The Scientific Study of Research
Questions
Chapter 1:
Essentials of Political Research:
Alan Monroe
What does it mean to be scientific? (2)
It is defined by the attempt to identify and test empirical
generalizations. The key is empirical: it refers to facts, or the
real world: that which exists and can be know through the
senses – what can be seen, touched, heard, smelled.
How do you test empirical statements?
The test must be objective (free from bias, and can be
duplicated)
…
Generalizations (3)
Generalizations: What we are looking for
We want to make statements about entire classes of objects,
rather than just about individual cases.
Individual Level Analysis: Often Insufficient
How specific people may behave, whether they vote, and
whether or not they are educated is of little value. But if we
gather data on a large number of people from many places,
and across time, we can make generalizations about how
“individuals” with certain social characteristics behave
politically. (3)
The objective is to explain and predict.
…
Empirical and Normative Questions
Empirical and Normative Questions
Many things we think about the world are normative, rather
than empirical, that is, they reflect our judgments about
what should be.
Scientific method cannot deal directly with normative (nonempirical) questions.
Hence, we need to be able to distinguish between the two:
…
Empirical and Normative Questions
Empirical statements: “refers to what is or is not true and can
be confirmed or disproved by sense experience.” It can be
tested.
Examples:
Bill Clinton was reelected president in 1996
Howard Dean is the Chair of the Democratic Party
Objective analysis of data from sensory observation can
either prove or disprove an empirical statement. It can be
tested.
…
Empirical and Normative Questions
Normative Statements: they deal with value judgments, that is,
questions of what is good or bad.
Examples:
Was Bliss Clinton a good President?
Is democracy the best form of government?
Should taxes be increased?
Such questions cannot be answered objectively.
…
Normative to Empirical Questions (6)
Why cannot you answer normative questions in political
science?
You can deal with normative questions/issues in scientific
research, but can only do so indirectly. What you need to
do is reformulate normative questions as empirical
questions.
…
Reformulating Normative Questions as
Empirical
There are two ways of doing this:
1) Change the Frame of Reference: Move from a normative
judgment to a question about the normative judgments
people make. (easier, but less useful)
Example:
Would it be a good idea to legalize drugs? (normative)
Do most college students favor the legalization of
drugs? (Frame)
Limits on campaign spending in Congressional races
should be adopted. (normative)
More Republicans favor spending limits than
Democrats. (frame)
Reformulating Normative Questions as
Empirical (6)
Reformulate Normative Questions as Empirical:
2) Ask empirical questions about the assumptions behind
normative judgment. (more useful)
Example:
Would it be a good idea to legalize drugs? (normative)
Would the legalization of drugs decrease the
occurrence of other crimes? (assumption)
Limits on campaign spending in Congressional races
should be adopted. (normative)
Do spending limits advantage or disadvantage
incumbents?
(assumption)
…
Research Questions (8)
Designing a Research Question:
Research should begin with a coherent question. It helps focus
your thinking, research and writing.
Elements of a Good Question:
Clarity
Testability
Theoretical significance
Practical significance
Originality
…
Research Questions: (8)
Clarity: needs to give clear direction to the research, that is, it
should direct the type of research and data that will be used.
But do not be too focused. To reduce study to a particular
city, or state, if you are discussing urban development, or
economic policy might limit value of research. Hence the
value in comparative studies.
Examples:
Why is voter turnout low in the US? (lacks direction: does not
tell us where we should look, at…)
Does same day registration increase turnout? (direct us to
certain research)
…
Research Questions: (9)
Testability: have to be able to answer the question with
empirical inquiry.
Theoretical Significance: answering the question should
increase our general knowledge and understanding of the
topic.
Hence, it is important to know what has already been written
on the topic. Do a Literature Review.
Practical Significance: answering the question should have be
useful to some real-life application.
Originality: does not have to be completely new question, but
should at least be a new take on something.
The Scientific Research Process: (10)
Steps in the research process:
1) Formulate Question
2) Formulate hypotheses
3) Formulate Design
4) Research (Collect Data)
5) Analysis
6) Draw Conclusion
…