A Study of Psychological Foundations,
Learning Environments, and Learner
Motivation
Tram Truong
Feb. 14, 2011
INST 5131: Assignment 2

Behavioral Learning
Cognitive
Info Processing
Schema &
Cognitive Load
Learning
Situated Learning
Gagné’s
Theory of Instruction
Constructivism
A variety of different theories have influenced the field of instructional design; however, they all have one underlying notion – instruction leads to learning.
(Reiser & Dempsey, 2007, p. 36)

Behaviorists, such as B.F. Skinner, believe that learning can be predicted based on the repetition of the learner’s behavior in certain learning situations
(Reiser & Dempsey,
2007, p. 38)
. They focus on observable behaviors and use positive and negative reinforcement techniques to enforce learning
(Funderstanding, 2008, para. 1-9) .

continued
Classic
Conditioning
Natural reflex response, i.e., fear of public speaking
(Universal learning process) Behavioral/
Operant
Conditioning
Response is reinforced, i.e., praise for good grades
Adapted from (Funderstanding, 2008, para. 9) .

Information
Processing
[Sensory, short-term, or longterm memory to retrieve data]
Sensory Memory
Learners organize and code groups of patterns or information
Short-term Memory
Learners hold info briefly to connect with other info in long-term memory
Adapted from(Driscoll, 2005, p.74)
Long-term Memory
Learners remember and apply info long after it was originally learned.
(Reiser & Dempsey, 2007, p. 38)

continued
Although cognitivist accepts behavioristic beliefs, they deem
“learning as involving the acquisition or reorganization of the cognitive structures through which humans process and store information"
(Good and
Brophy, 1990, p. 187) .
Adapted from (Reiser & Dempsey, 2007, p. 39)

Learning is based on 3 components:
Taxonomies of Learning outcomes that depicts ways that humans can learn
Internal and External Learning
Conditions specific to each learning outcome
Gagné’s Nine Events of
Instruction helps facilitate the process of learning
(Reiser & Dempsey, 2007, p. 41)

continued
Five major categories:
1. Verbal information
2. Intellectual skills
3. Cognitive strategies
4. Attitudes
5. Motor skills
Taxonomies of Learning
Different learning conditions are required for each learning outcome, i.e., learning conditions of a motor skill (riding a bike) vs. an intellectual skill
(choosing the correct decision)
1. Gain attention
2. Inform objectives
3. Stimulate recall of prior learning
4. Present stimulus
5. Provide guidance
6. Elicit performance
7. Provide feedback
8. Assess performance
9. Enhance retention and transfer
Internal and
External
Learning
Conditions
Gagné’s Nine
Events of
Instruction
Adapted from (Reiser & Dempsey, 2007, p. 41)

Learning is about actively engaging in the surrounding environment, making sense of what is seen and experienced and then validating those ideas and understandings with friends and teachers.
(Reiser & Dempsey, 2007, p. 42)

continued
Learning is a search for meaning
Mental models help students perceive the world and their assumptions
Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts
Assessments are essential to the learning process to ensure learning has taken place
Adapted from
(Funderstanding,
2008, para. 2) .

Learning, to me, is not only based on one philosophical framework but rather from combination of practices and beliefs ranging from the behaviorist point of view to cognitivism and constructivism.
Positive and Negative
Constructive Feedback is necessary to improve behavior or performance
Validating ideas with peers and personal experience is an essential part of the learning process
Learning relies on linking new data to old data stored in our memory
Learning outcomes and conditions influence lesson planning
Effective learning instruction needs to be informative, engaging and include interactive activities relevant to learning outcomes

One of the key components in designing effective instruction is taking in account the conditions and requirements of the learning environment. Whether learning takes place in the classroom or while on the job, teachers must realize the importance of adjusting their instruction in accordance to the learning environment.

Constructivists encourage the use of complex learning environments to support learning goals.
(Reiser & Dempsey, 2007, p.42)
Engage learners in activities relevant to learning outcomes
Provide collaboration opportunities where perspectives can be exchanged
Support learners in setting their own goals and regulations in their learning
Encourage learners to reflect on what and how they are learning

Cognitive apprenticeship is the process where the teacher educates that skill or information to an learner.
(Wikipedia, 2010, para. 1)
It is “designed, among other things, to bring these tacit processes into the open, where students can observe, enact, and practice them with help from the teacher”
(Collins,
Brown, & Newman, 1987, p. 4).

Communities of practice are groups of people who share a concern or a passion for something they do and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly.
(Wenger, 2006, para. 4)
Defining characteristics
(1) The Domain
: group has a shared identity/interest that distinguishes them from non-members
(2) The Community : group engages in activities , helps each other and learn together
(3) The Practice
: practitioners who develop a shared repertoire of resources
(Wenger, 2006, para. 5)

“Perhaps it is time for us to take a much closer look at the technology we have available and find new and innovative ways of building a curriculum around it”
(Halocha, 2007, p. 125)
.
Encourages blended learning
Benefits online learners
Pedagogic audience
Ease of using multimedia
Evolved from museum schools to online LMS

Interactive activities and projects
Blended learning instruction
Assessments to ensure learning took place
Relevant and realistic examples and scenarios
Truong’s
Learning
Environment
Positive and negative constructive feedback

Even if the instruction may be interactive, filled with relevant information, and engaging, without learner motivation the materials developed may just be another boring course to the learner. Therefore, understanding learner motivation is an important aspect when designing sound training.

John Keller’s ARCS model is systematic and uses a problem-solving approach that helps provide a rational basis for tactic selection.
(Reiser & Dempsey, 2007, p. 87)
A ttention
Perceptual arousal
Inquiry arousal
R elevance
Concrete language
Relevant examples
C onfidence
Explain likelihood to succeed
Provide objectives and pre-requisites
Learner control and feedback
S atisfaction Reward system
Feedback and reinforcement
Provide real-world opportunities to practice acquired knowledge
Adapted from (Learning Theories Knowledgebase, 2011, para. 4-7)

Learners' current self-perceptions strongly influence the ways in which they will interpret the success or failure of their current efforts and hence their future tendency to perform these same behaviors.
The cause of the success or failure lies in ourselves or from our environment
Stable = same outcome in different occasion
Unstable = different outcome in different occasion
Controllable = factor that can be altered
Uncontrollable
= factor unable to alter
(Author unknown, 2011, para. 1-3, http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/edPsybook/Edpsy5/edpsy5_attribution.h
tm)

Self-efficacy refers to individuals' beliefs about their capabilities to perform well (Graham, n.d., para. 11) . People are likely to engage in activities to the extent that they perceive themselves to be competent at those activities
(Author unknown, 2011, para. 1, http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/edPsybook/Edpsy5/Edpsy5_efficacy.htm) .
Instruction manipulations to increase self-efficacy:
Encourage using short-term over long-term goals progress is easier to judge in short-term goals
Use specific learning strategies that increases learner’s attention to the task
Give performance-contingent rewards to reward single task mastery
(Graham, n.d., para. 15)

Learners attempt to monitor and control their own learning
(Pintrich, n.d., para. 1)
. Self-regulating learners are much more likely to be successful in school, to learn more, and to achieve at higher levels
(Pintrich, n.d., para. 13) .
General Domains
1
Cognition
Using strategies to help remember, understand, and solve problems
2
Motivation
Using strategies to help regulate motivations and emotions
3
Behavior
Using strategies to attempt to control overt behaviors
4
Environment
Using strategies to monitor and control the environment
(Pintrich, n.d., para. 5-9)

Friendly, warm, inviting, promotes learning
Environment Interactive Fun actitives that requires interaction with peers
Reward system
(praises, stickers, recognition)
Incentives Relevance
Examples and activities relevant to learning outcomes

• Attribution Theory. (2011). Retrieved February, 10, 2011 from http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/edPsybook/Edpsy5/edpsy5_attribution.h
tm
• Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Newman, S. E. (1987). Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the
craft of reading, writing and mathematics (Technical Report No. 403). BBN Laboratories,
Cambridge, MA. Centre for the Study of Reading, University of Illinois. January, 1987.
• Driscoll, M.P. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction (3 rd ed.). Needham Heights,
MA: Allyn & Bacon.
• Funderstanding (2008). Funderstanding constructivism. Retrieved February 10, 2011 from http://www.funderstanding.com/content/constructivism
• Funderstanding (2008). Funderstanding behaviorism. Retrieved February 10, 2011 from http://www.funderstanding.com/content/behaviorism
• Graham, Sandra (n.d). Motivation - Instruction, Self-regulated Learning – OVERVIEW.
Retrieved February 10, 2011 from http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2250/Motivation.html

• Halocha, J. (2007). Using ICT in Teaching. In J. Johnston, J. Halocha & M. Chater (Eds.),
Developing Teaching Skills in the Primary School (pp. 119–134). Maidenhead, UK: Open
University Press.
• Learning Theories Knowledgebase (2011). ARCS Model of Motivational Design (Keller).
Retrieved February 13th, 2011 from http://www.learning-theories.com/kellers-arcsmodel-of-motivational-design.html
• Pintrich, Paul R. (n.d). Motivation - Self-regulated Learning. Retrieved February 10, 2011 from http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2249/Motivation-SELF-REGULATED-
LEARNING.html
• Reiser, R.A. & Dempsey, J.V. (2007). Trends and issues in instructional design and technology (2 nd Edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.
• Self-Efficacy. (2011). Retrieved February 10, 2011 from http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/edPsybook/Edpsy5/Edpsy5_efficacy.htm
• Wenger, Etienne (2006). Communities of practice a brief introduction. Retrieved
February, 11, 2011 from http://www.ewenger.com/theory/