Visser ‚t Hooft Lyceum Leiden
English Department
A Glossary of
Literary Terms
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Robert Laytham
Visser ‚t Hooft Lyceum Leiden
accumulation
English Department
Accumulation is derived from a Latin word which means “pile up”. It is a
stylistic device that is defined as a list of words which embody similar
abstract or physical qualities or meanings with the intention to emphasize
the common qualities that words hold. It is also an act of accumulating the
scattered points. Accumulation examples are found in literary pieces and in
daily conversations.
Example: “…… having no other motive than the public good of my country, by
advancing our trade, providing for infants, relieving the poor, and giving
some pleasure to the rich….”
action-adventure
ad hominem
allegory
alliteration
ambiguity
(A Modest Proposal by Jonathan Swift)
Action-adventure fiction, features physical action often around a mission
usually involving killing and robbing. Many times set in forbidding locales
such as jungles, deserts, or mountains.
Ad hominem (Latin) means “against the man”. As the name suggests, it is a
literary term that involves commenting on or against an opponent to
undermine him instead of his arguments.
There are cases where consciously or unconsciously people start to question
the opponent or his personal association rather than evaluating the
soundness and validity of the argument that he presents. These types of
arguments are usually mistaken for personal insults but they are somehow
different in nature and the distinction is very subtle.
An allegory has two levels. The one level seems to tell a simple story but all
the events and characters in this story can be interpreted at a second level, a
level which seeks to educate or warn. A good example of this is War of the
Worlds (HG Wells). The upper story seems to be about an alien invasion from
Mars with Man unable to defend himself. The sub-story is actually about
Wells’ fear that Man would invent weapons which no-one would be able to
defend themselves against. This allegory came true during World War I with
the use of poison gas, tanks and aerial bombing from airplanes. An allegory is
a story that has a second meaning, usually by endowing characters, objects
or events with symbolic significance. The entire story functions symbolically;
often a pattern relates each literal item to a corresponding abstract idea or
principle. Although the surface story may have its own interest, the author's
major interest is in the ulterior meaning.
The repetition of the same consonant sounds at any place, but often at the
beginning of words:
She sells seashells on the seashore.
Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.
Alliteration is used by an author to create emphasis, to add beauty to the
writing style, and occasionally to aid in shaping the mood.
Ambiguity is a word, phrase, or statement which contains more than one
meaning.
Ambiguous words or statements lead to vagueness and confusion, and shape
the basis for instances of unintentional humour. For instance, it is ambiguous
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English Department
to say “I rode a black horse in red pyjamas,” because it may lead us to think
the horse was wearing red pajamas. The sentence becomes clear when it is
restructured “Wearing red pyjamas, I rode a black horse.”
amplification
anachronism
analogy
anacoluthon
anadiplosis
Similarly, same words with different meanings can cause ambiguity e.g.
“John took off his trousers by the bank.” It is funny if we confuse one
meaning of “bank” which is a building, to another meaning, being “an edge
of a river”. Context usually resolves any ambiguity in such cases.
Amplification refers to a literary practice wherein the writer embellishes the
sentence by adding more information to it in order to increase its worth and
understandability. When a plain sentence is too abrupt and fails to convey
the full implications desired, amplification comes into play when the writer
adds more to the structure to give it more meaning.
Example:
Original sentence- The thesis paper was difficult. After amplification- The
thesis paper was difficult: it required extensive research, data collection,
sample surveys, interviews and a lot of fieldwork.
Anachronism is derived from a Greek word anachronous which means
“against time”. Therefore, an anachronism is an error of chronology or
timeline in a literary piece. In other words, anything that is out of time and
out of place is an anachronism.
Anachronisms appear in literature, paintings etc. and it is fascinating to
explore them. Generally, they are considered errors that occur due to lack of
research. For example, if a painter paints a portrait of Aristotle and shows
him wearing a wrist watch, it would be an example of anachronism, as we all
are aware that wristwatches did not exist during Aristotle’s time. Similarly,
the presence of a wall clock in a stage setting that depicts the interior of a
Roman fort is an anachronism.
An analogy is a literary device that helps to establish a relationship based on
similarities between two concepts or ideas. By using an analogy we can
convey a new idea by using the blueprint of an old one as a basis for
understanding. With a mental linkage between the two, one can create
understanding regarding the new concept in a simple and succinct manner.
Example:
In the same way as one cannot have the rainbow without the rain, one
cannot achieve success and riches without hard work.
Is a device in which the grammatical flow of a sentence is interrupted and
continues in a different way. It usually occurs in the form of an interrupted
thought or sentence:
Had ye been there – for what could that have done? (John Milton in Lycidas)
The first part is addressing YE but the second part is really a following
thought rather than a continuation of the address to YE.
It is important to note that anadiplosis is part of another figure of speech
chiasmus. However, every anadiplosis does not necessarily reverse its
structure like it is done in chiasmus. For instance, “Forget what you want to
remember, and remember what you want to forget,” is an example of
chiasmus (as it involves a reversal of structure in the second clause) and
anadiplosis as word “remember” marks the end of one clause and the start
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Visser ‚t Hooft Lyceum Leiden
English Department
of the subsequent clause.
anaphora
anastrophe
anecdote
antanaclasis
Anadiplosis does not always employ a reversal of structure as in the sentence
“The land of my fathers and my fathers can have it.” It is an example of
anadiplosis involving a typical repetition of the word “my father” but, unlike
chiasmus, the structure of the final clause is not reversed.
The repetition of a group of words at the beginning of a sequence of lines or
clauses to emphasize and make more memorable:
For want of a nail the shoe was lost.
For want of a shoe the horse was lost.
For want of a horse the rider was lost.
For want of a rider the message was lost.
For want of a message the battle was lost.
For want of a battle the kingdom was lost.
And all for the want of a nail.
(14th Century proverb)
Anastrophe is a form of literary device wherein the order of the noun and
the adjective in the sentence is exchanged. In standard parlance and writing
the adjective comes before the noun but when one is employing an
anastrophe the noun is followed by the adjective. This reversed order creates
a dramatic impact and lends weight to the description offered by the
adjective.
Example:
He spoke of times past and future, and dreamt of things to be
The word anecdote, phonetically pronounced an.ik.doht, means a short
verbal accounting of a funny, amusing, interesting event or incident. The
story is usually a reminiscence from the teller's life but at best is a related
story of fact, as opposed to a contrived work of fiction. The origin of the
word anecdote comes from the Greek Byzantine period, A.D. 527 to 565
during the reign of emperor Justinian. In his court, Justinian had a historian
named Procopius who was a gifted writer who wrote many witty, amusing
and somewhat bawdy accounts of court life. Never intending for this stories
to become public he entitled his writings as “Anecdota” which was Greek for
unpublished and kept secret. After his secret writings did indeed become
public and published, the term anecdote became commonly used for similar
accounts:
Example: Winston Churchill was very fond of his pet dog Rufus. He ate in the
dining room with the family on a special cloth and was treated with utmost
respect. When enjoying movies, Rufus had the best seat in the house; on
Winston Churchill's lap. While watching “Oliver Twist,” Churchill put his
hands over Rufus' eyes during the scene where Bill Sike's intends to drown
his dog. Churchill is believed to have said to Rufus: “don't look now, dear. I'll
tell you about it later.”
Antanaclasis is a rhetorical device in which a phrase or word is repeatedly
used. However, the meaning of a word changes in each case. It is the
repetition of a similar word in a sentence with different meanings, or a word
is repeated in two or more than two different senses. May of Shakespeare’s
literary pieces contain examples of antanaclasis. Like in these lines, “put out
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Visser ‚t Hooft Lyceum Leiden
antagonist
English Department
the light, then put out the light…” (Othello). The first meaning is that Othello
would extinguish the candle and in the second reference its meaning is that
he would end Desdemona’s life.
In literature, an antagonist is a character or a group of characters which
stand in opposition to the protagonist or the main character. The term
antagonist comes from Greek word “antagonistēs” that means opponent,
competitor or rival.
It is common to refer to an antagonist as a villain (the bad guy) against whom
a hero (the good guy) fights in order to relieve himself or others. In some
cases, an antagonist may exist within the protagonist that causes an inner
conflict or a moral conflict inside his mind. This inner conflict is a major
theme of many literary works e.g. Doctor Faustus by Christopher Marlowe,
Hamlet by William Shakespeare, and A Portrait of an Artist as a Young Man
by James Joyce etc. Generally, an antagonist appears as a foil to the main
character embodying qualities that are in contrast with the qualities of the
main character.
anthropomorphism Anthropomorphism is a literary device that can be defined as a technique in
which a writer ascribes human traits, ambitions, emotions or entire behavior
to animals, non-human beings, natural phenomena or objects.
Anthropomorphism is also a type of personification that gives human
characteristics to non-humans or objects especially animals. However, there
is a slight difference between these two. Personification is an act of giving
human characteristics to animals or objects to create imagery, while
anthropomorphism aims to make an animal or object behave and appear like
they are human beings.
anti-hero
antimetabole
Pinocchio, the famous wooden doll was anthropomorphized when he was
given the ability to talk, walk, think, and feel like real boy. Fables and fairy
tales usually have characters that can serve as anthropomorphism examples
Anti-hero is a literary device used by writers for a prominent character in a
play or book that has characteristics opposite to that of a conventional hero.
The protagonist is generally admired for his bravery, strength, charm,
ingenuity etc. while an anti-hero is typically clumsy, unsolicited, and unskilled
and has both good and bad qualities.
The origin of this literary device is marked in 1714 but there have been
literary figures who believe that the concept of an anti-hero existed well
before that. Recently the usage of anti-hero in television and books has
increased and became bolder than ever. Nowadays, there are thousands of
shows, books and movies that portray such characters, who are widely
admired by audiences.
Antimetabole is derived from a Greek word which means “turning about”. It
is a literary term or device that involves repeating a phrase in reverse order.
“You like it; it likes you” and “Fair is foul and foul is fair” etc.
“Eat to live, not live to eat.”- Socrates
“I go where I please, and I please where I go.” – Attributed to Duke Nukem
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Robert Laytham
Visser ‚t Hooft Lyceum Leiden
English Department
“In America, you can always find a party. In Soviet Russia, Party always finds
you!” – Yakov Smirnoff
“If you fail to plan, you plan to fail.”
antithesis
aphaearesis
aphorism
aporia
“Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your
country.” John F. Kennedy, Inaugural Address, January 20, 1961
An antithesis is used when the writer employs two sentences of contrasting
meanings in close proximity to one another. Whether they are words or
phrases of the same sentence, an antithesis is used to create a stark contrast
using two divergent elements that come together to create one uniform
whole. An antithesis plays on the complementary property of opposites to
create one vivid picture. The purpose of using an antithesis in literature is to
create a balance between opposite qualities and lend a greater insight into
the subject.
Example:
When Neil Armstrong walked on the moon it might have been one small step
for a man but it was one giant leap for mankind.
Aphaearesis is the opposite of prosthesis. In aphaearesis, an unaccented or
accented syllable is removed from the front of a word to create a new phrase
or term. Like, “the king hath cause to plain.” (King Lear by William
Shakespeare). Here, Shakespeare has deleted the initial syllable of the word
“complain”, which is changed into the word “plain”; whereas, apocope is the
removal of a letter or syllable at the end of a word. An example is in the
following lines, “when I ope my lips let no dog bar” (The Merchant of Venice
by William Shakespeare).
An aphorism is a concise statement that is made in a matter of fact tone to
state a principle or an opinion that is generally understood to be a universal
truth. Aphorisms are often adages, wise sayings and maxims aimed at
imparting sense and wisdom. It is to be noted that aphorisms are usually
witty and curt and often have an underlying tone of authority to them.
Example:
Upon seeing the shoddy work done by the employee the boss told him to
“either shape up or ship out”.
Aporia is a figure of speech wherein a speaker purports or expresses to be in
doubt or in perplexity regarding a question (often feigned) and asks the
audience how he/she ought to proceed. The doubts may appear as rhetorical
questions often in the beginning of the text.
Aporia is a logical paradox in which the speaker sows seeds of doubts in a
subject. This rhetorical strategy can make the audience feel sympathetic
about the speaker regarding the dilemma he is in.
“To be, or not to be: that is the question.
Whether ‘tis nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles,
And by opposing end them? To die: to sleep;
Than fly to others that we know not of?
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Robert Laytham
Visser ‚t Hooft Lyceum Leiden
English Department
Thus conscience does make cowards of us all.….”
aposiopesis
apostrophe
archetype
argot
assonance
asyndeton
authorial intrusion
(Hamlet by William Shakespeare)
Aposiopesis is derived from a Greek word that means “becoming silent”. It is
a rhetorical device that can be defined as a figure of speech in which the
speaker or writer breaks off abruptly and leaves the statement incomplete,
as if the speaker is not willing to state what is present in his mind due to
being overcome by passion, excitement or fear. In a piece of literature, it
means to leave a sentence unfinished so that the reader could determine his
own meanings.
Similar to 'personification' but indirect. The speaker addresses someone
absent or dead, or addresses an inanimate or abstract object as if it were
human.
An archetype is a reference to a concept, a person or an object that has
served as a prototype of its kind and is the original idea that has come to be
used over and over again. Archetypes are literary devices that employ the
use of a famous concept, person or object to convey a wealth of meaning.
Archetypes are immediately identifiable and even though they run the risk of
being overused, they are still the best examples of their kind.
Example:
Romeo and Juliet are an archetype of eternal love and a star-crossed love
story.
Argot is a type of slang which has a vocabulary which is specific to a closed
group of users. It is used to keep understanding within the group members.
Anthony Burgess’ A Clockwork Orange makes great use of argot.
The repetition or a pattern of the same vowel sounds:
Moses supposes his toeses are roses.
Omitting conjunctions from a series of related clauses. It literally means
“unconnected” and has the effect of speeding up the rhythm:
“Veni, vidi, vici.”
“I came, I saw, I conquered.”
Authorial Intrusion is an interesting literary device wherein the author
writing the story, poem or prose steps away from the text and speaks out to
the reader. Authorial Intrusion establishes a one to one relationship between
the writer and the reader where the latter is no longer a secondary player or
an indirect audience to the progress of the story but is the main subject of
the author’s attention.
Example:
In many olden novels, especially in suspense novels, the protagonist would
move away from the stream of the story and speak out to the reader. This
technique was often used to reveal some crucial elements of the story to the
reader even though the protagonist might remain mystified within the story
for the time being.
ballad
bathos
A poem that tells a story similar to a folk tale or legend. Often it has a
repeated refrain. e.g. The Rime of the Ancient Mariner. (Samuel Taylor
Coleridge)
Bathos is a literary term derived from a Greek word meaning “depth”. Bathos
is when a writer or a poet falls into inconsequential and absurd metaphors,
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Visser ‚t Hooft Lyceum Leiden
bildungsroman
blank verse
cacophony
caesura
caricature
English Department
descriptions or ideas in an effort to be increasingly emotional or passionate.
Some confuse with pathos. The term was used by Alexander Pope to explain
the blunders committed inadvertently by unskilled writers or poets.
However, later on, the comic writers used it intentionally to create humorous
effects. The most commonly used Bathos involves a sequence of items that
descend from worthiness to silliness.
This is a very popular form of storytelling whereby the author bases the plot
on the overall growth of the central character throughout the timeline of the
story. As the story progresses, the subject undergoes noticeable mental,
physical, social, emotional, moral, and often spiritual advancement and
strengthening before the readers’ eyes. It has often been seen that the
protagonist begins with views, aims and dreams that are in contrast to the
other character’s in the story and then fights his or her way through to
achieve them.
Example:
Scarlet O’Hara in Gone With the Wind experiences immense personal growth
as she learns the value of friends and hard work under duress, without
compromising her own dreams.
In a poem or play (e.g. Shakespeare) lines which have the same number of
stressed and unstressed syllables arranged in a recognizable, regular pattern
but which do not rhyme. Most of the text in a Shakespeare play would be
written in blank verse of iambic pentameter or hexameter. Shakespeare
would draw the audience’s attention to particular sections of the dialogue by
suddenly switching to rhyming couplets. It is so “unnatural” for speech to
rhyme that it makes you sit up and pay attention. At any point in a
Shakespeare play where the lines begin to rhyme, you know immediately
that these lines are important to the action or to understanding the
psychology of the characters.
A cacophony in literature refers to the use of words and phrases that imply
strong, harsh sounds within the phrase. These words have jarring and
dissonant sounds that create a disturbing, objectionable atmosphere.
Example:
His fingers rapped and pounded the door, and his foot thumped against the
yellowing wood.
This literary device involves creating a fracture of sorts within a sentence
where the two separate parts are distinguishable from one another yet
intrinsically linked to one another. The purpose of using a caesura is to create
a dramatic pause, which has a strong impact. The pause helps to add an
emotional, often theatrical touch to the sentence and conveys a depth of
sentiment in a short phrase.
Example: Mozart- oh how your music makes me soar!
The caesura was also a feature of Germanic poetry where a line of poetry
was divided into two half-lines (distychs) which were separated by a
caesura, or gap.
Caricature is a device used in descriptive writing and visual arts where
particular aspects of a subject are exaggerated to create a silly or comic
effect. In other words, it can be defined as a plastic illustration, derisive
drawing or a portrayal based on exaggeration of the natural features, which
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Robert Laytham
Visser ‚t Hooft Lyceum Leiden
English Department
gives a humorous touch to the subject.
carpe diem
catharsis
characterization
charactonym
chiasmus
In the 18th century, Carracci introduced caricature in a witty way in his work.
Caricatures started gaining popularity in England when artists like Hogarth,
Rowlandson, and Gillray followed Carracci’s footsteps. The genre slowly
developed to accommodate social and political satire as well.
This Latin phrase means “seize the day”. A carpe diem poem urges the
reader to live for today and enjoy the pleasures of the moment. e.g. Gather
ye rosebuds while ye may. (Robert Herricks)
A Catharsis is an emotional discharge through which one can achieve a state
of moral or spiritual renewal or achieve a state of liberation from anxiety and
stress. Catharsis is a Greek word and it means cleansing.
In literature it is used for the cleansing of emotions of the characters. It can
also be any other radical change that leads to emotional rejuvenation of a
person.
An author must create characters which are just as complex as people in real
life and there are various devices (techniques) that a writer can use to create
a powerful illusion of reality (believable characters):
physical description – telling us what the character looks like
dialogue – what the character says
physical actions what the character does, particularly in relation to what he
or she says or thinks
thoughts or mental actions the character’s inner life, what the character
thinks
the narrator’s judgement – what the narrator tells us about the character
the author’s judgement – what the author thinks about the character, which
is sometimes difficult to determine until late in the story.
This is when the name of a character has a symbolic meaning. For example,
in Dickens' Great Expectations, Miss Havisham has a sham, or lives a life full
of pretence. In Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter, Rev. Dimmesdale
metaphorically fades away (dims) as the novel progresses, while
Chillingworth has a cold (chilled) heart.
A device in which two parallel phrases are inverted to each other:
You can take the patriot out of the country but you can’t take the country
out of the patriot.
Christian fiction
cinquain
(About a politician) He should put less fire in his speech and more of his
speech in the fire.
Inspirational fiction written to appeal to a general Christian audience.
Although literature has always been infused with religion, the popularity of
Christian romance dates to the 1940s, as leaders of the Evangelical
movement attempted to bring their faith into the mainstream both
religiously and culturally. Some works of inspirational fiction have also been
written to appeal to Roman Catholic or Orthodox Christian readers.
A five-line poem, first developed by the American poet Adelaide Crapsey
(1878 – 1914). She was inspired by Japanese Haiku poems.
A cinquain follows a strict pattern of syllables:
Line 1: 2 syllables ; Line 2: 4 syllables ; Line 3: 6 syllables ; Line 4: 8 syllables ;
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Robert Laytham
Visser ‚t Hooft Lyceum Leiden
English Department
Line 5 : 2 syllables.
Like in a haiku poem, a sentence can continue from one line to the next in a
cinquain poem. The name cinquain comes from the French word for five –
cinq.
circumlocution
colloquialism
comedy
compare and
contrast
conceit
e.g. Niagara, seen on a Night in November (Adelaide Crapsey)
How frail
Above the bulk
Of crashing waters hangs
Autumnal, evanescent, wan,
The moon.
Circumlocution is a form of writing where the writer uses exaggeratedly long
and complex sentences in order to convey a meaning that could have
otherwise been conveyed through a shorter, much simpler sentence.
Circumlocution involves stating an idea or a view in an indirect manner that
leaves the reader guessing and grasping at the actual meaning.
Example:
Instead of writing “At 8 pm he arrived by car for the dinner party.” the
author writes, “Around 3 hours after sunset, it was winter at the time, the
man arrived in a combustion engine driven piece of technology with for
wheels to join other bipedal creatures in the ingestion of somewhat large
quantities of food and drink while having discourse around a large wooden
mesa designed for such a purpose”.
In literature, colloquialism is the use of informal words, phrases or even slang
in a piece of writing.
Colloquial expressions tend to sneak in as writers, being part of a society, are
influenced by the way people speak in that society. Naturally, they are bound
to add colloquial expressions in their vocabulary. However, writers use such
expressions intentionally too as it gives their works a sense of realism. For
instance, in a fiction story depicting American society, a greeting “what’s
up?” between friends will seem more real and appropriate than the formal
“How are you?” and “How do you do?”
A story or play which has a happy ending, although there may be sad parts,
violence and tragedy along the way.
If you are asked to compare and contrast two works, the intention is for you
to discuss the similarities and differences between the two works. You may
be asked only to discuss one aspect of the two works – the writers’ use of
imagery or the writers’ opinions on a certain topic. You may be expected to
discuss more – the differences in setting, the time of writing, the differences
between male and female writer, the different genres. The majority of your
discussion should be purely factual and based on the observations you make
from the texts. Your personal opinions should be limited to the conclusion.
Conceit is a figure of speech in which two vastly different objects are likened
together with the help of similes or metaphors.
Conceit develops a comparison which is exceedingly unlikely but is,
nonetheless, intellectually imaginative. A comparison turns into a conceit
when the writer tries to make us admit a similarity between two things of
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Visser ‚t Hooft Lyceum Leiden
English Department
whose unlikeness we are strongly conscious and for this reason, conceits are
often surprising.
conflict
connotation
For example, it will not surprise us to hear someone saying, “You are a snail”
or “You are slow as a snail,” as we understand that the similarity is drawn on
a common quality “slowness”. We, however, will definitely be surprised to
hear someone comparing “two lovers with the two legs of a draftsman’s
compass.” Thus, conceit examples have a surprising or shocking effect on the
readers because they are novel comparisons unlike the conventional
comparisons made in similes and metaphors.
It is a literary device used for expressing a resistance the protagonist of the
story finds in achieving his aims or dreams. The conflict is a discord that can
have external aggressors or can even arise from within the self. It can occur
when the subject is battling his inner discord, at odds with his surroundings
or it may be pitted against others in the story.
Example:
John tried hard to convince himself that his Hollywood dreams were worth
the struggle but his parents, and his inner voice of reason, failed to agree.
Connotations are the associations people make with words that go being the
literal or dictionary definition. Many words have connotations that create
emotions or feelings in the reader.
Example:
And once again, the autumn leaves were falling.
This phrase uses ‘autumn’ to signify something coming to an end
couplet
crime
denotation
denouement
depitation
detective
In a poem, a pair of lines that are the same length, usually rhyme and form a
complete thought. Shakespearean sonnets usually end with a couplet.
Crime fiction stories, centered on criminal enterprise, are told from the point
of view of the perpetrators. They range in tone from lighthearted "caper"
stories to darker plots involving organized crime or incarcerated convicts.
Denotation is generally defined as literal or dictionary meanings of a word in
contrast to its connotative or associated meanings.
Let us try to understand this term with the help of an example. If you search
for meaning of the word “dove” in a dictionary, you will see that its meaning
is “a type of pigeon, a wild and domesticated bird having a heavy body and
short legs.” In literature, however, you frequently see “dove” referred to as a
symbol of peace. (see also connotation)
Literally meaning “untying”, a denouement is the final outcome of a
complication or crisis in a story or play. It follows after a climax and
represents a resolution to a situation.
Depitation is the over-use of extravagant words so as to appear more
intelligent, or to ironically emphasize the opposite.
Detective fiction has become almost synonymous with mystery. These stories
relate (tell) the solving of a crime, usually one or more murders, by a
protagonist who may or may not be a professional investigator. This large,
popular genre has many sub-genres, reflecting differences in tone, character,
and it always contains criminal and detective settings.
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deus ex machina
diction
discursive essay
double entendre
dysphemism
English Department
This phrase conveys the idea where a hopeless situation is “rescued” by an
almost ridiculous event. The phrase refers to a convention in some 17th and
18th century dramas of a hopeless situation turning out well in the end
because of the intervention of God (or Greek/Roman gods) who would
appear above the stage suspended from a machine or device with a flying
wire. The phrase literally means “God out of a machine”. The phrase can also
be used in non-drama settings, particularly in poor literature where all the
problems and dilemmas are resolved in an implausible way. It is frowned
upon as a literary device as it is considered that the improbable introduction
of a character to rescue a situation is a sign of a poor story/plot.
Diction is the choice of specific words to communicate not only meaning, but
emotion as well. Authors writing their texts consider not only a word's
denotation, but also its connotation. For example, a person may be
described as stubborn or tenacious, both of which have the same basic
meaning, but are opposite in terms of their emotional background (the first
is an insult, while the second is a compliment). Similarly, a bargain-seeker
may be described as either thrifty (compliment) or stingy (insult). An author's
diction is extremely important in discovering the narrator's tone, or attitude.
In a discursive essay, a writer is expected to “discuss” different points of view
concerning an issue. At the end of such an essay, the writer is also expected
to give a personal opinion about the issue and to give reasons for these
opinions, often in the form of a “conclusion”. The discussion at the beginning
of the essay should be objective, treating the different points of view
respectfully, with equal importance and the reader should not be able to tell
from the very beginning what the writer’s opinion about the topic is.
A double entendre is a literary device that can be defined as a phrase or a
figure of speech that might have multiple senses, interpretations or two
different meanings or that could be understood in two different ways.
Oxford Dictionary says that it “conveys an indelicate meaning”. The first
meaning in double entendre is usually straightforward while the second
meaning is ironic, risqué or inappropriate.
Dysphemism is originated from a Greek word “dys” means miss or none and
“pheme” means reputation or speech. It is a figure of speech which is defined
as the use of disparaging or offensive expressions instead of inoffensive
ones. Dysphemism is the use of negative expressions instead of positive
ones. A speaker uses them to humiliate or degrade the disapproved person
or character. Dysphemism examples may be classified according to the
following types.
Types of Dysphemism
A. Synecdoche
It is used to describe something as a whole like, “she is a prick.”
B. Dysphemistic Epithets
Animal names are used, like “pig, bitch, rat, dog or snake”.
C. Euphemistic Dysphemism
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This is when a soft expression is used without offending.
D. Dysphemistic Euphemism
It is used as a mockery between close friends without any animosity.
E. “-ist” dysphemism
Targeted at a particular ethnicity.
F. Homosexual Dysphemism
These terms are used regarding homosexuality like, “gay, faggot and queer”
G. Name Dysphemism
It is used when someone is called by his name rather than by using his proper
title such as “How are you Bill?” (Instead of Uncle Bill)
H. Non-verbal Dysphemism
It is used when offending someone with gestures.
I. Cross-cultural Dysphemism
Different slang terms are used as dysphemistic in one culture; on the other
hand, they might have a totally different meaning in other cultures. For
instance, “fag” is a slur used for gay man in American English, whereas, in
British English it used for a cigarette.
elegy
ellipsis
enjambment
epic
epigram
epilogue
A poem which laments the death of a person or one which is simply sad or
thoughtful. e.g. Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard (Gray)
Ellipsis is a literary device that is used in narratives to omit some parts of a
sentence or event, which gives the reader a chance to fill the gaps while
acting or reading it out. It is usually written between the sentences as “…”.
Most films have ellipses to omit the sections of a story or event that are not
of any significance within the narrative. Apart from being convenient, ellipsis
also helps in advancing the story.
A line in a poem where the sense continues into the next line or stanza with
NO punctuation e.g. But in contentment I still feel
The need of some imperishable bliss.
A long poem which usually deals with heroic deeds, battles, long journeys.
Epic poems are a type of narrative poem – they tell a story.
A very short poem which summarises all the important details in a very
powerful and concise way.
Epilogue is the opposite of prologue, a piece of writing at the beginning of a
literary work. An epilogue is different from an afterword. An epilogue is part
of the main story, occurring after the climax and revealing the fates of the
characters. Usually, it may be set a few hours later or far in the future where
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the writer speaks to the readers indirectly through the point of view of a
different character. In an afterword, on the other hand, an author speaks to
the readers directly. In it, a writer may provide a reason for writing the book
and detail the research that has gone into writing the book.
epiphora
epitaph
epizeuxis
eulogy
euphemism
Sometimes, a writer may employ an epilogue to cover loose ends of his story
i.e. resolves those issues which were brought up by the writer in the story
but were not resolved in the climax
Epiphora is an exact counterpart of another figure of speech anaphora. An
anaphora is repetition of the first part of successive sentences whereas in an
epiphora repetition occurs in the last part of successive clauses and
sentences. For example, “Every day, every night, in every way, I am getting
better and better” is an example of anaphora as the word “every” is
repeated in the successive clauses. While, the sentence “I am an American,
he is an American and everybody here is an American,” exhibits epiphora as
the repetition is in the last part of the successive clauses. Despite being
different in their structures, both anaphora and epiphora have the same
function of laying emphasis on a particular point.
Is a short statement which summarises a person, found on a gravestone.
Sometimes the word epitaph is used figuratively – a person may talk about
the words they will be remembered for as their epitaph, not literally meaning
the words on the gravestone.
The repetition of a word or phrase in immediate succession:
“O horror, horror, horror!” (Macbeth)
“Comfort ye, comfort ye my people.”(Isaiah 40:1)
A eulogy can be written or spoken, and praises the good characteristics of a
person almost to the point of being “over the top”. The verb is “to eulogise
someone”
The term ‘euphemism’ is used to refer to the literary practice of using a
comparatively milder or less abrasive form of a negative description instead
of its original, unsympathetic form. This device is used when writing about
matters such as sex, violence, death, crimes and things "embarrassing". The
purpose of euphemisms is to substitute unpleasant and severe words with
more genteel ones in order to mask the harshness.. The use of euphemisms
is sometimes manipulated to lend a touch of exaggeration or irony in satirical
writing.
Example:
Using “to put out to pasture” when one implies retiring a person because
they are too old to be effective.
Downsizing - This is used when a company fires or lays off a larger number of
employees
Friendly fire - This is used by the military when soldiers are accidentally killed
by other soldiers on the same side.
Tipsy - This is a soft way to say that someone has had too much to drink.
Golden years - This is used to describe the later period of life when someone
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is of old age.
Gone to heaven - This is a polite way to say that someone is dead.
euphony
exposition
Enhanced interrogation - This is modern euphemism to minimize what by
many people would be viewed as torture.
The literary device “euphony” refers to the use of phrases and words that are
noted for possessing an extensive degree of notable loveliness or melody in
the sound they create. The use of euphony is predominant in literary prose
and poetry, where poetic devices such as alliterations, rhymes and
assonance are used to create pleasant sounds. Euphony is the opposite of
cacophony, which refers to the creation of unpleasant and harsh sounds by
using certain words and phrases together. This literary devices is based on
the use and manipulation of phonetics in literature.
Example: It has been said that the phrase “cellar door” is reportedly the most
pleasant sounding phrase in the English language. The phrase is said to
depict the highest degree of euphony, and is said to be especially notable
when spoken in the British accent.
Exposition is a literary device used to introduce background information
about events, settings, characters etc. to the audience or readers. The word
comes from the Latin language and its literal meaning is “a showing forth.”
Exposition is crucial to any story, for without it nothing makes sense.
There are many ways to present an exposition and they include monologues,
dialogues, in-universe media (newspaper, letters, reports, journal etc.), a
protagonist’s thoughts or a narrator’s explanation of past events. It is one of
the four rhetorical modes of communication – the other three being
narration, description and argumentation.
fantasy
feminine rhyme
figurative
figure of speech
Fantasy fiction features stories set in fanciful, invented worlds, an alternate
and more fanciful version of our own world, or in a legendary, mythic past.
Fantasy fiction stories generally involve magic, mystical elements, or
supernatural creatures. The genre's relatively loose definition means it
includes a large number of works in styles ranging from pseudo-mythological
epics to more deliberately modern works, and includes works which also fall
under other genres, such as horror fiction, comedy, action-adventure or
Romance. Some works generally classified as fantasy fiction also include
elements of science fiction, and with many works revolving around psychics,
ghosts, etc. being easily classified as either, some bookstores and critics tend
to categorize the two genres together as speculative fiction.
A rhyme that finishes in an unstressed final syllable e.g. pleasure/leisure;
heather/whether; hiding/riding
Similes, metaphors and personification are examples of figurative language.
Figurative language is more powerful than literal language. Figurative
language is language using figures of speech. A figure of speech is any way of
saying something other than the ordinary way.
A figure of speech is a set formula of words which is well known to everyone.
A figure of speech may be a well-known simile “as quick as lightning, as
cunning as a fox” or it could be a metaphor like “the ocean’s roar” or a
proverb like “Don’t count your chickens before they’re hatched”. A
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flashback
foil
foot (feet)
foreshadowing
frame story
free verse
gentle literature
English Department
hyperbole is often described as a figure of speech – in essence, the
description “figure of speech” indicates that the words are not meant
literally.
A flashback (which is one of the most easily recognized utilization of plot
structure) is a scene in a writing which occurs outside of the current timeline,
before the events that are actually occurring in the story. It is used to explain
plot elements, give background and context to a scene, or explain
characteristics of characters or events. For instance, one chapter may be at
the present time in a character's life, and then the next chapter might be the
character's life years ago. The second chapter gives meaning to the first, as it
explains other events the character experienced and thus puts present
events in context. In Khaled Hosseini's The Kite Runner, the first short
chapter occurs in the narrative's real time; most of the remainder of the
book is a flashback.
In literature, a foil is a character that shows qualities that are in contrast with
the qualities of another character with the objective to highlight the traits of
the other character. The term foil, though generally being applied for a
contrasting character, may also be used for any comparison that is drawn to
portray a difference between two things.
What we observe in literature very often is that a foil is a secondary
character who contrasts with the major character to enhance the importance
of the major character. The etymology of the term foil testifies the
aforementioned assertion as the word “foil” is taken from the practice of
backing gems with foil (tool) so that they shine more brightly.
A pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables which is repeated again and
again in a line. Each “unit” of the pattern is a foot. The pattern of stresses is
marked using diacritics - / for a stressed syllable, v for an unstressed syllable.
This is when the author drops clues about what is to come in a story, which
builds tension and the reader's suspense throughout the book.
Example: The boy kissed his mother and warmly embraced her,
oblivious to the fact that this was the last time he would ever see her.
When there is a lengthy flashback comprising more than half of the text, a
frame story is the portion outside the flashback. For example, Mary Shelley's
Frankenstein uses the adventures of a sea captain as a frame story for the
famous tale of the scientist and his creation. Occasionally, an author will
have an unfinished frame, such as in Henry James's "The Turn of the Screw."
The lack of a finishing frame in this story has the effect of leaving the reader
disoriented, adding to the disturbed mood of the shark.
Free verse is a literary device that can be defined as poetry that is free from
limitations of regular meter or rhythm and does not rhyme with fixed forms.
Such poems are without rhythms and rhyme schemes; do not follow regular
rhyme scheme rules and still provide artistic expression. In this way, the poet
can give his own shape to a poem how he/she desires. However, it still allows
poets to use alliteration, rhyme, cadences or rhythms to get the effects that
they consider are suitable for the piece.
This genre is often used to identify works categorized by a lack of profanity
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genre
Gothic
haiku
half rhyme
English Department
and portrayal of explicit sex. However, like other genres linked to
"inspirational fiction," precise definitions of this category vary. With charm
and humour, these novels explore the everyday joys, frustrations, and
sorrows of lives quietly led. They typically revolve around the activities of a
small community of people, such as a small town, a church, or a gathering of
friends. The realities of sex, violence, and other passions are downplayed and
are never presented in a graphic manner. Although the genre was once
largely dominated by British authors, American authors are now extremely
popular.
Genres are specific classes of texts characteristic of a given scientific
community or professional group and distinguished from each other by
certain features of vocabulary, form and style, which are wholly functionspecific and conventional in nature. Such things as recipes, song lyrics,
novels, poetry, business letters or legal contracts are also genres.
If we assume a text belongs to a genre, the assumption tends to concern
features such as the following:
(a) A communicative function, often indicated by the operative verbs,
giving the text a ‘rhetorical purpose’
(b) A common length
(c) A macrostructure (functions and sub-functions)
(d) A similar discursive mode of developing the macrostructure
(narrative, descriptive, imperative, optative), often indicated by
the use of personal pronouns
(e) A common lexical and syntactic arrangement of the material and
a common set of functional units and formal features, e.g. in
statutes and other legislative texts, the abundant use of indefinite
pronouns, passives and impersonal forms of the verb
(f) Common socio-pragmatic conventions, e.g. the hierarchical
structure of forms of address
(g) Common lexical items.
The gothic novel describes as genre of literature which was popular during
the first half of the 19th century. Gothic novels frequently deal with horror,
violence and the risk of physical harm, mental and physical deformity or
incapacity. They pay particular attention to the setting and atmosphere:
often set in ruins, castles, churchyards; often feature storms, lightning, light,
darkness, the colours black, white and red (blood). Mysterious is the key
word.
e.g. Dracula (Bram Stoker) The Tell-Tale Heart (Edgar Allen Poe)
A poem type originally from Japan composed of three unrhymed lines of five,
seven, five syllables. Haikus often deal with some aspect of nature.
Half rhyme is one of the major poetic devices. It is also called an imperfect
rhyme, slant rhyme, near rhyme or oblique rhyme. It can be defined as a
rhyme in which the stressed syllables of ending consonants match, however
the preceding vowel sounds do not match.
For instance, in words such as “shape/keep” the consonance is very strong.
The final consonant sounds remain similar but the ending vowel sounds are
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hamartia
homograph
horror
hubris (or hybris)
hyperbaton
English Department
different in half rhyme. Similar to these two words, “moon” and “run” and in
the words “hold” and “bald” the ending consonant sounds are similar,
whereas vowel sounds are different.
It is generally used to give an inharmonious feeling in a rhyme scheme. Poets
can bring variations in their choice of words by using half rhymes. It is also
known as an imperfect, near or off or sprung rhyme. Half rhyme is exclusively
used as a poetic device in poetry only.
Hamartia is a personal error in a protagonist’s personality that brings about
his tragic downfall in a tragedy. This defect in a hero’s personality is also
known as a “tragic flaw.
Aristotle used the word in his “Poetics” where it is taken as a mistake or
error in judgment. The term envelops wrongdoings which may be accidental
or deliberate. One of the classic examples of hamartia is where a hero wants
to achieve something but, while doing so, he commits an intentional or
accidental error and he ends up achieving exactly the opposite with
disastrous results. Such a downfall is often marked by a reversal of fortune.
The word homograph originated from the Greek word homos that means
“the same” and graph means “to write”, and it is used extensively in
language. It can be defined as words that are used in such a manner as to
give two or more different meanings where the words have the same
spelling, but different meanings and sometimes different pronunciation as
well. Bear (verb) means to endure, and bear (noun) is a name of an animal
can be considered as one of the examples of homograph. This literary device
is one of the types of pun (paronomasia).
Horror fiction aims to evoke some combination of fear, fascination, and
revulsion in its readers. This genre, like others, continues to develop, recently
moving away from stories with a religious or supernatural basis to ones
making use of medical or psychological ideologies. Many “horror” stories also
fall into the category of Gothic fiction with features such as light and dark,
black, white and red, isolated settings, atmospheric conditions, death,
disease or injury, mental conditions and supernatural elements.
Hubris, in this day and age, is another way of saying overly arrogant. You can
tell the difference of hubris and just regular arrogance or pride by the fact
that the character has seemed to allow reality slip away from them. The
character portraying hubris may have just gained a huge amount of power
and the false belief that they are “untouchable”. In writing and literature
hubris is generally considered a “tragic flaw” and it is saved for the
protagonist. The reason for this is because at the end of the story you should
be able to see that it is this flaw that brings the “bad guy” down.
Example:
A classic example of hubris is featured in Shakespeare’s play Macbeth.
Macbeth, the protagonist, overfilled with ambition and arrogance, allows his
hubris to think you would be able to kill the valiant Duncan without penalty
so he can claim the throne of Scotland for himself. Obviously murder is highly
frowned upon, so this eventually leads to Macbeth’s demise as well.
A hyperbaton is a literary device wherein the author plays with the regular
positioning of words and phrases and creates a differently structured
sentence to convey the same meaning. It is said that by using a hyperbaton,
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words or phrases overstep their conventional placements and result in a
more complex and intriguing sentence structure. This literary device is used
to add more depth and interest to the sentence structure.
hyperbole
hypophora
iambic
idiom
imagery
in medias res
innuendo
inspirational
Example: “Alone he walked on the cold, lonely roads”. This sentence is a
variation of the more conventional, “He walked alone on the cold, lonely
roads”.
A figure of speech in which something is deliberately exaggerated in order to
emphasize. Many everyday expressions are examples of hyperbole:
tons of money, waiting for ages, in floods of tears. Hyperbole is the opposite
of litotes.
(also called anthypophora or antipophora) is a device where the speaker asks
as question and then immediately gives the answer.
“Is He the God of the Jews only? Is he not also of the Gentiles? Yes, of the
Gentiles also.”(Romans 3:29)
A rhythmical “foot” comprising an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed
syllable. Shakespeare often made use of iambic pentameter (five repeats
(feet) of the iambic pattern) and iambic hexameter (six iambic feet)
The term refers to a set expression or a phrase comprising two or more
words. An interesting fact regarding the device is that the expression is not
interpreted literally. The phrase is understood as to mean something quite
different from what individual words of the phrase would imply.
Alternatively, it can be said that the phrase is interpreted in a figurative
sense. Further, idioms vary in different cultures and countries.
The use of mental “pictures”, figures of speech and description to evoke
feelings, objects, actions, states of mind, etc. This is when the author invokes
sensory details. Often, this is simply to draw a reader more deeply into a
story by helping the reader visualize what is being described. However,
imagery may also symbolize important ideas in a story.
For example, in Saki's "The Interlopers," two men engaged in a generational
feud become trapped beneath a fallen tree in a storm: "Ulrich von Gradwitz
found himself stretched on the ground, one arm numb beneath him and the
other held almost as helplessly in a tight tangle of forked branches, while
both legs were pinned beneath the fallen mass." Readers can not only
visualize the scene, but may infer from it that it is actually the feud that has
trapped him. Note also the diction used within the imagery: words like
"forked" and "fallen" imply a kind of hell that he is trapped in.
A story which starts “in medias res” does not start at the beginning. The first
chronological events in the story may not come until the end.
Innuendo can be defined as an indirect or a subtle observation about a thing
or a person. It is generally critical, disparaging or salacious in nature, and its
use is almost always derogatory. However, it must be kept in mind that it is
the most thinly-veiled form of satire and when it is strong, it takes the shape
of criticism.
Any good book can be an inspiration but many of these particular books
highlight people overcoming adversity or reaching new levels of
understanding. Whether they pull themselves up by their own bootstraps or
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internal rhyme
invective
inversion
English Department
have help from a higher power, these books uplift and entertain. Many
novels involve a positive change in the lives of one or more characters which
is used to inspire readers to think that such changes are possible in their own
lives. The fact that this includes those who learn on their own and those who
have help from a "higher power" allows the category to embrace both
religious and non-religious works of fiction.
In literature the internal rhyme is a practice of forming a rhyme in only one
lone line of verse. An internal rhyme is also known as the middle rhyme
because it is typically constructed in the middle of a line to rhyme with the
bit at the end of the same metrical line.
Example:
The line from the famed poem Ancient Mariner, “We were the first that ever
burst”.
The term invective denotes speech or writing that attacks, insults, or
denounces a person, topic, or institution. It involves the use of abusive and
negative use of language. The tool of invective is generally employed in both
poetry and prose to reiterate the significance of the deeply felt emotions of
the writer.
The term ‘inversion’ refers to the practice of changing the conventional
placement of words. It is a literary practice typical of the older classical
poetry genre. In present day literature it is usually used for the purpose of
laying emphasis this literary device is more prevalent in poetry than prose
because it helps to arrange the poem in a manner that catches the attention
of the reader not only with its content but also with its physical appearance;
a result of the peculiar structuring.
Example:
In the much known and read Paradise Lost, Milton wrote:
“Of Man's First Disobedience, and the Fruit
Of that Forbidden Tree, whose mortal taste
Brought Death into the World, and all our woe,
With loss of Eden, till one greater Man
Restore us, and regain the blissful Seat,
irony
Sing Heav'nly Muse. . .”
Irony comes in several forms:
Verbal Irony
This is the simplest form of irony, in which the speaker says the opposite of
what he or she intends. There are several forms, including euphemism,
understatement, sarcasm, and some forms of humour.
Situational irony
This is when the author creates a surprise that is the perfect opposite of
what one would expect, often creating either humor or an eerie feeling. For
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example, in Steinbeck's novel The Pearl, one would think that Kino and Juana
would have become happy and successful after discovering the "Pearl of the
World," with all its value. However, their lives changed dramatically for the
worse after discovering it.
Similarly, in Shakespeare's Hamlet, the title character almost kills King
Claudius at one point, but resists because Claudius is praying and therefore
may go to heaven. As Hamlet wants Claudius to go to hell, he waits. A few
moments later, after Hamlet leaves the stage, Claudius reveals that he
doesn't really mean his prayers ("words without thoughts never to heaven
go"), so Hamlet should have killed him after all.
Dramatic irony
Dramatic Irony is when the reader knows something important about the
story that one or more characters in the story do not know. For example, in
Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, the drama of Act V comes from the fact that
the audience knows Juliet is alive, but Romeo thinks she's dead. If the
audience had thought, like Romeo, that she was dead, the scene would not
have had anywhere near the same power.
Likewise, in Poe's "The Tell-Tale Heart," the energy at the end of the story
comes from the fact that we know the narrator killed the old man, while the
guests are oblivious. If we were as oblivious as the guests, there would be
virtually no point to the story.
jargon
Jargon is a literary term that is defined as a use of specific phrases and words
by writers in a particular situation, profession or trade. These specialized
terms are used to convey hidden meanings accepted and understood in that
field. Jargon examples are found in literary and non-literary pieces of writing.
The use of jargon becomes essential in prose or verse or some technical
pieces of writing when the writer intends to convey something only to the
readers who are aware of these terms. Therefore, jargon was taken in early
times as a trade language or as a language of a specific profession, as it is
somewhat unintelligible for other people who do not belong to that
particular profession. In fact, specific terms were developed to meet the
needs of the group of people working within the same field or occupation.
kenning
The use of Kennings in literature is characteristically related to works in Old
English poetry where the author would use a twist of words, figure of speech
or magic poetic phrase or a newly created compound sentence or phrase to
refer to a person, object, place, action or idea. The use of imagery and
indicative, direct and indirect references to substitute the proper, formal
name of the subject is known as kennings. The use of kennings was also
prevalent in Old Norse and Germanic poetry.
Example:
Kennings are rare in modern day language. Here are a few examples from
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Beowulf:
Battle-sweat = blood
Sky-candle = sun
Whale-road = ocean
Light-of-battle = sword
lay
legend
limerick
literal
litote
A poem which often seems like a song, telling of life a long time ago. Lays are
more often than not narrative poems i.e. they tell a story of a person or
event.
A legend is a story or poem which usually tells of an event long ago. A legend
often is founded on a real event in history, but over time the exact details are
exaggerated, distorted, names changed, locations and dates lost.
A humorous poem of five lines with the rhyming scheme aabba.
Literal language describes something exactly as it is: The sea is wet and
rough.
A figure of speech in which something positive is expressed by the negative
of its opposite: no small victory, not a bad idea, not unhappy. Litotes is the
opposite of hyperbole.
In everyday conversations in the 21st century, one may hear expressions like:
“not the brightest bulb”
“not a beauty”
“not bad”
“not unfamiliar”
These are all examples of negative litotes that mean the opposite: “a dim
bulb, or dumb,” “plain in appearance,” “good,” and “knows very well.”
Perhaps our society is not trying to be humorous or sarcastic, but kinder?
lyric
magical realism
malapropism
Sometimes double negatives in literature, music and films create a litote that
was not intended; for instance in the Rolling Stones hit “I Can't Get No
Satisfaction,” actually means “I CAN receive satisfaction.”
A poem, such as a sonnet or ode, that expresses the thoughts and feelings of
the poet. A lyric may resemble a song in form or style.
Magical realism is an aesthetic style or genre of fiction in which magical
elements are blended into a realistic atmosphere in order to access a deeper
understanding of reality. These magical elements are explained like normal
occurrences that are presented in a straightforward manner which allows the
"real" and the "fantastic" to be accepted in the same stream of thought. It is
a literary and visual art genre; creative fields that exhibit less significant signs
of magic realism include film and music.
Malapropism in literature refers to the practice of misusing words by
substituting words with similar sounding words that have different, often
unconnected meanings, and thus creating a situation of confusion,
misunderstanding and amusement. Malapropism is used to convey that the
speaker or character is flustered, bothered, unaware or confused and as a
result cannot employ proper diction. A trick to using malapropism is to
ensure that the two words (the original and the substitute) sound similar
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enough for the reader to catch onto the intended switch and find humor in
the result.
Example:
masculine rhyme
meiosis
In the play Much Ado About Nothing, noted playwright William
Shakespeare’s character Dogberry says, "Our watch, sir, have indeed
comprehended two auspicious persons." Instead, what the character means
to say is “"Our watch, sir, have indeed apprehended two suspicious persons."
A rhyme that occurs in a final stressed syllable: cat/hat; desire/fire; do/renew
The meiosis originated from the Greek word “meioo” that means “to
diminish” or “to make smaller”. Meiosis can be defined as a witty
understatement that belittles or dismisses something or somebody,
particularly by making use of terms that gives impression that something is
less important than it is or it should be. Meiosis examples are sometimes also
used in the sense of a synonym of litotes.
In literature, however, meiosis describes the use of understatement to
highlight a point or explain a situation or to understate a response used to
enhance the effect of a dramatic moment. For example, when Mercutio is
wounded mortally and he says “ay, ay, a scratch, a scratch…” , this is a form
of meiosis(Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare).word
metaphor
A figure of speech in which two things are compared, usually by saying one
thing IS another, or by substituting a more descriptive word for the more
common or usual word: the world’s a stage; he was a lion in battle; a sea of
troubles; he was drowning in debt. The sea is a wet dog, howling and rolling.
Metaphors are probably the most important figure of speech to comment on
in an essay. A metaphor is a comparison used to add descriptive meaning to
a phrase (without using the words "like" or "as"). Metaphors are generally
not meant literally, and may have little connotative similarity to the concepts
they are meant to portray.
Example: The man's arm exploded with pain, spider-webs of fire
crawling up and down its length as the tire of a passing car crushed it.
meter
(There is no literal explosion, spider-web, or fire, but the words are
used to create images and draw similarities to the way such an event
would feel)
The rhythm created by patterns of stressed and unstressed syllables within
consecutive lines. The meter of a poem is determined by scansion
(identifying stressed and unstressed syllables) and then identifying if there
are repeat patterns of syllables (feet). An iambic foot has a pattern of V /
(unstressed syllable followed by stressed syllable e.g. begin; until; forget, the
man.
A foot with the pattern / V(stressed followed by unstressed) is called
A foot with a pattern /VV// (stressed, unstressed, unstressed, stressed
stressed) is called trochee. Many of the meter patterns are based on Ancient
Greek and Roman models where the idea of rhyming was non-existent.
Classical poetry relied on the sustained or contrasting rhythms achieved by
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metonym
misery literature
mood
motif
English Department
the repeat of metrical feet.
Metonymy is similar to synecdoche, but instead of a part representing the
whole, a related object or part of a related object is used to represent the
whole. Often it is used to represent the whole of an abstract idea.
Example: The phrase "The king's rifles stood at attention," uses 'rifles'
to represent infantry.
Example: The word 'crown' may be used metonymically to refer to
the king or queen, and at times to the law of the land.
Misery Literature is a term used to describe a genre of biographical literature
mostly concerned with triumph over personal trauma or abuse, often during
childhood.
In literature, mood is a literary element that evokes certain feelings or vibes
in readers through words and descriptions.
Usually, mood is referred to as the atmosphere of a literary piece, as it
creates an emotional situation that surrounds the readers. Mood is
developed in a literary piece through various methods. It can be developed
through setting, theme, tone and diction. Let us see how writers use the
afore-mentioned elements in their literary works to create a particular
mood.
When a word, phrase, image, or idea is repeated throughout a work or
several works of literature.
For example, in Ray Bradbury's "There Will Come Soft Rains," he describes a
futuristic "smart house" in a post-nuclear-war time period. All life is dead
except for one dog, which dies in the course of the story. However, Bradbury
mentions mice, snakes, robins, swallows, giraffes, antelopes, and many other
animals in the course of the story. This animal motif establishes a contrast
between the past, when life was flourishing, and the story's present, when all
life is dead.
mystery
myth
Motifs may also be used to establish mood (as the blood motif in
Shakespeare's Macbeth), for foreshadowing (as when Mary Shelley, in
Frankenstein, mentions the moon almost every time the creature is about to
appear), to support the theme (as when, in Sophocles' drama Oedipus Rex,
the motif of prophecy strengthens the theme of the irresistibility of the
gods), or for other purposes.
Mystery fiction, technically involving stories in which characters try to
discover a vital piece of information which is kept hidden until the climax, is
now considered by many people almost a synonym for detective fiction. The
standard mystery novel is a whodunit. Another type of mystery novel is the
Cosy Mystery which involves a very unlikely group of people mixed up in a
crime. These stories are not usually gory or violent. A further sub-genre
involves detective or private eye who might be very tough and
unsentimental - a so-called “hard-boiled” novel.
A story which can be modern or ancient which tries to explain something
which cannot yet be explained logically or scientifically. Myths often
“explain” the unexplainable by use of magic, gods and goddesses, are often
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English Department
set in a time “long, long ago” and often feature the duel between good and
evil. An example of a myth is the origin of the rainbow in the Bible story of
Noah’s Ark.
narrative
narrator
non sequitur
Telling a story. Ballads, epics and lays are different kinds of narrative poem.
The narrative is also the part of a sentence in direct speech writing which is
not spoken: “I don’t want to see him!” she said and stormed upstairs.
A narrative poem is a poem which tells a story – The Charge of the Light
Brigade.
In a poem or fictional piece, the narrator is the “person” who is telling the
story. The narrator can be involved with the action of the story himself and
would use I/me/my (first person) or could just tell the story as an observer,
in which case the third person forms would be used (he/him/his;
she/her/her; they/them/their.
Sometimes it is possible to work out a “psychological profile” of the narrator
by the way the story is told – use of positive/negative vocabulary/ standpoint
etc. On other occasions, the narrator is an “invisible” story-teller. The choice
of narration style is, of course, made by the author and decided by what they
want to achieve. It is important not to confuse the narrator with the writer.
Non sequiturs are those literary devices which include the statements,
sayings and conclusions that do not follow the fundamental principles of
logic and reason. They are frequently used in theater and comedies to create
comedic effects.
In fact, non sequitur is a Latin phrase that means “it doesn’t follow”. Here
“non” means not and “sequitur” means to follow. It takes place when a
difference is created between the principle idea and the conclusion, which
finally leads to a fallacy. In conversation, non sequitur is something that is
said but seems quite absurd to the point of confusion due to lack of proper
meanings. It is sometimes taken as postulation that means the statement
might not be true. For instance:


novel
nursery rhyme
Maria drives a car. She must be a wealthy person.
David eats broccoli. David should love to eat meat.
The sentences do not follow a proper sequence in non sequitur and words do
not give the same meaning as readers suppose them to do.
A novel is a book of long narrative in literary prose. The genre has historical
roots both in the fields of the medieval and early modern romance and in the
tradition of the novella. A novella (also called a short novel) is a written,
fictional, prose narrative longer than a novelette but shorter than a novel.
The novella may have a word count between 17,500 and 40,000. A novelette
is a piece of short prose fiction. The distinction between a novelette and a
novella is usually based upon word count. The novelette has a word count of
between 7,500 and 17,499.
A short poem sung by parents to their young children during play. Nursery
rhymes are often used by older children during group games or skipping.
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English Department
e.g. Three blind mice,
Three blind mice,
The farmer’s wife
Who cut of their tails with a carving knife.
Did you ever see such a thing in your life,
As three blind mice.
octave
ode
onomatopoeia
Set of 8 lines in a poem. An octave could comprise 2 quatrains.
A lyric poem that is serious and thoughtful. It has a precise and formal
structure. e.g. Ode on a Grecian Urn (John Keats)
A figure of speech in which words are used to imitate sounds: buzz, hiss, zing,
clippety-clop, pop, splat, thump, moo, meow; crash; boom; tick-tock.
Another good example is in Come down, O maid. (Alfred, Lord Tennyson)
The moan of doves in immemorial elms
And murmuring of innumerable bees.
The repeated m/n sounds reinforce the idea of murmuring by imitating the
hum of insects on a warm summer day.
She sells seashells on the sea shore.
oxymoron
parable
paradox
parallelism
parody
pastiche
Here the sh/s sounds represent the sea – sh as the water comes up the
beach and s as the water goes back down.
A figure of speech in which to opposites are placed together: loving hate;
heavy lightness; serious vanity; bright smoke; cold fire
Oxymoron (ok-see-more-on) comes from Greek and means sharp dull (knife).
A short, often simple story which illustrates a moral or religious lesson.
In literary terminology, a paradox is an apparent contradiction that is
nevertheless somehow true. Paradox can take the form of an oxymoron,
overstatement or understatement. Paradox can blend into irony.
Parallelism is the use of components in a sentence that are grammatically
the same; or similar in their construction, sound, meaning or meter.
Parallelism examples are found in literary works as well as in ordinary
conversations.
This method adds balance and rhythm to sentences giving ideas a smoother
flow and thus can be persuasive because of the repetition it employs. For
example, “Alice ran into the room, into the garden, and into our hearts.” We
see the repetition of a phrase that not only gives the sentence a balance but
rhythm and flow as well. This repetition can also occur in similar structured
clauses e.g. “Whenever you need me, wherever you need me, I will be there
for you.”
A piece written in such a way as to make fun of or even ridicule another
piece. Parody is a very popular form within satire.
A piece written in a similar style to another work. The intention is not to
make fun but to emulate the original, although the quality of many pastiches
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pastoral
pathetic fallacy
or
anthropomorphic
fallacy
English Department
does not match that of the original.
A poem which features country life in a peaceful, idealised way.
The treatment of inanimate objects as if they had human feelings, thought,
or sensations. The word 'pathetic' in this use is related to 'pathos' or
'empathy' (ability to feel emotion), and is not pejorative.
Pathetic fallacy is similar to personification. Personification is direct and
explicit in the ascription of life and sentience to the thing in question,
whereas the pathetic fallacy is much broader and more allusive.
pathos
periphrastic
persona
personification
play
plot structure
Example: The trees bowed down and wept as the lady walked through the
garden. She knew she would never see her husband again.
Pathos is a quality of an experience in life or a work of art that stirs up
emotions of pity, sympathy and sorrow. Pathos can be expressed through
words, pictures or even with gestures of the body.
Pathos is an important tool of persuasion in arguments. Pathos is a method
of convincing people with an argument drawn out through an emotional
response. Analyzing examples of pathos, one would come to the conclusion
that it differs from other “ingredients of persuasion” namely “Ethos” and
“logos”. Ethos means convincing others through the credibility of a
persuader, while Logos is a method to convince others by employing logic
and reason.
The term ‘periphrasis’ refers to the use of excessive language and surplus
words to convey a meaning that could otherwise be conveyed with fewer
words and in more direct a manner. The use of this literary device can be to
embellish a sentence, to create a grander effect, to beat around the bush
and to draw attention away from the crux of the message being conveyed.
Example: Instead of simply saying “I am displeased with your behavior”, one
can say, “the manner in which you have conducted yourself in my presence
of late has caused me to feel uncomfortable and has resulted in my feeling
disgruntled and disappointed with you”.
The persona in literature is the narrator or storyteller of a story, created by
the author. It might take the form of a fabricated on-looker who relates the
sequence of events to the reader.
A figure of speech in which non-human things or abstract ideas are given
human attributes: the sky is crying; dead leaves danced in the wind
A work intended to be performed on stage for an audience by one or more
actors who assume the roles of characters within the context of the work.
Plot structure refers to the configuration of a plot in terms of its exposition,
rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution/denouement. For example,
Dickens' novel Great Expectations is noted for having only a single page of
exposition before the rising action begins, while The Lord of the Rings by
J.R.R. Tolkien has an unusually lengthy falling action. Plot can also be
structured by use of devices such as flashbacks, framing and epistolary
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poem
poetic
polysyndeton
procatalepsis
prologue
prose
prosthesis
English Department
elements.
A work which concentrates on creating images and/or emotions within a
reader or listener. Poems are primarily intended to be recited (read aloud) so
that the meter, rhyme, assonance and alliteration used by the poet can be
better appreciated. A poet chooses fewer words for maximum effect and,
above all, a poem should be emotive and beautiful to listen to.
A poetic piece is one which is written to entertain rather than to educate or
persuade. A novel is also a poetic piece, although it is not a poem.
The use of several conjunctions in quick succession. It can contribute to many
effects, to speed or slo the rhythm, to convey solemnity or even ecstasy and
childlike exhuberance:
"I said, 'Who killed him?' and he said 'I don't know who killed him, but he's
dead all right,' and it was dark and there was water standing in the street and
no lights or windows broke and boats all up in the town and trees blown
down and everything all blown and I got a skiff and went out and found my
boat where I had her inside Mango Key and she was right only she was full of
water."( Ernest Hemingway, After the Storm)
Is a device in which a speaker raises the subject of a possible objection to his
thesis and then immediately answers the objection. It is a way of reducing
the effect of the objection by dealing with it before it arises. It is also called
“prebuttal”:
"It is difficult to see how a pilot boat could be completely immune to
capsizing or plunging, but pilot boat design criteria must meet the needs of
the industry and pilotage authorities."
The prologue, Greek prologos (meaning: before word), is an opening of a
story that establishes the setting and gives background details.
Generally speaking, the main function of a prologue tells some earlier story
and connects it to the main story. Similarly, it is serves as a means to
introduce characters of a story and throws light on their roles. In its modern
sense, a prologue acts as a separate entity and is not considered part of the
current story that a writer ventures to tell.
Continuous text which is not a poem or a play. Prose can be fiction or nonfiction. It can comprise lists, speech, description, instructions, explanations,
feelings, accounts, recounts.
Prosthesis is a literary device that involves the addition of an extra sound or
syllable to the beginning of a word that helps in making it easier to
pronounce. Since the meaning of this word is “to put before”, therefore, an
additional syllable or sound is placed at the beginning of a word which helps
in highlighting it. It can be understood from the following example; “Old fond
eyes, beweep this cause again….” (King Lear by William Shakespeare). Here,
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protagonist
pun
quatrain
quote
eduction ad
absurdum
refrain
repetition
rhetoric
English Department
Shakespeare adds be- (an extra syllable) at the beginning of the word weep
and makes it beweep.
The protagonist is the chief agent or character in a narrative. If the
protagonist is male he is often referred to as the hero and the female
counterpart is the heroine.
Puns are a very popular literary device wherein a word is used in a manner to
suggest two or more possible meanings. This is generally done to the effect
of creating humor or irony or wryness. Puns can also refer to words that
suggest meanings of similar-sounding words. The trick is to make the reader
have an “ah!” moment and discover 2 or more meanings.
Example: Santa’s helpers are known as Subordinate Clauses
A set or four lines in a poem with a rhyming pattern. The pattern could be
aabb; abab, abba; aaab; abbb
In literary essays, you have to support your opinions by showing where you
get the evidence for your idea from. You do this by quoting the few words or
sentences from the text which gave you this idea. In addition to writing out
the words you are using as evidence, you have to state which page of the
book and which line number the words can be found on. This is so a reader
can look the words up for themselves and see if they agree with your idea,
once the reader has seen where the words come from in the text.
You might also quote to show which literary devices (techniques) a writer has
used to achieve particular effects.
Reductio ad absurdum a Latin term which means to reduce something to
absurdity. It is a figure of speech that is defined as a manner of arguing
something in which one argues for his position by showing the absurdity of
the position of his opponent. In simple words, it means to reduce an
argument to absurdity by drawing the conclusions with logical limits or
showing ridiculous consequences. Reductio ad absurdum in satires breaks
down an idea to the point of absurdity.
A phrase, line or group of lines that is repeated throughout a poem, usually
after every stanza.
Repetition is the deliberate use of a word or phrase more than once in a
sentence or a text to create a sense of pattern or form or to emphasize
certain elements in the mind of the reader or listener.
Example: Pile the bodies high [...] And pile them high [...] And pile
them high [...] (from "Grass," by Carl Sandburg)
Rhetoric is a technique of using language effectively and persuasively in
spoken or written form. It is an art of discourse, which studies and employs
various methods to convince, influence or please an audience.
For instance, a person gets on your nerves, you start feeling irritated, and
you say, “Why don’t you leave me alone?” By posing such a question, you do
not ask for a reason. Instead, you simply want him to stop irritating you.
Thus, you direct language in a particular way for effective communication or
make use of rhetoric. A situation where you make use of rhetoric is called a
“rhetorical situation”.
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rhyme
English Department
The occurrence of the same or similar sounds at the end of two or more
words. The pattern of rhyme in a stanza or poem is usually shown by using
different letters for each final sound. In a poem with an aabba rhyme
scheme, the first, second and fifth lines end in one sound, the third and
fourth in another.
A full-rhyme is an exact rhyme: hat/cat; leave/grieve.
A half or partial rhyme is a similar sound:
Old Mother Hubbard
Went to the cupboard
To fetch her poor doggy a bone.
But when she got there
The cupboard was bare
And so her poor doggy had none.
rhyme scheme
rhythm
romance
sarcasm
science fiction
Bone and none share similar spelling but are not pronounced exactly the
same.
The pattern that is made by the rhymes within each stanza or verse.
It is most important in poetry, but also used in prose for emphasis and
aesthetic gain.
Example: The fallibly irrevocable cat met its intrinsic match in the
oppositional form of a dog.
Romance is currently the largest and best-selling fiction genre. It has
produced a wide array of sub-genres, the majority of which feature the
mutual attraction and love of a man and a woman as the main plot, and have
a happy ending. This genre, much like fantasy fiction, is broad enough in
definition that it is easily and commonly seen combined with other genres,
such as comedy, fantasy fiction, realistic fiction, or action-adventure.
Sarcasm is derived from French word sarcasmor and also from a Greek word
sarkazein that means “tear flesh” or “grind the teeth”. Somehow, in simple
words it means to speak bitterly. Generally, the literal meaning is different
than what the speaker intends to say through sarcasm. Sarcasm is a literary
and rhetorical device that is meant to mock with often satirical or ironic
remarks with a purpose to amuse and hurt someone or some section of
society simultaneously. For instance:
“I didn’t attend the funeral, but I sent a nice letter saying I approved of it.”
(Mark Twain)
Science fiction is defined more by setting details than by other story
elements. Science fiction by definition includes extrapolated or theoretical
future science and technology as a major component, and is often set on
other planets, in outer space, or on a future version of Earth. Within these
setting details, however, the conventions of almost any other genre may be
used, including comedy, action-adventure and mystery. A sub-genre of
science fiction is alternate history where, for some specific reason, the
history of the novel deviates from the history of our world. Both alternate
history and science fiction are often referred to alongside fantasy fiction,
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setting
simile
snark
soliloquy
spoonerism
symbol
English Department
magical realism and some horror fiction under the umbrella term speculative
fiction.
The time, place, physical details and the circumstances in which a story takes
place.
A figure of speech in which two things are compared using the words “as” or
“like”: The sea is like a wet dog, rolling on the beach; She’s as cold as ice.
What happens to a dream deferred?
Does it dry up like a raisin in the sun? Harlem (Langston Hughes)
Snark is a combination of two words; “snide” and “remark”, which means a
sarcastic comment. It is a literary device which is meant to be a sarcastic
speech. Depending on the subject, the audience and the speaker, snark can
be taken as sophisticated, witty or asinine.
Snark is defined as making sharp and critical comments and a wonderfully
witty blending of cynicism and sarcasm. There are many examples of snark
from Shakespeare’s works such as, “Thrift, thrift, Horatio! The funeral bak’d
meats did coldly furnish forth the marriage tables…” (Hamlet). The major
character, Hamlet, makes sarcastic remarks on the affair of his mother and
uncle and regarding their marriage ceremony.
In a play, the audience cannot know what a character is thinking. To get
round this, playwrights can use a technique where the character talks to the
audience about what is going on in his head, but any other characters on the
stage do not “hear” this information. It is as if the audience is inside the
character’s head, and the other characters on the stage remain outside, just
as in real life. This technique is called soliloquy. Writers can use soliloquy to
allow the audience to understand the character’s motives, desires,
disappointments and future intentions. It is important to remember that
during a soliloquy, the character’s words are for the audience’s information
only and are not a dialogue with the other characters on stage nor an
“internal dialogue”. Soliloquy is a technique Shakespeare uses frequently to
give substance to his characters. The audience can begin to form judgements
about them, based on their actions as seen on stage, their inter-actions with
other characters, including conversations between the characters AND the
information gained about the characters from the soliloquies. It is a very
important technique as the soliloquies are often the place to look when
trying to find the reasons why characters do certain things.
Spoonerism refers to the practice of interchanging the first letters of some
words in order to create new words or even to create nonsensical words in
order to create a humorous setting. While they are often unintentional and
known as a “slip of the tongue”, in literature they are welcomed as witty
wordplay.
Example:
The phrase “flesh and blood” being spoken as a character as “blesh and
flood” in urgency and heightened emotion, or “tearful fits” becomes......!
A symbol may be an object, a person, a situation, an action or some other
object that has literal meaning in the story, and that represents something
other than itself. It can also be a word or an idea. It is used as an expressive
way to depict an idea. The symbol generally conveys an emotional response
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far beyond what the word, idea, or image itself dictates.
sonnet
stanza
story line and plot
stress
structure
(formal)
style
Example: A heart standing for love. (One might say "It broke my
heart" rather than "I was really upset")
Example: A sunrise portraying new hope. ("All their fears melted in
the face of the newly risen sun.")
A lyric poem that has 14 lines. There are two types of sonnet:
1. Italian (Petrarchan) sonnets are divided into 2 sets of 4 lines and a
final set of 6 lines with the rhyming scheme abba abba cdecde (or
cdcdcd)
2. English (Shakespearean) sonnets have 3 sets of 4 lines and a final
rhyming couplet with a rhyming scheme abab cdcd efef gg. English
sonnets are generally written in iambic pentameter and there is a
volta or break in thoughts or feelings between line 8 and 9.
In poetry, a stanza is a division of four or more lines having a fixed length,
meter or rhyming scheme.
Stanzas in poetry are similar to paragraphs in prose. Both stanzas and
paragraphs include connected thoughts and are set off by a space. The
number of lines varies in different kinds of stanzas but it is uncommon for a
stanza to have more than twelve lines. The pattern of a stanza is determined
by the number of feet in each line and by its metrical or rhyming scheme.
The storyline is the chronological account of events that follow each other in
the narrative. Plot includes the storyline, and is more; it includes the way in
which elements in the story interact to create complexity, intrigue, and
surprise. Plot is often created by having separate threads of storyline interact
at critical times and in unpredictable ways, creating unexpected twists and
turns in the overall storyline.
The prominence or emphasis given to particular syllables. Stressed syllables
usually stand out because they have long rather than short vowel, or because
they have a different pitch or are louder than the other syllables. Sometimes
you have to “scan” a poem to find where the stressed and unstressed
syllables are. This then helps you work out the meter of the poem.
Stressed syllables are usually marked / and unstressed U. Working out the
meter of a poem is called scansion.
Formal structure refers to the form of a text. In the first place, a text is either
a novel, a drama, a poem, or some other "form" of literature. However, this
term can also refer to the length of lines, stanzas, or cantos in poems, as well
as sentences, paragraphs, or chapters in prose. Furthermore, such visible
structures as dialogue versus narration are also considered part of formal
structure.
The style in writing can be defined as the way a writer writes and it is the
technique which an individual author uses in his writing. It varies from author
to author and depends upon one’s syntax, word choice, and tone. It can also
be described as a voice that readers listen to when they read the work of a
writer.
There are four basic literary styles used in writing. These styles distinguish
the work of different authors from one another. Here are four styles of
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English Department
writing:
Expository or Argumentative style
Expository writing style is a subject-oriented style. The focus of the writer in
this type of writing style is to tell the readers about a specific subject or topic
and in the end the author leaves out his own opinion about that topic.
Descriptive style
In descriptive writing style, the author focuses on describing an event, a
character or a place in detail. Sometimes, descriptive writing style is poetic in
nature in, where the author specifies an event, an object or a thing rather
than merely giving information about an event that has happened. Usually
the description incorporates sensory details.
Persuasive style
Persuasive style of writing is a category of writing in which the writer tries to
give reasons and justification to make the readers believe his point of view .
The persuasive style aims to persuade and convince the readers.
Narrative style
syllable
syncope
synesis
syntax
Narrative writing style is a type of writing where the writer narrates a story
to. It includes short stories, novels, novellas, biographies and poetry.
A unit of sound within a word which is either stressed or unstressed:
ba-ker; an-tag-on-ist-ic; su-per-flu-ous; id-i-ot-ic
Syncope is a literary device which can be defined as the contraction or the
shortening of a word by omitting sounds, syllables or letters from the middle
of the word such as bos’n for the word boatswain. Similarly, ne’er for the
word never and `fo’c’sle’ for the word `forecastle’ are also used. From these
examples, syncope can also be defined as the dropping of the unstressed
vowels, letters or syllables or the consonants from the middle of a word. It
can be found in synchronic analysis and diachronic analysis of the languages.
Synesis is a conventional grammatical term derived from a Greek word,
which means unification, sense, meeting or realization. It is a rhetorical
device in which the traditional grammatical agreement of syntax is replaced
by an agreement in its sense. In other words, synesis is a grammatical
construction that is in agreement with the sense instead of the strict syntax.
It is used to highlight the words’ construction according to the sense not its
morphosyntactic form. Such as,
“Fat, drunk and stupid is no way to go through life, son.” (Animal House by
Harold Ramis, Douglas Kenney & Chris Miller)
Sentences can be long or short, written in the active voice or passive voice,
composed as simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex. They may
also include such techniques as inversion or such structures as appositive
phrases, verbal phrases (gerund, participle, and infinitive), and subordinate
clauses (noun, adjective, and adverb). These tools can be highly effective in
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Robert Laytham
Visser ‚t Hooft Lyceum Leiden
English Department
achieving an author's purpose.
symbol
synecdoche
Syntax is a set of rules in a language. It dictates how words from different
parts of speech are put together in order to convey a complete thought.
Syntax and diction are closely related. Diction refers to the choice of words in
a particular situation while syntax determines how the chosen words are
used to form a sentence. Most often than not, adopting a complex diction
means a complex syntactic structure of sentences and vice versa. In
combination, syntax and diction help writers develop tone, mood and
atmosphere in a text along with evoking interest of the readers.
A word, phrase or image which “stands for” an idea or theme:
The sun could symbolise life and energy. A rose could symbolise romantic
love.
Synecdoche occurs when a part of something is used to refer to the whole.
Many examples of synecdoche are idioms, common to the language.
Example: Workers can be referred to as 'pairs of hands', a vehicle as
'wheels' or mounted infantrymen as 'horse', the latter appearing to
be singular but actually employing the generic plural form: "Napoleon
deployed two thousand horse to cover the left flank."
tanka
theme
tmesis
A poem-type based on syllable-counting similar to haiku. Originally from
Japan, a tanka comprises 5 lines with syllables arranged:
An idea that runs through a poem or a piece of prose.
Tmesis is derived from a Greek word tmēsis that means “to cut”. It is a
rhetorical device. It involves the breaking down of a phrase or a word into
two parts. In simpler words, tmesis is an insertion of a word between a word,
a compound word or a phrase (phrasal verbs usually). It is a practice of
dividing a phrase or word into its components by inserting another word in
the middle of that phrase or word. Tmesis is commonly employed in words
that have more than three syllables. Let us examine these two examples of
tmesis to have a better understanding of this device.
I. Eliza Dolitttle: “Fan-bloody-tastic or abso-blooming-lutely”(Pygmalion by
George Bernard Shaw).
Here, the words “fantastic” and “absolutely” are separated by the the words
“bloody” and “blooming”, respectively.
II. “How heinous e’er it be, ” (Richard II by William Shakespeare).
tone
tragedy
tragic flaw
The word, however, is separated by the word “heinous”.
Tone expresses the writer's, narrator’s or speaker's attitude toward the
subject, the reader, or herself/ himself.
A story or play which ends sadly, although there may be comic elements and
even farce along the way.
Tragic flaw is a literary device that can be defined as a trait in a character
leading to his downfall and the character is often the hero of the literary
piece. This trait could be the lack of self-knowledge, lack of judgment and
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Robert Laytham
Visser ‚t Hooft Lyceum Leiden
English Department
often it is hubris (pride).
trope
verisimilitude
verse
villanelle
visionary literature
voice
western
zeugma
zoomorphism
The Greek word for Tragic flaw is hamaratia or hamartanein that means “to
err”. It was Aristotle who introduced this term first in his book the Poetics
and his idea was that it is an “error of judgment” on the part of a hero that
brings his downfall. A tragic flaw is also called a fatal flaw in literature and
films. This is taken as a defective trait in the character of the hero.
A trope is an idea which occurs again and again in different works by
different writers. A trope might be being orphaned. It occurs in many stories
by different writers in different genres.
A description which appears real or approximately real.
A verse is an alternative word for stanza. It is also sometimes used as a
synonym for poetry or poem.
Villanelle is derived from an Italian word “villano” that means a peasant. In
fact, it is a dance song coupled with pastoral themes. In literature, it is
defined as a poetic device which requires a poem to have19 lines and a fixed
form. It has five tercets (first 15 lines), a quatrain (last four lines), and a
couplet at the end of the quatrain.
This can be described as a unique confluence of fiction, philosophy, myth,
mysticism, and enchantment.
Imperative (commands/instructions), interrogative (asking questions), active
(the subject of the verb carries out the action) or passive (the subject of the
verb is having the action done to them).
Western fiction is defined primarily by being set in the American West in the
second half of the 19th century, and secondarily by featuring heroes who are
rugged, individualistic horsemen (cowboys). Other genres, such as romance,
have sub-genres that make use of the Western setting.
Zeugma, from Greek “yoking” or “bonding”, is a figure of speech in which a
word, usually a verb or an adjective, applies to more than one noun, blending
together grammatically and logically different ideas.
For instance, in a sentence “John lost his coat and his temper”, the verb
“lost” applies to both noun “coat” and “temper”. Losing a coat and losing
temper are logically and grammatically different ideas that are brought
together in the above-mentioned sentence. Zeugma, when used skillfully,
produces a unique artistic effect making the literary works more interesting
and effective as it serves to adorn expressions, and to add emphasis to ideas
in impressive style.
Zoomorphism is a derivative of a Greek word zōon that means animal and
morphē means form or shape. It is a literary technique in which the animal
attributes are imposed upon non-animal objects, humans, and events and
animal features are ascribed to humans, gods and other objects. Like in this
instance, “A couple of customers that had been heading for my slot began to
knock against each other, like scared pigs in a chute” (A&P by John Updike).
Here pigs are meant to be intelligent animals and have been used as a simile
to show how people were behaving.
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