazines or books. Magazines can be a good resource
because they often offer interesting slants or perspectives on an event.
Search Engine
Search engines are Internet sites that quickly scan Web sites and pages for the keywords
entered. Be careful to use respected, verifiable sites when doing Internet research.
Table of Contents
A table of content is found at the beginning of a book.This resource shows chapter titles and
main ideas.
Thesaurus
Use the thesaurus to find a synonym of a word. When you look up a word in the thesaurus,
you will find a list of words that mean nearly the same thing.
Credibility of Sources
Evaluating the credibility of sources can be daunting. How credible your paper is depends on how reliable
the information is that you use to support your thesis. The source you use is only as credible as the
author's credentials and his or her reputation.
Ask yourself the following questions when you
conduct research:
Is the author biased?
Does the author have a product that he or she is selling or endorsing? Is he or she
objective? Even if the author is biased, it does not mean that he or she is a poor source, but the
connection should be clear.
Where did the information appear?
The names of the journal, publisher, press, and so forth help show the authenticity and
reliability of your source. Because anyone with Internet access can publish on the Web, it is
best to evaluate Web sources before you consider using them.
Is the author an authority on the subject in his or her field?
What are his or her qualifications, credentials, and connections to the subject?
Is the author a published writer?
Does he or she have articles that have been reviewed and published by qualified peers (both
professional and academic)? Just because an author has not had published articles that are peer
reviewed does not mean that he or she is unreliable, it just means that there has not been a
specialized check on his or her authority.
How current is the information?
Dated information can be helpful with background material, but it can be hurtful, too. In
science and technology, changes are rapid, so sources become outdated just as rapidly.
Does the source have a works cited list?
A dependable source should have a complete list of references. The author cannot establish an
expert opinion if he or she does not support his or her research with other sources.
Citations
When your teacher asks you to write a report, you will look for information in many different places. The
places where you find information are called sources. It is very important to name (orcite) the sources
you use when you write a report so that the reader does not think you made up the information
yourself.There are several ways to do this.
A Works Cited (also called a Bibliography) page lists all the books, newspaper articles,
magazine articles, encyclopedias, Internet sites, and other sources you used when you wrote
your report.
 It should be put at the end of your report.

It should be in alphabetical order by the author's last name.

Try to include the author, title, type of source, and date.
Citing a Book
Last Name, First Name. Title. City Published: Publisher, Year Published.
examples:
Harper, Sally. Dogs. New York: Random House, 2000.
Harper, Sally. Dogs. New York: Random House, 2000.
Note:
 A book title may be italicized or underlined.
Citing a Magazine or Newspaper Article
Author. "Article Title." Newspaper Name Date published: Page number.
example:
Wakin, Daniel J. "Headed for Korea, Orchestra Gets Tips." New York Times 25 February
2008: E1.
Note:
 This is also the same way to cite an article from a book of articles (or essays, short stories, and
more).
Citing a Web Site
Author (Last Name, First Name). "Article Title." Web Site Title. Date Published.Date Read By
Student. <Web Site Address>.
example:
Oransky, Ivan. "Bear Bones." The Wall Street Journal Online. 9 January 2008.25 February
2008. <http://online.wsj.com/article/Lab_Journal.html>.
Note:
 Sometimes all the information needed to correctly cite a Web site cannot be found. If you
cannot locate some information, leave that information out and include the rest.
Citing a CD-ROM
Author(s). Title. Type of Software (CD-ROM, DVD, etc.). Place Published:Publishing
Company, Date.
example:
Sirs Researcher. CD-ROM. Boca Raton, FL: Sirs, Inc. 1997.
Note:
 Like Web sites, sometimes all the information needed to correctly cite a CD-ROM cannot be
found. If you cannot locate some information, leave that information out and include the rest.
Citing Two or More Works by the Same Author
To cite two or more works by the same author, use the author's name in the first entry only. In
the next entry, use three hyphens in place of the name. The three hyphens show that the same
author wrote both works.
example:
Rushdie, Salman. East, West. New York: Pantheon Books, 1994.
---. Imaginary Homelands: Essays and Criticism 1981-1991. New York:Penguin Books, 1992.
Footnotes
Sometimes you will see footnotes at the bottom of a page. Footnotes list sources or additional
information in the order the writer used them in the report.
 A small raised number in the report should match up with the note at the bottom of the
page. Like this (3). The number should go next to the part of the report that goes with the note.
 A footnote should have some of the same information as the works cited page: the author,
title, type of source, and date.
Crediting Pictures
In order to credit pictures in a report, put a note right under the picture. It should say who
took the picture or created the graphic. It should also say where you got it (that is, what source
you found it in). You can put this information right in the report if you want to, but you should
also include it under the picture so anyone looking at it will know where it was found.
Plagiarism
Plagiarism is when you copy someone else's work or use their ideas without giving them
credit. You must give credit in a footnote, or a listing on your works cited page, and you must
use quotation marks if you used someone else's exact words. It is not a good idea to copy
someone's words without giving them credit, and in many cases it is illegal.
Paraphrasing, Quoting, Citing Sources
When your teacher asks you to write a report, you will look for information in different places. The places
where you find information are called sources. It is very important to name (orcite) the sources you use
when you write a report. If you do not, you are plagiarizing.
Plagiarism is the stealing of somebody else's words, ideas, or information. It
happens when you use someone's words, ideas, or information and make them look like your
own. Plagiarism is not allowed. If you plagiarize, you could fail the assignment and even get
suspended! To avoid plagiarism, always show where you found the ideas or information you
use.
Quoting and Paraphrasing Information
You can present information from a source by quoting or paraphrasing.
To quote means to copy someone else's exact words. To show the reader that the words are
copied, place them in quotation marks.
example:
 According to Joan Mitchell, "The Temple of Kukulkan, also known as El Castillo, was built with
the Mayan calendar in mind" (7).
To paraphrase means to use your own words to state someone else's ideas or information.
example:
 According to Joan Mitchell, the Maya used their calendar to build El Castillo (8).
The lack of quotation marks shows the reader that the writer is using his or her own
words. The citation shows that the information is from a source the writer used. When you
quote or paraphrase information, giving credit to your source(s) is necessary.
Citing Information
There are many different ways you can give credit to a source. When writing a report, use the style that
your teacher likes best. This lesson will teach you how to use footnotes and in-text citations.
Footnotes are notes found at the bottom of a page. They give more information about
something in the text. Each note has a number that matches with a number in the text. For your
first footnote citation, place a small raised "1" after the first sentence that has borrowed
information. Then, at the bottom of the page, next to another "1," give information about the
source, like the author's name and the title of the source. Your second footnote citation should
use the number 2, your third one should use the number 3, and so on.
example:
 The Maya built El Castillo sometime during the first millennium.1
1. Larrimore, Kenneth. The Mysterious Maya (New York: Gilbert and Sons, 2009), 27.
An in-text citation gives credit to a source in the text that has borrowed information. It is used
along with a bibliography, or works-cited list. To credit a book source in the sentence that
has the borrowed information, simply include the author's last name and the page number
where the information can be found.If the reader wants to, he or she can look up the author's
name in your bibliography to find out more information about the source.
example:

The Maya built El Castillo sometime during the first millennium (Larrimore 27).
Crediting Images
To credit an image in a report, you can put a note right under it. The note should say who created the
image. It should also name the source where you found the image.
example:
Fig. 1. Don Nelson, El Castillo, 2007, Mayan Civilization, by Eric Warhoftig (Boston: Freeman Press, 2011)
94.
Bibliographies
A bibliography, also known as a works-cited list, is a list of sources. When you use in-text citations in
your report, you should have a bibliography at the end of your report. The bibliography should list all of
the sources that you used. Use each author's last name to put the sources in alphabetical order. For
each source, try to include the author, the title, the type of source (magazine, newspaper, Web site,
book, etc.), and the date of publication.
example:
Works Cited

Berkley, Virginia. The Yucatán Peninsula. Mayan Historical Society, 14 Aug. 2008.Web. 20
Nov. 2010.
<http://www.yucatanrocks.org>.
Warhoftig, Eric. Mayan Civilization. Boston: Freeman Press, 2011. Print.
Larrimore, Kenneth. The Mysterious Maya. New York: Gilbert and Sons, 2009.Print.
Language Standards
Comparatives
The comparative form compares two things.

Most adjectives with one syllable use –er endings to form the comparative. Double the final
consonant if it follows a vowel.
Fast becomes faster.
The superhero is faster than a speeding car.
 Most adjectives with two or more syllables use more placed before the adjective to form the
comparative.
Determined becomes more determined.
Brody was more determined to win the game than Jermone.
 For most adjectives with two syllables ending in –y, drop the –y from the ending and add –
ier to form the comparative.
Lucky becomes luckier.
A clover is luckier than a rabbit's foot:
Superlatives
The superlative form compares three or more things.

Adjectives with one syllable use –est endings to form the superlative. Double the final
consonant if it follows a vowel.
Thin becomes thinnest:
Moe's has the thinnest pizza crust in town.
 Adjectives with two or more syllables use most before the adjective to form the superlative.
Skilled becomes most skilled:
Carla was the most skilled player on the team.
 For adjectives with two syllables ending in –y, drop the –y from the ending and add –iest to
form the superlative.
Hairy becomes hairiest:
My dad is the hairiest man in the family.
Exceptions
There are many adjectives that do not follow the rules above. Here are a few:
Adjective
fun
stupid
yellow
Comparative
more fun
stupider
yellower
Superlative
most fun
stupidest
yellowest
Two of the most important exceptions are good and bad.
Adjective
good
bad
Comparative
better
worse
Superlative
best
worst
Mom's meat loaf tastes good.
Her lasagna is even better.
Grilled chicken is her best dish.
The scrape on my arm looks bad.
The scrape on my head looks worse.
The scrape on my knee is the worst.
Negatives
To create negatives, use less before the adjective to form the comparative and least placed
before the adjective to form the superlative.
Adjective
fortunate
familiar
Comparative
less fortunate
less familiar
Superlative
least fortunate
least familiar
Subject-Verb Agreement
Subjects and verbs must agree with one another in number. In the present tense, a singular subject takes
a singular verb, and a plural subject takes a plural verb. Below is a list of common subject-verb
agreement rules.
Singular verbs end in -s.
Unlike nouns, the plural form of a verb is not made by adding an –s (or –es) to the ending. It's
actually the opposite. For present-tense verbs, adding the -s to the end makes it singular. If the
verb is plural, there is no –s ending used.
Singular Verbs
The pilot flies the airplane.
The cloud drifts through the air.
Plural Verbs
The pilots fly the airplane.
The clouds drift through the air.
Compound subjects with and take a plural verb.
A subject that is made up of two or more nouns is a compound subject. When the parts are
connected by and, the subject is plural, so it takes a plural verb.
The boy and his companion walk along the pier.
The athlete, the agent, and the owner agree to the terms.
Subjects with singular nouns joined by or or nor take
a singular verb.
Either the dog or the cat goes to the vet today.
Neither the hiker nor the mountaineer needs a map.
Subjects with a singular noun and a plural noun
joined by or or nor take the verb that agrees with the
closer noun.
Ted or his parents walk the dog daily.
Neither the sailors nor their captain enjoys a harsh storm.
Subjects are not in modifying phrases.
When the subject and the verb are separated by other words or phrases, make sure the verb
agrees with the subject, not with a noun within the phrase.
One of the packets contains a surprise.
The people along the boardwalk watch the tourists.
The man with all the dogs walks about dizzily.
Don't let those phrases fool you.
Phrases using with, together with, including, accompanied by, in addition to, or as well do not
change whether a subject is singular or plural. If the subject is singular, the verb should be as
well.
The young cadet, accompanied by his leader, runs to the rescue.
The sea captain, as well as his sailors, is hungry for adventure.
Nouns with a plural form but with a singular
meaning take singular verbs.
Nouns such as United States, civics, mathematics, measles, and news take singular verbs.
The United States contains many people.
The news is good.
Nouns such as scissors, tweezers, trousers, jeans,
and shears take plural verbs.
These nouns may appear to have a singular meaning, but each of these things is made up of
two parts.
Trousers make the man.
Tweezers are nifty tools.
Collective nouns usually take singular verbs.
A collective noun has a singular form even though it refers to a group of individuals or
things. Examples include army,audience, crowd, group, team, committee, class,
and family. These nouns take a singular verb when the group acts as one unit.
The team runs around the track after practice.
The committee elects new members.
The family goes to the park.
However, a plural verb is used when people or things within a group act separately.
The retired group have gone their separate ways.
The class disagree on which method is best.
If the subject follows the verb, the subject and verb
should still agree.
When the normal subject-verb order is inverted in a sentence, the verb still agrees with the
subject. For example, in sentences beginning with there or here, the subject follows the
verb. Since neither there nor here is ever the subject of a sentence, the verb agrees with the
noun that follows the verb.
There are clues to be found.
Here is your snack.
With words that indicate portions, look to the object
of the preposition.
With words that indicate portions—percent, fraction, part, majority, some, all, none,
remainder, and so forth—look at the object of the preposition (the noun following the of
phrase) to determine whether to use a singular or plural verb. If the object of the preposition is
singular, use a singular verb. If the object of the preposition is plural, use a plural verb.
Three-fourths of the pizza has been eaten.
One-half of the pizzas were topped with pepperoni.
ndefinite Pronouns
Indefinite pronouns are words that replace nouns without specifying which noun they replace. It is
important to know which indefinite pronouns are singular, plural, or both. This will help you know which
verb to use.
Singular Indefinite Pronouns
Here are some examples:

another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, little,
much, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, other, somebody, someone, something.
Singular indefinite pronouns take singular verbs.
examples:
 Each of these tests gets easier and easier.

Everybody knows who will win tonight.

Either is okay with me.
Plural Indefinite Pronouns
Here are some examples:

both, few, many, others, several
Plural indefinite pronouns take plural verbs.
examples:
 Both know what to expect.

Few ever fall the second time.

Many imagine only the best.
Singular or Plural Indefinite Pronouns
Here are some examples:

all, any, more, most, none, some
The pronouns all, any, more, most, none, and some take a singular or a plural verb depending
on whether what they refer to is singular or plural.
examples:
Singular
Plural
All of the newspaper is wet.
All of the members do as they please.
Most of the sky is clear of clouds.
Most of the shirts are ruined.
Pronouns
Because a pronoun refers to a noun or takes the place of that noun, make sure that you use the
correct pronoun. This way, the reader clearly understands the pronoun and its reference. The
noun that a pronoun replaces is called the antecedent. Below are some basic rules for pronouns:
1. Pronouns should agree in number.

If the pronoun takes the place of a singular noun, you have to use a singular pronoun.

If a student parks a car on campus, he has to buy a parking sticker.
(Not: If a student parks a car on campus, they have to buy a parking sticker.)
Remember: The words EVERYBODY, ANYBODY, ANYONE, EACH, NEITHER,
NOBODY, SOMEONE, A PERSON, etc., are singular and take singular pronouns.
Everybody ought to do his best.
(Not: their best)



Neither of the girls brought her umbrella.
(Not: their umbrellas)
2. Pronouns should agree in voice or person.

If you are writing in the first person (I), don't confuse your reader by switching to the second
person (you) or third person (he, she, they, it, etc.).

Similarly, if you are using the second person, don't switch to first or third person.

When a person comes to class, he should have his homework ready.
(Not: When a person comes to class, you should have your homework ready.)
3. Pronouns should refer clearly to a specific noun.



Don't be vague or ambiguous. The sentences below are examples of vague and ambiguous
pronoun references.
Although the motorcycle hit the tree, it was not damaged.
(Is "it" the motorcycle or the tree?)
I don't think they should show violence on TV.
(Who are "they"?)

Vacation is coming soon, which is nice.
(What is nice, the vacation or the fact that it is coming soon?)

George worked in a national forest last summer. This may be his life's work.
(What word does "this" refer to?)

If you put this sheet in your notebook, you can refer to it.
(What does "it" refer to, the sheet or your notebook?)
Phrases and Clauses
A phrase is a group of words that acts as a single part of speech.
A clause is a group of words that has a subject and a verb.
Phrases
There are several types of phrases.
example:
 Sally, an excellent singer, will be singing the main part in the musical.
In this sentence, one phrase is will be singing. This is a verb phrase that functions as a verb.
The example sentence also has two other phrases in it. It has an appositive
phrase. An appositive is a word that gives added information about a noun. An appositive
phrase is an appositive plus modifiers. Can you see that the appositive phrase in the example
sentence is an excellent singer?
*Punctuation note:If an appositive or appositive phrase gives information necessary to
understanding the sentence, no commas are needed. If an appositive or appositive phrase gives
extra, unnecessary information, set it apart with commas.
Finally, the example sentence has a prepositional phrase. A prepositional phrase is a group of
words that begins with a preposition. A prepositional phrase can act as an adjective or
adverb. In the example sentence, the prepositional phrase in the musical acts as an adjective
modifying the noun part. It answers the question which part?
Clauses
There are two kinds of clauses.
Independent Clause — This clause can also be a sentence.
examples:
 John runs.
 John, a boy in sixth grade, runs very fast around the track.
* Punctuation note: Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction
(and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet) that joins two independent clauses.
Dependent Clause — This clause has a subject and a verb, but it cannot stand alone as a
sentence. A dependent clause will begin with a subordinating conjunction, such
as if, when, that, unless. They make the clause they are added to less important than an
independent clause. The dependent clause depends on an independent clause for its meaning.
example:
 I will go outside if the rain ever stops falling.
 After the teacher graded the tests, she reported the results to the class.
* Punctuation note: If a dependent clause comes at the beginning of the sentence, use a comma
after the clause (like in the second sentence above). Do not use a comma if the dependent
clause comes at the end of a sentence (like in the first sentence above).
Example:

(1) I always take along a swimming suit. (2) When I go to my Aunt Carolyn's house. (3) She has
a swimming pool in her own backyard.
Which one of these is a dependent clause and, therefore, not a complete sentence?
Sentence (2) is a dependent clause that begins with a subordinating conjunction.
Prepositions
A preposition is a word or group of words that relates space, time, cause, or manner between its object
or another word in the sentence. A preposition with its object is known as a prepositional phrase.
Check out the sentences below. The prepositional phrases are in green, red, and blue. The
prepositions are underlined.
Exhausted after work, Jason fell asleep at the kitchen table.
The Cumby's will be in Cancun for two weeks.
The football game is at Washington High at 8 p.m.
Tara gave up chocolate for Lent.
Think outside the box.
Audrey runs at 5:30 in the morning during the summer.
The paint above the window is peeling.
The movie starts at the theater on Campbell Road in 20 minutes.
The sandwich in my locker got squished between my history book and science book.
The train station is around the corner.
The squirrel in the treetop is throwing acorns at people around his tree.
Let's keep this secret between you and me.
Sandra works at The Wiener Roundup in the food court at Springdale Mall.
That cat is up to no good.
Jacques spends a lot of time primping in front of the bathroom mirror.
*Note that the prepositions in the last two examples consists of more than one
word. Prepositions with more than one word are called phrasal prepositions.
Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers
A modifier describes, clarifies, gives more detail, and adds to or sets limits on a certain word or word
group. It is important to place modifiers in their proper place within sentences in order to avoid confusion
about who or what is being modified.
Misplaced Modifier
A misplaced modifier doesn't modify the word it is trying to modify, and this can confuse the
reader.
example:
 When I was at the market yesterday, I only browsed the movies.
Because of the word only, this sentence can be read three different ways:
1. Did you only look at the movies and not buy any?
2. Did you only look at the movies and nothing else?
3. Were you the only one who looked at the movies?
The way to clear this up is to move the placement of the word only so that it looks like this:
 When I was at the market yesterday, I browsed only the movies.
Now, the sentence means you looked at the movies and nothing else, and it is clearer to you
and your readers.
Dangling Modifier
Another example of a problem with modifiers is the dangling modifier. When you start a
sentence with a dangling modifier that doesn't state the person, thing, or idea being modified,
your readers will think that the modifier is meant for the subject of the clause that follows the
modifying phrase.
example:
 Rushing to get home before the rain started, her car almost ran over a dog.
The sentence seems correct, but the car can't actually hit anything without the driver who
drives it. A better way to state the sentence would be like this:
 Rushing to get home before the rain started, she almost ran over a dog with her car.
Capitalization
There are several uses for capital letters listed here. If you have a question about a particular
example you're still not sure about, try checking a dictionary to see if the word is capitalized
there.Use capital letters in the following ways:
The first word of a sentence
example: Yesterday, my cat completely ignored me.
The pronoun "I"
example: My teacher told me that I should take an advanced class next year.
Proper nouns
(the names of specific people, places, groups, and sometimes things)

examples:
Campfire USA

Brackets Incorporated

Benjamin Franklin

Death Valley National Park

Mississippi River

Joes' Diner
Family relationships
(when used as proper names)
examples: For Christmas, Aunt Velma will sew a new robe for Mother. George is my
favorite uncle.
The names of God, specific deities, or religious figures, and holy books
(but not the non-specific use of the word "god")

examples:
God the Father

Moses

the Virgin Mary

Shiva

the Bible

Buddha
Titles preceding names, but not titles that follow names
examples: We are remodeling the office of Mayor Wilhelm. There is a news article about
Susan Krause, mayor of Johnsonville, on the front page of today's paper.
Directions that are names
(North, South, East, and West when used as sections of the country, but not as compass
directions)
example: My new neighbors are from the Pacific Northwest. One of them teaches at the
elementary school that is located one mile east of Decatur.
The days of the week, the months of the year, and holidays
(but not the seasons used generally)
examples:
 April

Wednesday

summer

Memorial Day

Thanksgiving

June
The names of countries, nationalities, and specific languages
examples:
 Austria

Brazil

Croatian

Italian
The first word in a sentence that is a direct quote
example: Sarah told me, "I'm very tired of eating pizza."
The major words in the titles of books, articles, and songs
(but not short prepositions or the articles "the," "a," or "an," if they are not the first word of
the title)
example: I remember reading The Wind in the Willows one summer.
Members of national, political, racial, social, civic, and athletic groups
examples:
 San Antonio Spurs

Green Party of the United States

Libertarians

Big Brothers Big Sisters

National Kennel Club

Atlanta Braves
Periods and events
(but not century numbers)
examples:
 The Roaring Twenties

The Renaissance

The Crimean War

eighteenth century
Trademarks
examples:
 Marble Slab Creamery

Firefox

Burger King

Wikipedia
Words for and abbreviations of specific names
(not things that came from proper nouns)

examples:
CNN

SOS

HTML

VCR
Punctuation: Commas/Quotations
Below are rules for the proper use of commas and quotation marks.
Commas
1. Separate two independent clauses joined by a conjunction.
example:
 The runners turned the corner, and they approached the final stretch.
2. Set off introductory subordinate clauses and long phrases.
example:
 When the runners turned the corner, they approached the final stretch.
3. Set off nonessential clauses and phrases following a specific noun (a proper name of
particular person, place, or thing).
example:
 Whitney Wise, who is a marathon runner, entered into the final stretch.
4. Separate consecutive words and items in a series of three or more.
example:
 Sleepless, pale, and frightened, he headed home.
5. Separate two adjectives that modify a single noun (not each other). (If you could place
"and" between them, they need a comma.)
example:
 The sleek, glass building enhanced the neighborhood.
6. Separate parts of dates and addresses.
example:
 The game was on January 21, 2001, in Miami, Florida.
7. Mark interrupters and enclose parenthetical expressions.
example:
 Phil decided, however, not to enter the race.
8. Mark the omission of words.
example:
 In football we found victory, in basketball, defeat.
9. Set off "yes" and "no," tag questions, words of direct address, and mild interjections.
examples:
 Yes, the Mavs won.

He is a good boy, isn't he?

Sir, I can answer the question.

Well, be careful!
Quotation Marks
1. Periods and commas always go inside quotation marks, even inside single quotes.
examples:
 The sign changed from "Walk," to "Don’t Walk," to "Walk" again within 30 seconds.

She said, "Hurry up." She said, "He said, 'Hurry up.'"
2. The placement of question marks with quotes follows logic. If a question is in quotation
marks, the question mark should be placed inside the quote.
examples:
 She asked, "Will you still be my friend?"
 Do you agree with the saying, "All's fair in love and war"?

Here the question is outside the quote.

NOTE: Only one ending punctuation mark is used with quotation marks. Also, the stronger
punctuation mark wins.Therefore, no period after war is used.
3. When you have a question outside AND inside a quote, use only one question mark and
place it inside the quotation mark.
example:
 Did she say, "May I go?"
4. Use single quotation marks for quotes within quotes. Note that the period goes inside all
quote marks.
example:
 He said, "Mary said, 'Do not treat me that way.'"
5. Use quotation marks to set off a direct quotation only.
example:
 "When will you be here?" he asked. He asked when you will be there.
Punctuation: Hyphens, Dashes,
Brackets, and Semicolons
In addition to common forms of punctuation like the period, the comma, and the apostrophe, there are
others that aren't used as often but that are no less important. These include hyphens, dashes, brackets,
and semicolons.
Hyphens
Hyphens are used for compound words (a single word made up of two or more words). Some
compound words include numbers, fractions, prefixes, and suffixes.
examples:
 When you spell out the number 42, it should be written "forty-two."

Similarly, when you spell out the fraction 5/8, it should be written as "five-eighths."
You should hyphenate a prefix attached to a capitalized word or number.
examples:
 "Mid-October" and "pre-1989" are both hyphenated.
You hyphenate a suffix the same way.
examples:
 "Twenty-odd" and "president-elect" show suffixes being hyphenated.
You should also hyphenate two or more words that work as a single modifier placed before a
noun.
example:
 "Twentieth-century novels" needs a hyphen, but "novels from the twentieth century" doesn't
need one.
Also, you should be sure of what the meaning of the word is that you're trying to hyphenate. If
you don't this can lead to confusion. For example, there is a big difference between the maneating rabbit and the man eating rabbit. In the first phrase shows that the rabbit eats
humans, but in the second phrase, the man is eating a rabbit.
Dashes
Dashes are used in a similar way as parentheses, to set off material in a sentence. The
difference is that dashes call attention to the material.
example:
 "He walked to work—past all the protestors—and never stopped to smile."
The emphasis is on the protestors that the man walks past.
Dashes look similar to hyphens, but they are usually two hyphen marks put together and look
a little longer than a hyphen (- hyphen, — dash). Be sure not to overuse dashes because they're
made for emphasis. The more dashes that are used, the weaker the emphasis can get.
Brackets
Brackets are generally used in quotations to help clarify a word or statement for readers or to
provide important background information. To show that these are your words and not those
of the person you're quoting, you should use brackets.
example:
 Mike Hammond said, "After the ship comes back to shore, Captain Donald [the boat's owner]
will have a lot of explaining to do."
You can also use brackets inside of parentheses, but you should limit their use in this situation
because they can make your writing harder to read than it needs to be, and if they aren't used
correctly, they can confuse your reader.
Semicolons
Semicolons can help to connect words, sentences, and groups of words differently. One way a
semicolon works is by connecting two main/independent clauses that can stand on their
own. It shows they are linked and makes the reader pause.
example:
 I went to the store; I bought bread.
You can also use semicolons with transitional words such
as however, moreover, therefore and transitional expressions such as in addition, for
example, and since then.
example:
 Last week, Mike returned from Germany; however, he forgot his luggage.
Finally, semicolons can also be used to split up a long, complex series of items. Without the
semicolons, all the information would run together and get confusing.
example:
 I went to the beach with Michael, my cousin; Jerry, my best friend; and Fred, my uncle.
Colons
Use the colon (:) to suggest that information or a list follows and to punctuate the salutation of a
business letter.
One use of the colon is to follow the salutation (opening greeting) of a business letter even if it
is to address someone by his/her first name. Never use a semicolon after a salutation. A
comma is used after the salutation for personal letters.
examples:
 Dear Mr. Phan:
 Dear U.S. Secretary of Defense:
 Dear Samantha Donnelly:
 Dear Ronald:
Another use of the colon is to suggest that information follows.
example:
 Allergen Statement: This product was packaged in a facility that processes peanuts, wheat,
eggs, and milk.
The colon is also used to suggest that a list follows.
examples:
 The following students are exempt from final exams: Paul Connell, Josie Martinez, Sondra
Smith, Carrie Stengel, and Johnathan Wallace.

The North Texas Cat Rescue is collecting the following donations:
towels

cat food

cat litter

cleaning supplies
Spelling
The steps and tricks below can help you spell some difficult words.
Look at the word.

What does it mean?

How is it spelled?

Do you see any word parts that you know?
Say the word.

What sounds do you hear?

Are there any silent letters?

Is it spelled like how it sounds?
Spell the word out loud.

Do you notice any patterns?
Copy the word.

Did you copy all the letters correctly?
Cover, write, and check the word.

Did you spell the word correctly?
Spelling Tricks
Take a word that you are having trouble spelling, and try the following strategies to help you
remember it.
Divide It
Divide the tricky word into smaller parts. Learn each part separately.
example
de-ci-pher
Make Up Your Own Pronunciation
Say the tricky word in a way that will help you remember how it is spelled. Just remember not
to pronounce the word this way in conversation!
example
True pronunciation: dis-uh-plin
Made-up pronunciation: disc-i-pline
Pair It Up
Pair the tricky word with a shorter, related word that gives a sound clue.
example
cell → miscellaneous
Study the Problem Part
Find the part of the tricky word that gives you problems and study it extra hard.
example
inconvenience
Think of a Sentence
Link the tricky word with a word that has the same problem letters.
example
The mouse went for a ride in the limousine.
Think of Other Forms
Think of other forms of the word where you can better hear the problem letters in the word.
example
editor → editorial
Use Rhyme
Find a rhyming word that you know that is spelled the same at the end.
example
The magistrate has a hot date.
Homophones
Homophones are words that are pronounced alike but have multiple meanings or spellings. When
writing, it is very important to choose the correct word. Below are a few examples of homophones.
Their, There, They're



Their = possessive pronoun: They got their books.
There = that place: My house is over there.
They're = contraction for they are: They're making dinner.
Its, It's


Its = possessive pronoun: The crab had an unusual growth on its shell.
It's = contraction for it is or it has (in a verb phrase): It's still raining; it's been raining for three
days.
We're, Where, Were



We're = contraction for we are: We're glad to help.
Where = location: Where are you going?
Were = a past tense form of the verb to be: They were walking side by side.
Your, You're


Your = possessive pronoun: Your shoes are untied.
You're = contraction for you are: You're walking around with your shoes untied.
To, Too, Two



To = preposition, or first part of the infinitive form of a verb: They went to the lake to swim.
Too = very, also: I was too tired to continue. I was hungry, too.
Two = the number 2: Two students scored below passing on the exam.
Than, Then

Than
used in comparison statements: He is richer than I.
used in statements of preference: I would rather dance than eat.
used to suggest quantities beyond a specified amount: Read more than the first paragraph.
 Then
 a time other than now: He was younger then. She will start her new job then.
 next in time, space, or order: First we must study; then we can play.
 suggesting a logical conclusion: If you've studied hard, then the exam should be no problem.



Accept, Except


Accept = verb meaning to receive or to agree: He accepted their praise graciously.
Except = preposition meaning all but, other than: Everyone went to the game except Alyson.
Affect, Effect



Affect = verb meaning to influence: Will lack of sleep affect your game?
Effect = noun meaning result or consequence: Will lack of sleep have an effect on your game?
Effect = verb meaning to bring about, to accomplish: Our efforts have effected a major change
in university policy.
Advise, Advice


Advise = verb that means to recommend, suggest, or counsel: I advise you to be cautious.
Advice = noun that means an opinion or recommendation about what could or should be
done: I'd like to ask for your advice on this matter.
Conscious, Conscience


Conscious = adjective meaning awake, perceiving: Despite a head injury, the patient
remained conscious.
Conscience = noun meaning the sense of obligation to be good: Chris wouldn't cheat because
his conscience wouldn't let him.
Lead, Led


Lead = noun referring to a dense metallic element: The X-ray technician wore a vest lined
with lead.
Led = past-tense and past-participle form of verb meaning to guide or direct: The
evidence led the jury to reach a unanimous decision.
A Few Other Helpful Hints
Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one:

you're = you are

they're = they are

we're = we are

it's = it is or it has (in a verb phrase)
Where, there, here:

These are all place words, and all contain the word here.
Two, to, too:


Two, twelve, and between are all words related to the number 2, and all contain the
letters two.
To is a preposition; I went to the ballgame.

Too can mean also or can be an intensifier, and you might say that it contains an extra o (one
too many).
One Word or Two?








All ready: used as an adjective to express complete preparedness
Already: an adverb expressing time
 At last I was all ready to go, but everyone had already left.
All right: used as an adjective or adverb; older and more formal spelling, more common in
scientific and academic writing.
Alright: alternate spelling of all right; less frequent but used often in journalistic and business
publications, and especially common in fictional dialogue.
 Will you be all right on your own? (adjective)
 He does alright in school. (adverb)
All together: an adverb meaning considered as a whole, summed up
Altogether: an intensifying adverb meaning wholly, completely, entirely
o All together, there were thirty-two students at the museum.
o His comment raises an altogether different problem.
Awhile: an adverb meaning for a short time; usually needs no preposition
A while: a paired article and noun meaning a period of time; usually used with for
 Won't you stay awhile?
 We talked for a while, and then we said good night.
Words with Similar Forms







Anyone: a pronoun meaning any person at all
Any one: a paired adjective and noun meaning a specific item in a group; usually used with of
 Anyone who can solve this problem deserves an award.
 Any one of those papers could serve as an example.
Note: There are similar distinctions in meaning for everyone and every one.
Anyway: an adverb meaning in any case or nonetheless
Any way: a paired adjective and noun meaning any particular course, direction, or manner
 He objected, but she went anyway.
 Any way we chose would lead to danger.
Maybe: an adverb meaning perhaps
May be: a form of the verb to be
 Maybe we should wait until the rain stops.
 This may be our only chance to win the championship.
Context Clues
Learning words can be hard. If you're not sure what a word means, it helps if you can at least
know the information around the word. There are ways of figuring out what a new or unusual
word means.One way is to use context clues.
Using context clues means using the information around the word you don't know. These
words help you find what it means.You can also use the information in the rest of the
paragraph to help you figure out what the word means. There are a few things to watch for
when looking for context clues:

A punctuation mark, such as a comma (,) or dash (—), may help you understand how the word
is being used.
example:
The DVD player had been refurbished and was now ready to be sold since the customer
who bought it returned it to the store—it had not been working correctly.
Refurbished is a big word! If you don't know what it means, look at the hint after the dash. The
hint is "it had not been working correctly." This shows that refurbished must mean the same
thing as "fixed" since it was now ready to be sold.

Key words, such as "or", and "that is" may also give you a hint that a definition is nearby.
example:
LeBron had an endorsement deal with Sprite; that is, they paid him money to advertise
their product.
This sentence shows that endorsement means "money to advertise."

The intended meaning of some phrases are not the same as the literal meaning of the
words. These phrases are common expressions such as "under the weather" which means that
the person is feeling ill.

Also, make sure to read the entire paragraph! Sometimes a word's definition may become
clearer by reading the entire paragraph where it appears.
Multiple Meaning Words
Sometimes words are spelled alike but have different meanings. Knowing about different types of words
and their definitions is very important to reading and writing.
Multiple-meaning words can be tricky. Use context clues and think carefully about the
sentence's message to figure out which meaning is being used. Below are some examples of
words with multiple meanings:
o
o
o
Concrete can mean "real" or "a hard and strong building material."
Staple can mean "a metal loop to fasten together material" or "a resource that is in high
demand."
Foil can mean "to prevent the success of someone or something" or "a very thin sheet of
metal."
Sample Questions
The water created a groove on the hill as it traveled downward.
What is the meaning of the bold word in the sentence above?
A.
a long narrow channel
B. a fixed routine
C. a track on a music record
D. an enjoyable experience
Explanation: The word "groove" has many meanings. All of the answer choices are
definitions of the word. However, in this sentence, "groove" means "a long narrow channel."
The correct answer is A. The reader can tell that this definition is being used because a
"groove" is created on a hill by the water. Looking at context clues helps the reader figure out
the meaning being used.
After high school, Jason wants to pursue a career in medicine so that he can support his family.
In this sentence, the word pursue means
A.
to follow in order to defeat.
B. to haunt.
C. to strive to accomplish.
D. to court.
Explanation: The word "pursue" has many meanings. All of the answer choices are
definitions of the word. However, in this sentence, "pursue" means "to strive to accomplish."
The correct answer is C. The reader can tell that this definition is being used because Jason
wants to have a career in medicine to help his family. Looking at context clues helps the
reader figure out the meaning being used.
Pronunciation
Dictionaries have pronunciation keys to help you pronounce words. Here is a pronunciation
key:
\ə\ as a in amend
\a\ as a in lantern
\ā\ as a in bravery
\ä\ as o in posture
\aů\ as ou in couch
\ch\ as ch in hachet
\e\ as e in blemish
\ē\ as ea in teacher
\g\ as g in slogan
\i\ as i in tariff
\ī\ as i in triumphant
\j\ as j in injury
\[ng]\ as ng in exceedingly
\ō\ as o in donate
\ô\ as aw in dawdle
\oi\ as oi in toilet
\th\ as th in math
\th\ as th in thus
\ü\ as oo in loot
\ů\ as oo in falsehood
\y\ as y in yacht
\zh\ as s in leisure
Which word has the same vowel pronunciation as shrub?
A. prune \'prün\
B. boost \'büst\
C. crusade \krů-'sād\
D. frugal \'frů-gəl\
The key shows that \ə\ makes the same vowel sound in amend and frugal. This sound is also
present in shrub \'shrəb\.
Word Origins
An origin of a word is the language the word comes from. Some words come from
French. Some come from Spanish.Others are original English words.
brouhaha \brü-,hä-hä\ [French] n. hubbub, uproar
The word brouhaha originated from French. The origin is usually in brackets before the
definition.
Guide Words
Dictionaries have guide words to help you find the word you need. Guide words are at the top
corner of the page and show which words are first and last on the page. Words that come
between these words in alphabetical order are on this page. A dictionary page that included the
guide words newsman and night would also include nickelodeon, niece, and nifty.
Definitions
A definition is the meaning of a word. Some words have more than one meaning. Dictionaries
number the definitions when there is more than one.
balk \'bôk\ n. [Middle English] 1: a ridge of land left unplowed as a dividing line or through
carelessness 2: beam, rafter 3:hindrance, check 4 a: the space behind the balkline on a pool
table b: any of the outside divisions made by the balklines 5:failure of a player to complete a
motion; especially an illegal motion of the pitcher in baseball while in position
Which sentence best fits definition 3 of balk?
A. Raccoons live in the balk between the two farms.
B. Shelia's armpit odor proved to be a balk on her date.
C. Jason hit the cue ball from the balk of the pool table.
D. The pitcher committed a balk during the game.
Definition 3 means "hindrance, check," so B makes the most sense.
Parts of Speech
A dictionary gives the part of speech of each entry. The part of speech tells how the word is
used in a sentence. Below are abbreviations for parts of speech:
v. = verb
n. = noun
adj. = adjective
adv. = adverb
Look at the dictionary entry below.
fuddy-duddy \'fə-dē,də-dē\ [origin unknown] n. : one that is old-fashioned, unimaginative, or
conservative
The part of speech is abbreviated by n. This means "noun."
Thesaurus
A thesaurus is a reference book similar to a dictionary. Instead of having definitions like a dictionary, a
thesaurus has synonyms. Synonyms are words that have the same or almost the same meaning as
another word.
You can use a thesaurus to revise your writing. If you are writing a story and keep using the word "big,"
you can look in a thesaurus for other words that mean the same thing as "big" and use those instead. By
using a variety of words, your writing becomes more colorful and more exciting.
Often, thesaurus entries provide contrasting words and antonyms (words having the opposite
ornearly the opposite meaning). The antonyms will be labeled in some way to tell them apart from the
synonyms.
Word Concepts
Word concepts are very short definitions, usually one word long. Concepts give general ideas
of words. For example, the concept for the word dog is "animal." The concept in a thesaurus
entry is in parentheses and capital letters. Look at the thesaurus entry below:
elude, v. ditch, flee, circumvent, dodge, shun (AVOID)
The concept gives a short meaning that covers the general idea of the word. Avoid is a general
idea for elude.
Parts of Speech
A thesaurus gives the part of speech for each entry. The part of speech tells how the word is
used in the sentence. Below are abbreviations for parts of speech.
v. = verb
n. = noun
adj. = adjective
adv. = adverb
In the thesaurus entry below, the part of speech for blandish is a verb:
blandish, v. cajole, brown-nose, charm, wheedle, beguile (FLATTER)
Synonyms
The main purpose for using a thesaurus is to choose synonyms. Writers use a thesaurus when
they revise their work. They can replace dull words with interesting ones. The words listed
between the part of speech and the concept word are synonyms. Study the following thesaurus
entries and sample question below:
compound, n. alloy, composite, synthesis, union, amalgamation (MIXTURE)
compound, v. concoct, fuse, meld, unite (COMBINE)
compound, v. aggravate, magnify, exacerbate, complicate (WORSEN)
Which word would best replace compound in the following sentence?
To make an environmentally friendly glass cleaner, compound 2 teaspoons of vinegar to 1
quart of warm water.
A. union
B. composite
C. meld
D. aggravate
Replace compound in the sentence with each answer choice. Meld makes the most sense:
To make an environmentally friendly glass cleaner, meld 2 teaspoons of vinegar to 1 quart of
warm water.
Antonyms
Sometimes the thesaurus will show antonyms of a word. Antonyms are words that have an
opposite meaning. The thesaurus will use ant to show that the words listed are antonyms
instead of synonyms. Here is an example:
Discombobulate, v.
baffle, confound, perplex, puzzle (CONFUSE)
ant clarify, enlighten, explain
Glossaries
While reading, you may sometimes come across a term that most people may not know. The book
might have a glossary in the back that lists this word, among others, and the definition. A
glossary is specific to the subject discussed in the book, which is usually a textbook or a
nonfiction book.Think about a time you may have needed a glossary and how it could have
helped you understand what you were reading better.
Look at the example of a glossary below.
Archery Glossary
Q
quiver
a case that holds arrows
R
release
the letting go of the string of a bow that shoots the arrow
riser
the handle of the bow
S
stabilizer
a weight used to keep the string from moving too much upon release
Test your knowledge of glossaries on the example question below.
Music Glossary
E
encore
a word used by an audience to request that a musical performance continue
ensemble
a group of three or more musical performers
F
forte
Music Glossary
an Italian word for "loud"
fortissimo
an Italian word for "very loud"
G
genre
a type of music
According to the glossary above, what would an ensemble most likely do if it hears the word
"encore"?
A.
finish the song they are currently playing
B. stop playing immediately and run off stage
C. play as loud as they possibly can
D. continue to play another song
The correct answer is choice D, continue to play another song. The word "encore" is used by
audiences when they wish to hear more music from the same performer or performers. If an
ensemble hears the audience chant the word "encore," it would be when the ensemble is
finished playing. The ensemble members might give in and play another song, or they might
end their set as planned.
Analogies
An analogy is a comparison between two pairs of words. It shows a relationship between the words that
are being compared. Analogies can use different types of relationships to compare words.Review the
following examples.
Part/Whole
Dallas is to Texas as Chicago is to Illinois.
Peel is to banana as shell is to almond.
Item/Purpose
iPod is to play music as shovel is to dig holes.
Arms is to hold as legs is to walk.
Antonym
Liquid is to solid as lumpy is to smooth.
Appetizing is to tasteless as courageous is to cowardly.
Synonym
Reveal is to expose as conceal is to cover.
Help is to assist as deceive is to mislead.
Characteristic
Hard is to diamond as silky is to petal.
Sandy is to beach as furry is to cat.
Association
Airplane is to sky as ship is to sea.
Gasoline is to automobile as chlorophyll is to plant.
Object/Location
Tree is to forest as dog is to kennel.
Student is to school as picnic table is to park.
Cause/Effect
Necessity is to invention as virus is to illness.
War is to treaty as overeating is to weight gain.
A common way to write analogies uses colons. For example, "donkey is to bray as snake is
to hiss" can be written as:
donkey : bray :: snake : hiss
Tip: The order in which the items in a relationship appear is important to the meaning of the
analogy. For example, the following analogy is WRONG:
caterpillar : butterfly :: frog : tadpole
In other words, a caterpillar is a young butterfly but a frog is NOT a young tadpole. Here is
the CORRECT way to write the analogy:
caterpillar : butterfly :: tadpole : frog
Sample Questions
Question 1: Read the analogy and choose the item that correctly completes it.
milk : cereal :: butter :
A.
refrigerator
B. fat
C. bread
D. knife
Explanation: The correct answer is choice C. Milk is something that is commonly poured on
cereal, and butter is something that is commonly spread on bread. The items relate to each
other by the way they are commonly eaten. The relationship between the pairs of words is
"association."
Question 2: Read the passage below, and answer the question that follows.
In the case of an emergency like a natural disaster, people should have supplies ready. An
emergency kit should include fresh water, food, a source of light, a source of heat, first aid
supplies, a radio, and cleaning supplies. The most important item to have in an emergency kit
is fresh drinking water. Emergencies like tornadoes, floods, and earthquakes often damage and
pollute local water sources. The kit should have enough water for each person in the group to
have one gallon per day for up to two weeks.
Which best completes the analogy?
Water is to emergency kit as
A.
words is to book.
B. hurricane is to flood.
C. violence is to peace.
D. darkness is to cave.
Explanation: The correct answer is choice A. Water is important in an emergency kit, and
words are important in a book.The relationship between the items in each pair could be
described as "part/whole" or "association."
Synonyms and Antonyms
A synonym is a word that has the same or almost the same meaning as another word. Anantonym is a
word that means the opposite of another word.
Synonyms
Synonym = Same
They both start with an S!
examples:
enemy and foe
sword and saber
compliment and flatter
journey and voyage
sink and basin
Antonyms
Antonym = Opposite
They both start with a vowel!
examples:
timid and fierce
clever and foolish
generous and stingy
nimble and clumsy
elated and depressed
Sample Questions
1) Replace the underlined word with a synonym.
I understand the speaker.
A. dislike
B. comprehend
C. misunderstand
D. enjoy
Explanation: "I understand the speaker" means the same thing as "I comprehend the speaker,"
so "understand" and "comprehend" are synonyms. The answer is B!
2) Replace the underlined word with an antonym.
Stapling 1,000 books by hand is very tedious work.
A. simple
B. difficult
C. interesting
D. boring
Explanation: An antonym is a word that means the opposite of another word. Find a word
that means the opposite of "tedious." Something that is NOT tedious is "interesting." The
answer is C!
Tip:
Replace the underlined word with each answer choice. If the meaning of the sentence is the
same, then you've found a synonym. If the meaning of the sentence is the opposite of what it
was before, then you've found an antonym.