Chapter 12: Recovery and Rebirth: The Age of the Renaissance
Meaning and Characteristics of the Italian Renaissance
- 1350-1550rebirth of antiquity (Greco-Roman civil.); Mid Ages characterized by darkness b/c of lack of classical
culture; Jacob BurckhardtThe Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1860)birthplace of modern world, revival
of antiquity, perfecting individual, secularism; est framework for all modern interpretations of the period
- Renaissance manifested in Italy and spread through Euro; Ren Italy was largely urban; commercial prominence
and political evolution, N Italy (mid 14th) mostly independent cities that dominated country districts around them;
city statescenters of Italian pol, eco, and soc lifesecular spirit emerged as increasing wealth created possibility
of enjoyment of worldly things
- Renaissance age of recovery from 14th calamity, slow process of recuperating from plague, pol disorder, and eco
recessionrediscovery of classical antiquity; became interested in Grec-Rom culture of Mediterranean
worldreconcile pagan philosophy with Chrstianity and new ways of viewing human beings
- Emphasis on individ ability; Leon Alberti “Men can do all things if they will;” human dignity and worth and
realization of individ potential crated new soc idea of well rounded personality or universal personfeatures of
renaissance not characteristic of all Italians but rather wealthy upper class; achievements product of elite
movementimpact on masses and cities where intellectual and artistic accomplishments were visible
The Making of Renaissance Society
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Severe eco reversals and soc upheavals of 14th, Euro eco gradually recovered as manufacturing and trade
increased
Economic Recovery
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(14th) Ital merchants-flourishing commerce throughout Mediterranean and expanded trade north along Atl
seaboard; Venetian Flanders Fleet maintained direct sea route from Venice to England and
NetherlandsHanseatic League of merchantsprospered; plagueItalians suffered
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(13th) N German coastal towns formed comm and mili association Hansa or Hanseatic League; 1500 ^80
cities belonged to the league; est comm bases in England, N Euro (Denmark, Norway, Sweden)200yr
monopoly on N Euro trade in timber, fish, grain, metals, honey and wines; S outlet in Flanders, Bruges: eco
crossroads of Euro (Flanders Fleet and Hanseatic)
15th silting of port caused Bruges to entr slow decline and so did Hanseatic League; trade recovered from
contraction of 14th; Italians and Venetians (despite restrictions on E Mediter from Ottomans) maintained
wealthy comm emp
16th (transatlantic discoveries gave new importance to states along ocean)Italian city states begin to
suffer from competitive adv of ever growing and more powerful nat territorial states
Expansion of Trade
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Industries Old and New
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14th eco depressionpattern of manufacturing; wool indus of Flanders and N Ital devastated; 15 th
Florentine wool indus began to recover, same time Ital cities began to develop and expand luxury
indussilk, glassware, and hand worked items in metal and precious stones
New indus: printing, mining, and metallurgy began to rival textile indus in 15 th; new machinery and
techniques for digging mines and separating metals and purifying them were developed; rulers began to
transfer titles to underground minerals to financiers as collateral loans, these entrepreneurs developed lrg
mining operations to produce Cu, Fe, and Ag
Rich mineral deposits in Cent Euro, Hungary, Tyrol, Bohemia, ad Saxony; expanding Fe production and
new skills in metalworking contributed to development of firearms that were more effective than crude
weapons of 14th
Banking and the Medici
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15th Florence regained prominence in banking (Medici family); clothcommerce, real estate, banking;
greatest bank in Euro w/ branches in Venice, Milan, Rome, Avignon, Bruges, London, and Lyons
Controlling interests in industrial enterprises for wool, silk, and mining of alumprincipal bankers for
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papacy; suffered sudden decline end of 15th b/c of poor leadership and series of bad loans esp uncollectible
loans to rulers
1494 French expelled Medici fam from Florence and confiscated their property, Medici financial edifice
collapsed
Social Changes in the Renaissance
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Renaissance inherit soc structure from Middle Ages; divided into 3 estates: First Estate (clergy), people
should be guided to spiritual ends
Second Estate: nobility, privileges based on principle that nobles provided security and justice for society
Third Estate: peasants and inhabitants of towns and cities
The Nobility
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Noblesdeclining real incomes; expense of noble status rising; new blood infused with old nobility,
reconstructing aristocracy by 1500; (2-3%) dominated soc, serving as mili officers and holding pol posts as
well as advising king16th pursued edu as means to maintain role in gov
By 1500 certain ideals came to be expected of nobilityThe Book of the Courtier (Ial Baldassare
Castiglione) (1528)should possess fundamental native endowmentsimpeccable character, grace,
talents, noble birth; cultivate certain achievementsparticipate in mili and bodily exercisesbearing arms;
classical eduadorn life w/ arts by playing instruments, drawing, painting
Soc ideal of aristocracymake good impressions; while being modest, they should not hide their
accomplishments but show them with grace; serve prince in effective and honest way
Peasants and Townspeople
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Third Estate85-90% of Euro pop except in urbanized areas of N Italy and Flanders; (eco crisis) decline of
manorial system and elimination of serfdom; had begun in 12 th moneygranted freedom and accepted
rents; lords’ lands tilled by hired workers or rented out; 15 th serfdom declining in w Euro and more
peasants becoming legally free
Remainder of Third Estate centered around towns and cities, initially merchants and artisans (bourgeoisie)
Renaissance town or city of 15th had people of all eco and soc status
Urban soc: toppatricians (capitalistic enterprises in trade, indus, and banking)petty burghers
(shopkeepers, artisans, guild masters, guild members)property-less workers (pitiful wages)unemployed
(squalid and miserable lives; 30-40%)
Late 14th and 15th urban poverty increased dramatically in many places in Euro; beneath them were slaves,
esp in Italian cities
Slavery in the Renaissance
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Agricultural slavery early mid ages but decline and replaced by serfdom in 9 th; slavery largely disappeared
by 11th; reappeared in Spain (Reconquista); 2nd half of 14th shortage of workers after plague and Ital
introduced slavery; 1363 gov of Florence authorized unlimited importation of foreign slaves; Ital cities
slaves used as skilled workers making handcraft goods for master or household work
Girls were nursemaids and boys were playmates; Florence, wealthy merchants might have 2or3 slaves; men
of household took slaves as concubinesmany illegitimate kids; slaves obtained from E Mediterr and
Black SeaTartars, Russian, Albanians, Dalmatians, Africans, Moors, Ethiopians, Muslims; Ital merchants
became involved in trans; 1414-1423 10k slaves sold on Venetian marketmost females, young girls
End of 15th slavery declinefreed b/c of humanitarian reasons; maj source dried up as Turks conquered
Byzantine Emp near Black Sea; prices rose for slavescut demandslaves dangerous and not worth
effort; 16th slaves only in evidence in princely courts where they were kept as curiosities; 15 th Portuguese
imported Afr slaves for S Euro markets (1444-1505 140k slaves)
The Family in Renaissance Italy
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Family and Renaissance Italyextended household of parents, kids, servants (if fam was wealthy) and
could include grandparents, widowed moms, unmarried sis
Bore same surname and related lived near each other; old fam names (Medici, Strozzi, Rucellai) conferred
great status and prestige; fam bond was source of security in the world and helped explain the vendetta in
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Ital Renaissance
Crime committed by one fam member fell on entire famretaliation by offended fam would be bloody
affair involving lrg #s of ppl
Marriage
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Parents arranged marriage to strengthen business or family ties; legally binding marriage contractsize of
dowrylrg dowry, get to marry man of higher soc statusfamily move up in society
Daughter married man of lower statussm dowry, rep of her fam would raise status of his fam; fatherhusband center of Ital famhe gave it his name, responsible for all legal matters, managed finances (wife
no share in wealth) and made crucial decisions that determined kids’ lives
Dad authority over kid absolute until he died or formally freed his kids; kids did not become adults on
reaching certain age, it came only when dad went before a judge and formally emancipated them (early
teens to late 20s)
Children
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Wife managed household; primary function was to bear kids; upper class often prego; poor women did not
conceive at same rate b/c they nursed own babies; wealthy gave their babies to nurses; 10% of moms died
in childbirth; surviving moms often faced death of kids15th Florence 50% of kids born to merchant fams
died before 20y/osought to have as many kids as possible
Try to make sure there is a surviving male heir to the family fortune; emphasized problem in Leon Alberti’s
On the Family
Social Norms
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Martial relationshipsdeep emotional attachments to purely formal ties; lack of emo attachment from
arranged marriages encouraged extramarital relationships; men could have sex freely while women were
more restrained
Heightened sexual relations outside marriageFlorence 1427-28 avg diff in hubby and wifey ages was
13yrs; girls married 16-18, men married 30-40 b/c of wealth, environment, demography
Lrg #s of young, unmarried males encouraged extramarital sex as well as prostitutionnecessary vice b/c it
could not be eliminated so it was regulated; Florence 1415 communal brothels est; prostitute required to
wear traditional garb of “gloves on her hand and a bell on her head”
The Italian States in the Renaissance
- By 15th 5maj powers dominated Italian peninsula: Milan, Venice, Florence, Papal States, and Naples
The Five Major States
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N Italy divided between duchy of Milan and repub of Venice; Visconti ruler of Milan divided 1447,
Francesco Sforza (condottieri turned on Milanese employers, conquered city, and became new duke
Worked to create highly centralized territorial statedevised systems of taxation that generated lrg
revenues for gov; maritime repub of Veince remained stable pol entity governed by sm oligarchy of
merchant-aristocratscomm power and intl power
End 14th Venice embarked on conquest of territorial state in N Italy to protect food supply and overland
trade routesfrightened Milan and Florenceworked to block Venetians
Republic of Florence
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Dominated Tuscany; beginning of 15th, was governed by sm merchant oligarchy that manipulated
apparently repub gov
1434 Cosimo de’ Medici took control of oligarchyran gov from behind the scenes with repub front
Patronage and careful courting of pol allies, Cosimo and alter his grandson Lorenzo the Magnificent were
successful in dominating the city at a time when Florence was center of cultural Renaissance
Papal States
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Papal states in Cent Italy; under pol control of popes; papal residence in Avignon and Great Schism
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enabled individ cities and territories (Urbino, Bologna, Perrara) to be independent of papal authority
Popes directed much of their energy toward reest their control over the Papal States
Kingdom of Naples
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Naples (most of S Italy and Sicily) was fought over by French and Aragonese until latter est domination in
mid 15th
Throughout Renaissance kingdom of Naples remained a backward monarchy w/ pop consisting lrgly of
poverty stricken peasants dominated by unruly nobles
Shared little in cultural glories of Renaissance
Independent City-State
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There were 5 maj states and many independent city states under control of powerful ruling fams that
became centers of Renaissance culture
Mantua (enlightened rule of Gonzaga lords); Ferrara (flamboyant d’Este fam); Urbino (Montefeltro
dynasty)
Urbino
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Federigo da Montefeltro (rule 1444-1482) had classical edu, fighting skillsreliable and honest but not
awesome general; did not break promises
Duke Federigo one of greatest patrons of Renaissance cultureUrbino became well known cultural and
intellectual center
Was also benevolentcould walk safely through streets unaccompanied
The Role of Women
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Battista Sforza, wife of Montefeltroknew Greek, Latin, fostered art and lettergoverned state when
hubby was gone
Isabella d’Este (daughter of duke of Ferrara), married Francesco Gonzaga marquis of Mantua; known for
intelligence and pol wisdomfirst lady of the world
Attracted artists and intellectuals to Mantuan court and was responsible for amassing one of the finest
libraries in all of Italy
Her letters to friends, family, prince, and artists all over Euro show her pol acumen and good sense of
humorclever negotiator
Warfare in Italy
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Balance of power, prevent aggrandizement of any one state at expense of othersPeace of Lodi40 year
era of peacealliance system: Milan, Florence, Naples vs Venice and papacy)workable balance of
power within Italyfailed to est lasting cooperation
Growth of monarchical states led to trouble; Italy became battlefield of power struggle between France and
Spain; breakdown of Italian balance of power that invited invasion and began Italian wars; duke of Milan
Ludovico Sforza invited French to intervene in Italian pol
French king Charles VIII (1494) w/ 30k men advanced through Italy and occupied Naples; others turned to
Spanish for helpFerdinand of Aragon intervened; next 15yrs French and Spanish competed to dominate
Italy
1510 war continued by new gen of rulers, Francis I of Fr and Charles I of Sp; Valois vs Habsburg
dynasties; sack of Rome 1527 by Charles I brought temp end to wars, Spain dominated Italy
Few Italians conceived of creating an alliance or confederation of states that could repel foreign
invadersremained fiercely loyal to their own petty states; no unification and nationhood until 1870
The Birth of Modern Diplomacy
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Product of Renaissance; ambassadors in MA, but only used on temp basis; an ambassador was a servant of
all Christendom (peace)sm Italian states survived by sending resident diplomatic agents to each other to
ferret out useful info
Italian wardiplomatic agents spread through Euro; 16 th and 17th Euro developed diplomatic machinery
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still in use todayrights of ambassadors in host countries and proper procedures for conducting diplomatic
business
Permanent resident agents or ambassadorsconception of purpose of ambassadors changedt do, say,
advise, and think whatever may best serve the preservation and aggrandizement of his own state
An agent of territorial state that sent him, not Christendom; could use any methods beneficial to pol
interests of his own stateinterests of the state supersede all other considerations
Machiavelli and the New Statecraft
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Machiavelli entered service of Florentine repub 1498, 4yrs after Medici fam had been expelled; sec to
Florentine Council of Ten, made many diplomatic missions (Fr and Ger); 1512 French defeat and Spanish
victory led to reest of Medicirepub including Machiavelli were sent into exilereflected on pol power,
wrote The Prince (1513)
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Ideas stemmed from his preoccupation w. Italy’s political problems and his knowledge of Ancient Rome;
maj concerns were the acquisition and expansion of pol power as means to restore and maintain order in
Italy
Prince’s attitude toward power must be based on an understanding of human natureself centered; pol
activity could not be restricted by moral considerations; prince acts on behalf of the state and for the sake of
the state
Found good example in Cesare Borgia, son of Pope Alexander VIused ruthless measures to achieve his
goal of carving out a new state in Cent Italy
Machiavelli one of first to abandon morality as the basis for the analysis of political activity
The Prince
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The Intellectual Renaissance in Italy
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Individualism and secularism were 2 characteristics of the Renaissanceintellectual and artistic realms
Italy was cultural leader of Euro and primarily product of relatively wealthy, urban soc
Most important literary movement associated with Renaissance was humanism
Italian Renaissance Humanism
Humanism intellectual movement based on study of classical literary works of Greece and Rome; they
studied liberal arts (grammar, rhetoric, poetry, moral philosophy or ethics, and history)based on writings
of ancient Greek and Roman authors (humanities)
Some humanists teachers of humanities in 2ndary schools and unis; gave lectures or held positions as profs
of rhetoric
Others served as secs in chancelleries of Ital city-states ar at courts of princes or popeslrgly secular
The Emergence of Humanism
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Petrarch (1304-1374) father of Ital Ren humanismrejected his dad’s desire to become lawyer and took up
literary career; lived in Avignon, spent a lot of time in Italyguests of princes and gov officials, lack of
modesty
1st intellectual to characterize MA as period of darkness, promoting mistaken belief medieval culture was
ignorant of classical antiquity; went on a quest for forgotten Latin manuscripts and set in motion a
ransacking of monastic libraries throughout Euro
He worried whether he was sufficiently attentive to spiritual ideas (preoccupation in classics and
secularism); emphasized the use of pure classical Latin, making it fashionable for humanists to use Cicero
as a model for prose and Virgil for poetry
Humanism in Fifteenth-Century Italy
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Florence, humanist movement became closely tied w/ Florentine civic spirit and pride, giving rise to civic
humanism; intellectual life one of solituderejected family and life of action in community
Classical Roman Cicero (statesman and intellectual) became role model; humanist, Florentine patriot and
chancellor of the city, Leonardo Bruni wrote biography The New Cicero where he talked about fusion of
pol action and literary creation in Cicero’s life; Cicero was inspiration for Ren idea that it was duty of an
intellectual to live an active life for one’s state
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An individ only “grows to maturity—both intellectually and morally—through participation” in the life of
the state; civic humanism reflected values of urban socbelieved study of humanities should be put to the
service of the state (humanists served the state as chancellors, councilors, and advisers)
There was growing interest in classical Greek civilization; 1 of 1 st Ital humanists to gai thorough
knowledge of Greek was Brunipupil of Byzantine scholar Manuel Chrysoloras (taught in Florence 13961400); humanists pursued work of Plato as well as Greek poets, dramatists, historians, and orators
(Thucydides, Euripides, and Sophocles)
15th consciousness of being humanists had emergedcareer of Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457)brought up in
Rome and educated in Latin and Greekbecame papal sec; wrote The Elegances of the Latin
Languagepurify medieval Latin and restore Latin to position over the vernacular
Examined proper use of of classical Latin and created new literary standard; any author who wrote before
7th was classical model; Valla identified diff stages in the growth of the Latin language and accepted only
the Latin of the last century of the Roman repub and 1 st of the emp
Humanism and Philosophy
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2nd half of 15th, upsurge interest in the works of Plato esp among informal discuss grp Florentine Platonic
Academy; Cosimo (de facto ruler of Florence) became its patron and commissioned a translation of Plato’s
dialogues by Marsilio Facino, one of the grp’s leadersdedicated life to translation and exposition of
Platonic philosophy called Neo-Platonism
2 maj wkrsFacino undertook synthesis of Christianity and Platonism into a single systemNeoPlatonism based on Neo-Platonic hierarchy of substances and theory of spiritual love
NP hierarchy gave idea of a hierarchy of substances or great chain of being, from lowest form of physical
matter (plants) to purest spirit (God)humans mid positionlink between material world (through body)
and spiritual world (through soul); higest duty was to ascend twd union w/ God that was end of human
existence
Platonic love (spiritual love)all ppl are bound together in their common humanity by love, so too are all
parts of the universe held together by bonds of sympathetic love
Renaissance Hermeticism
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Hermeticism product of Florentine intellectual environ of late 15 th; request of CosimoFicino translated
into Latin a Greek work called Corpus Hermeticum2 kinds of writings1.) stressed occult sciences
(astrology, alchemy, magic); 2.) theological and philosophical beliefs and speculations
Some Hermetic writings adopted pantheism, seeing divinity embodied in all aspects of nature and in the
heavenly bodies as well as in earthly objects; Giordano Bruno (16 th Hermeticists) “God as a whole is in all
things”
Hermetic revival offered new view of humankindhuman beings had been created as divine beings
endowed w/ divine creative power but had freely chosen to enter the material world (nature); humans could
recover their divinity through regenerative exp or purification of soultrue sages or magiknowledge of
God and truthreacquired knowledge of nature and ability to employ powers of nature for beneficial
purposes
Italy, late 15th, most prominent magi were Ficino and Giovanni Pico della Mirandolawrote Oration on
the Dignity of Man, studied works of many philosophers of diff backgrounds for common “nuggets of
universal truth” that he believed were all part of God’s revelation to humanity; Oration, Pico offered
statement of unlimited human potential: “To him it is granted to have whatever he chooses, to be whatever
he wills”
Like Ficino, Pico was interested in Hermetic philosophy, accepting it as the “science of the Divine” which
“embraces the deepest contemplation of the most secret things, and at last the knowledge of all nature”
Education in the Renaissance
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Humanist movementedu; human beings could be drastically changed by edu; 1423 school founded by
Vittorino da Feltre at Mantua (Gian Francesco I Gonzaga wanted to give humanist edu); based on ideas of
classical authors, Cicero and Quintilian; liberal studiesinfluenced by Concerning Character by Pietro
Paolo Vergerio
Stressed importance of liberal arts as key to true freedomindivids to reach full potential; attain and
practice virtue and wisdom, develops body and mind; included history, moral philosophy, eloquence
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(rhetoric), letters (grammar and logic), poetry, math, astronomy, and musicproduce individs who
followed path of virtue and wisdom and possessed rhetorical skills to persuade others to do the same
Sound mind in sound bodyschool stressed phys edjavelin throwing, archery, dancing, encouraged
running, wrestling, hunting, and swimming; primarily for edu of the elite, ruling classes of their
communities; lrgly absent were females and those of lower class; only 2 girl students were the daughters of
the Gonzagastudied classics, know some hist, ride, dance, sing, play lute, poetry; discouraged from
learning math and rhetoric
Religion and morals were thought to “hold the first place in the education of a Christian lady;” Isotta
Nogarola (noble fam in Verona) mastered Latin and wrote many letters and treatises that brought her praise
from male Ital intellectuals; Cassandra Fedele of Venice (Latin and Greek)pub recitations of orations;
Laura Cereta educated in Latin by dad, physician from Bresciadefended ability of women to pursue
scholarly pursuits
Humanist edu practical prep for lifemake complete citizens who could participate in civic life of their
communities; Vittorino: all are destined to live in soc and practice virtue; humanist schools, combing
classics and Christianity provided model for basic education of Euro ruling class until 20 th
Humanism and History
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Humanism strong impact on writing of history; influenced by Roman and Greek historiansclassical
civilizations had been followed by an age of barbarism (MA)succeeded by rebirth of study of classics
Responsible for secularizing writing of history; reduced or eliminated role of miracles in historical
interpretations b/c they took new approach to sourcesuse docs and exercise newly developed skills in
examining them
Attention paid to pol events and forces that affected their city states or lrger territorial unites; Bruni wrote
History of the Florentine People
New emphasis on secularization evident in humanists’ conception of causation in hist; humanists
deemphasized divine intervention in favor of human motives, stressing pol focus or role of individs in hist
Guicciardini
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High point of Ren historiography16thFrancesco Guicciardinigreatest historian between Tacitus (1st)
and Voltaire and Gibbon (18th); wrote History of Italy and History of Florencerep beginning of modern
analytical historiography
Purpose of writing hist was to teach lessons; he had background in gov and diplomatic affairsdeveloped
skillsanalyze pol situations precisely and critically
Emphasized pol and milit hist, his works relied heavily on personal examples and documentary sources
The Impact of Printing
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Invention of printingintellectual life and thought; before was printing from hand carved wooden blocks;
now, multiple printing w/ moveable type1445-1450Johannes Gutenberg of Mainz1st book produced
by moveable type was Gutenberg’s Bible (1455 or 56)
Printing presses est throughout Holy Roman Emp in 1460s and w/in 10yrs spread to Italy, Eng, Fr, Low
countries, Spain, E Euro; Venice known as printing center1500, 100 printer2mil volumes
1500 ^1000 printers in Euro who pub 40k titles (8-10mil copies); 50%were religious—Bibles and biblical
commentaries, books of devotion, and sermons; Latin and Greek classics, medieval grammars, legal
handbooks, works on philosophy, and pop romances
Printing 1 of lrgest indus in Euro; encouraged scholarly research and desire to attain
knowledgestandardized and definitive texts; printing stimulated development of lay reading pubEuro
soc; w/o printing press, ideas of Reformation would not have spread as rapidly
The Artistic Renaissance
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Leonardo da Vinci 1 of great Ren artists; Ren artists considered imitation of nature primary goalsearch
for naturalismpersuade onlookers of the reality of the object or event they wre portraying
New artistic standards reflected new attitude of mindhuman beings became the focus of attention, the
“center and measure of all things”
Art in the Early Renaissance
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Artists maintained that it was Giotto (14th) who began the imitation of natureMasaccio (Florence)cycle
of frescos in Branacci Chapel regarded as 1st masterpiece of Early Ren art; used monumental figures, demo
of more realistic relationship between figures and landscape, visual rep of perspectivenew realistic style
of painting was bornmodel for later gen of Florentine artists
Development of experimental trend that took 2 directions; 1.) emphasized math side of painting, working
out of laws of perspective and organization of outdoor space and light by geometry and perspective—Paolo
Uccello—figures became mere stage props to show off his laws of perspective; 2.) investigation of
movement and anatomical structure—The Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian by Antonio Pollaiuolo—revels in
classical motifs and attempts to portray human body under stress
Realistic portrayal of human nude became a foremost preoccupation; 15th period of experimentation and
technical mastery; new sense of invention esp in circle of srtists and scholars who formed court of city’s
leading citizen Lorenzo the MagnificentSandro Botticelliinterested in Greek and Roman myth and
reflected it in his work Pirmavera (Spring)
Advances in painting, sculpting, and architecture; Donato di Donatello (was in Rome) studying and
copying statues of antiquitystatue of David1st known life size freestanding bronze nude in Euro art
since antiquitycelebrated Florentine heroism (David and Goliath; Florentines over Milanese in 1428)
Filippo Brunelleschi friend who accompanied Donatello to Rome; drew inspiration from the architecture
there and created new architecture when he returned to Florence; built a dome for the unfinished Cathedral
of Florence (Duomo)started in 1296 but Brunelleschi devised new building techniques and machinery to
create the dome (1420-1436, 140ft opening)
Church of San Lorenzo, was inspired by Roman models and created a church interior very diff from that of
great medieval cathedralsclassical columns, rounded arches, and coffered ceilingenvironment did not
overwhelm the worshiper materially and psychologically, comforted as a space created to fit human, not
divine, measurements; sought to reflect a human centered world
New assertion of human individuality reflected in new emphasis on portraiture; patrons appeared in corners
of sacred pics, and monumental tombs and portrait statues honored many of Florence’s prominent citizens;
mid 15th artists giving accurate rendering of their subjects’ facial feautres while revealing inner qualities of
their personalities (ex: duke and duchess of Urbino by Piero della Francesca)
The Artistic High Renaissance
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End of 15th Ital painters, sculptors, and architects created new artistic environment; mastered new
techniques for a scientific observation of the world and now ready to move into individualistic forms of
creative expression; 1480-1520 High Renaissance (final stage of Ren art)increasing importance of Rome
as a new cultural center of the Ital Ren; dominated by work of Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and
Michelangelo
Leo reps a transitional fig in the shift to HR principles, studied everything and dissected human bodies to
more clearly see how nature worked; stressed need to advance beyond realism and initiated idealization of
nature or the attempt to generalize from realistic portrayal to an ideal form; his Last Supper (Milan)Philip
is idealizedhoped to reveal a person’s inner life
Raphael blossomed as a painter at 25y/o1 of Italy’s best paintersnumerous madonnas, attempted to
achieve an ideal beauty for surpassing human standards; well known for his frescos in the Vatican Palace;
his School of Athens reveals a world of balance, harmony, and order—underlying principles of art in the
classical world of Greece and Rome
Michelangelo was an accomplished painter, sculptor, and architect; influenced by Neo-Platonism esp
evident in his painting of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Rome; 1508 Pope Julius II called
Michelangelo to Rome and commissioned him for the ceiling, didn’t finish until 1512; attempted to tell the
story of the Fall of Man by depicting 9 scenes from the biblical book of Genesis
His Creation of Adamideal type of human being with perfect proportionsreflection of divine
beautyDavid (commissioned by Florentine gov in 1501 and completed in 1504slab of marble unused
for 50yrs, created 14ft statue, largest since time of Romebeauty of the human body and glory of human
beings; HR evident in architecture esp in work of Donato Bramante (came from Urbino but took up
residence in Rome)
(Rome) designed sm temple on supposed site of Saint Peter’s martyrdom (Tempietto or little
temple)Doric columns surrounding sanctuary enclosed by a dome; architecture of HRdome, columns,
and sanctuary form a monumental and harmonious whole; inspired by antiquity, Bramante recaptured
grandeur of Pope Julius II commissioned him to design new basilica for Romethe magnificent Saint
Peter’s
The Artist and Social Status
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Artists began careers as apprentices to masters in craft guilds; largely viewed as artisans; guilds depended
on commissions so patrons played lrg role in art of Early Ren; wealthy upper classes determined content
and purpose of paintings and sculptures they commissioned
Transformations of artists’ positionsfrom artisans to artistic geniuses w/ creative energies akin to the
divine; artists were heroes, individuals who were praised more for their creativity than their competence as
craftsppl; Michelangelo (II Divinothe Divine One)
Soc excused their eccentricities and valued their creative genius1st to embody modern concept of the
artist; respect for artists grewability to profit eco from their work and rise on soc scale; equals in circles
of upper classes
Mingled w/ pol and intellectual elite; more aware of intellectual theoriesembodied in art; Platonic
Academy and Renaissance Neo-Platonism important impact on Florentine painters
The Northern Artistic Renaissance
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Artists of N (esp Low Countries) and Italy took diff approaches to portray their world; Italyhuman form
primary vehicle of expression as Ital artists sought to master technical skills that allowed them to portray
humans in realistic settings; wall spaces of churches gave rise to fresco paintings
Nprevalence of Gothic catherdrals w/ stained glass windowsemphasis on illuminated manuscripts and
wooden panel painting for altarpieces; N painters became masters at rendering details b/c of limited space
for the works; most influential N school of art was in Flanders; Jan van Eyck among 1 st to use oil paint
Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride Eyck paid attention to detail (staggering)precise portraits, glittering
chandelier, mirror reflecting objects in roomcomprehension of perspective still uncertain; N Ren painters
in their effort to imitate nature did not master laws of perspective and proportion but by empirical
observation of visual reality and accurate portrayal of details
N painters placed great emphasis on emo intensity of religious feeling and created great works of
devotional art, esp in their altarpieces; end of 15th artists from N began to study in Italy and were visually
influenced by what artists were doing there
N artist who was greatly affected by Italians was Albrecht Durer from Nuremberg; made 2 trips to Italy and
learnedmastered laws of perspective and Ren theories of proportionwrote detailed treatises; his
Adoration of the Magi did not reject use of minute details characteristic of N artists; tried to integrate those
details more harmoniously into his works and achieve standard of ideal beauty by careful examination of
the human form
Music in the Renaissance
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15th cultural environment in domains of dukes of Burgundy in N Eurocourt attracted some of the best
artists and musicians of the timeGuillaume Dufay (N Fr) live in Italy; combined medieval style of Fr and
early Ren style of Italychange in composition of the Mass
1st to use secular tunesto replace Gregorian chants as fixed melody that served as basis for the Mass;
composed # of secular songsmusic ceased to be used chiefly in service of God and moved into the
secular world of courts and cities; Italy and Fr, chief form of music was madrigal
Ren madrigal was poem set to music (14th Ital courts); 12 line poems written in vernacular and theme was
emo or erotic love; mid 16th most madrigals were written for 5 or 6 voices and employed a technique called
text paintingmusic tried to portray the literal meaning of the text
Melody would rise for the word heaven or use wavelike motion to rep waterspread to Eng, where most
pop form was characterized by the fa-la-la refrain like that found in “Deck the Halls”
The European State in the Renaissance
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1st half of 15th, Euro states disintegrative patterns of previous century; 2 nd half recovery set in and attempts
were made to reestablish the centralized power of monarchial govs
“Renaissance states;” “new monarchies”Fr, Eng, Spain; monarchs in W Euro succeeded in varying
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degrees at extending pol authority
Rulers in Cent and E Euro often weak and unable to impose their authority
The Growth of the French Monarchy
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Hundred Years’ War left Fr prostratedepop, desolate farmlands, ruined commerce, independent and
unruly nobleskings could not assert authority; war developed strong degree of French nationalism toward
a common enemy that the kings could use to reest monarchial power; need to prosecute war provided an
excuse to strengthen the authority if the king (Charles VII, king @ Reims)
Estates-GeneralCharles est royal army w/ cavalry and archers; right to levy taille, annual direct tax on
land or property; developing French territorial state advanced by King Louis XI (the Spiderwily and
devious ways); retained taille as permanent tax imposed by royal authoritysecured secure sound source
of income; not successful in repressing Fr nobility (independence posed threat to his own state building)
Maj problem was supposed vassal Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundyattempted to create middle
kingdom between Fr and Ger stretching from Low Countries to SwitzerlandLouis opposed; Charles
killed in 1477 fighting the Swiss, Louis added part of Charles’ possessions (duchy of Burgundy) to his own
lands
3yrs later provinces Anjou, Maine, Bar, and Provence brought under royal control; historians believed
Louis created base for the later development of strong French monarchy
England: Civil War and a New Monarchy
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Hundred Years’ Warcost of war and losses in manpower strained English eco; War of Roses
(1450s)civil war pitted ducal house of Lancaster (red rose) against ducal house of York (white rose);
aristocratic families of Eng drawn into conflict; 1485 Henry Tudor (duke of Richmond) defeated Yorkist
king, Richard III at Bosworth Field and est new Tudor dynasty
1st Tudor King, Henry VII worked to reduce internal dissension and est strong monarchical gov; ended prvt
wars of the nobility by abolishing livery and maintenancewealthy nobles maintained prvt armies
Eng (unlike Fr and Sp) did not have a standing armyking relied on special commissions to trusted nobles
to raise troops for specific campaign, after which troops were disbanded; Henry controlled irresponsible
activity of nobles by est Court of Star Chamberdid not use juries and allowed torture to be used to extract
confessions
Henry VII successful in extracting income from crown lands, judicial fees, fines, and custom duties; used
diplomacy to avoid warsavoided having to call Parliament on any reg basis to grant him funds
Didn’t overburden landed gentry and middle class w/ taxeswon their favorprovided support for his
monarchy; his policies enabled him to leave Eng w/ stable and prosperous gov and enhanced status for
monarchy itself
The Unification of Spain
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Iberian peninsula: Aragon and Castile were strongest Spanish kingdoms; W: independent monarchy of
Portugal; N: small kingdom of Navarre, oriented twd Fr; S: Muslim kingdom of Granada; unification of
Iberian kingdommarriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon (1469)dynastic union not pol
union
Both kingdoms maintained own parliaments (Cortes), courts, laws, coinage, speech, customs, and pol
organs; both worked to strengthen royal control of gov esp in Castile; royal council (supposed to supervise
local admin and oversee implementation of gov policies) was stripped of nobles and filled w/ mid class
lawyerstrained in principles of Roman lawoperated on belief that monarchy embodied power of the
state
Sought to replace undisciplined feudal levies they had inherited w/ more prof royal army, F&I reorg
military forces in Spainbest in Euro by 16th; F&I recognized importance of controlling Catholic church
(vast power and wealth)secured from pope right to select most important church officials in Spclergy
now virtually an instrument of royal power
F&I pursued policy of strict religious uniformity; Sp had 2 lrg religious minorities: Jews and Muslims;
increased persecution in 14th led to many Jews to convert to Christianitycomplaints of sincerity of these
JewsF&I ask pope to intro Inquisition (1478); under royal control, Inquisition worked to guarantee
orthodoxy of the converts but had no authority over practicing Jews
1492 F&I conquered Muslim Granadaexpelled all professed Jews from Spain150k/200k Jews fled;
Muslims were “encouraged” to convert to Christianity after conquest of Granada; 1502 Isabella issued
decree expelling all professed Muslims from her kingdom; the “Most Catholic” monarchs had achieved
their goal of absolute religious orthodoxy as a basic ingredient of the Sp state; to be Spanish was to be
Catholicenforced by Inquisition
The Holy Roman Empire: The Success of the Habsburg
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Unlike Fr, Eng, and Sp, Holy Roman Empire failed to develop strong monarchial authority; after 1438,
position of HRE remained in hands of Habsburg dynasty; collections along Danube (Austria); house of
Habsburg 1 of wealthiest landholders in emp; a lot of Habsburg success in 15th not sue to military success
but well executed policy of dynastic marriages
Married Maximilian to Mary, daughter of Duke Charles the Bold of Burgundy, Emperor Frederick III
gained Franche-Comte in E-Cent Fr, Luxembourg, and lrg part of Low Countriesthese additions made
Habsburg dynasty an intl power and brought it the undying opposition of the French monarchy b/c rulers of
Fr feared they would be surrounded by Habsburgs
Much expected from Maximilian I when he became emperor; Reichstag (imperial diet or
parliament)Max attempted to centralize admin by creating new institutions common to the entire emp;
opposition from Ger princes doomed these efforts; Max’s only real success laid in his marriage alliances
Philip of Burgundy (son of Max’s marriage to Mary) was married to Joanna, daughter of F&I; Philip and
Joanna had a son, Charles, who through a series of unexpected deaths, became heir to all three lines, the
Habsburg, Burgundian, and Spanish, making him the leading monarch of his age
The Struggle for Strong Monarchy in Eastern Europe
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E Euro, rulers struggled to achieve centralization of their territorial states but faced serious obstacles; pop
mostly Slavic, islands of other ethnic groups that caused untold difficultiesreligious diffs troubled
areaRoman Catholics, Greek Orthodox Christians, and pagans
Much of Polish hist revolved around bitter struggle between crown and landed nobility until end of
15thnobles reest power b/c of Poland’s problems w/ Bohemia and Hungary as well as war w/ Russians
and Turks; control of Sejm (nat diet)magnates reduced peasantry to serfdom (1511) and est right to elect
their kings; Polish kings proved unable to est strong royal authority; Bohemia part of HRE but distrust of
Germans and close ethnic ties to Poles and Slovaks encouraged Czechs of Bohemia to associate w/ NE
Slavic neighbors
Hussite Wars led to further dissension and civil war; weal monarchyBohemian nobles increased
authority and wealth at the expense of crown and church; hist of Hungary tied w/ Cent + W Euro by its
conversion to Roman Catholicism by Ger missionaries; church became lrg and prosperous institution;
wealthy bishops and great territorial lords became powerful, indep pol figs
Hungary developed into important Euro state, dominant power in E Euro; King Matthias Corvinus broke
power of wealthy lords and created well org bureaucracy; patronized new humanist culture, brought Ital
scholars and artists into his capital at Buda and made his court one of the most brilliant outside Italy;
Hungary returned to weak rule after his death
Since 13th Russia under rule of Mongols; princes of Moscow rose to prominence by using their close
relationship to Mongol khansincreased wealth, and expanded possessions; prince Ivan IIInew Russian
state (principality of Moscow)annexed other principalities and took advantage of dissension among
Mongols to throw off their yoke by 1480
The Ottoman Turks and the End of the Byzantine Empire
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E Euro increasingly threatened by Ottoman Turks; Byzantine Emp served as buffer between Muslim MidE
and LatinW; weakened by sack of Constantinople in 1204 and its occupation by the W; Palaeologus
dynasty tried to reest Byzantine power in Balkans after overthrow of Latin emp; threat of Turks finally
doomed the emp
NE Asia Minor in 13th Ottoman Turks spread rapidly, seizing lands of Seljuk Turks and Byzantine Emp;
1345 they bypassed Constantinople and moved into Balkans; Sultan MuradOttoman forces moved
through Bulgaria and into lands of Serbians (strong opposition under King Lazar); 1389 Battle of
KosovoOttoman forces defeated Serbs; King Lazar and Sultan Murad died; 1480 Bosnia, Albania, and
rest of Serbia added to Ottoman Emp in Balkans
1453 Ottomans completed demise of Byzantine Emp; 80k troops against 7k, Sultan Mehmet II laid siege to
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Constantinople; Turks made use of massive cannons w/ 26ft barrels that could launch stone balls weighing
up to 1200lbs eachByzantine emperor died in final battle
After consolidating power, Turks prepared to exert renewed pressure on W (Mediterranean and Danube
valley twd Vienna); end of 15th Turks threatening Hungary, Austria, Bohemia, and Poland; HRE Charles V
became their bitter enemy in 16th
The Church in the Renaissance
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Council of ConstanceGreat Schism brought to an end (1417)council’s easiest task
Less successful in dealing w/ problems of heresy and reform
The Problems of Heresy and Reform
Heresy not new problem; 13th church developed inquisitorial machinery to deal w/ it
Two widespread movements in 14th and early 15th—Lollardy and Hussitism—posed new threats to the
church
Wyclif and Lollardy
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English LollardyOxford theologian John Wyclifdisgust w/ clerical corruptionfar ranging attack on
papal authority and medieval Christian beliefs and practices
No basis in Scripture for papal claims of temporal authority and advocated the popes be stripped of their
authority and their property; Bible should be a Christian’s sole authority; urged it be made available in
vernacular languages so that every Christian could read it
Rejecting all practices not mentioned in Scripture, Wyclif condemned pilgrimages, veneration of saints,
and whole series of rituals and rites that had developed in the medieval church; Wyclif attracted number of
followers who came to be known as Lollards
Hus and the Hussites
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Marriage between royal families of Eng and Bohemia enabled Lollard ideas to spread to
Bohemiareinforced ideas of Czech reformers led by chancellor of uni of Prague, John Hus; call for
reform, Hus urged elimination of worldliness and corruption of clergy and attacked excessive power of
papacy w/in Catholic Church
His objections fell on receptive earsCatholic Church (1 of lrgest landowners in bohemia) was already
widely criticized; many clergymen were German and native Czechs had strong resentment of
Germanscontributed to Hus’ movement; Council of Constance attempted to deal w/ growing problem of
heresy by summoning Hus to the council
Granted safe conduct by Emperor Sigismund, Hus went in hope of a free hearing of his ideas; instead he
was arrested, condemned as heretic and burned at the stake (1415)revolutionary upheaval in
BohemiaHussite wars racked Holy Roman Empire until truce in 1436
Reform of the Church
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Reform in church less successful than attempt to eradicate heresy; 2 reform decree were passed by Council
of Constance; Sacrosancta stated that general council of church received authority from Godevery
Christian was subject to its authority; Frequens provided for reg holding of general councils to ensure
church reform would continuelegislative system w/in church superior to popes
Decrees alone insufficient; council could issue decrees but pope had to execute them and popes would not
cooperate; Martin V 1417 successive popes worked for 30yrs to defeat the conciliar movement; 1460 Pope
Pius II issued papal bull Execrabilis condemning appeals to a council over the head of a pope as heretical
Mid 14th popes reasserted supremacy over Catholic Church; no longer have any possibility of asserting
supremacy over temporal gov as medieval papacy had; papal monarchy was maintained but lost much
moral prestige; 14th Renaissance papacy contributed to even further decline in moral leadership of popes
The Renaissance Papacy
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Renaissance papacy: line of popes from end of Great Schism (1417) to beginnings of Reformation (16 th);
primary concern of papacy was governing church; pursued interests in Papal States and Italian pol by use of
intrigue and bloodshed; Julius II most involved in war and pol
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The “warrior pope” led armies against his enemiesChristians did not like because a pope was supposed to
be a spiritual leader; to further territorial aims in Papal States, popes needed loyal servants, could not build
dynasties over generationsrelied on nepotism; Pope Sixtus IV made 5 of his nephews cardinals and gave
them an abundance of church offices to build up their finances
Alexander VI (Borgia) raised a son, nephew, and brother to cardinalate; he scandalized church by
encouraging his son Cesare to carve a state for himself in cent Italy out of the territories of Papal States;
Renaissance Popes great patrons of culture and their efforts made Rome cultural leader at beginning of 16 th
For Julius II patronage of Renaissance culture was matter of policy; tore down Basilica of Saint Peter and
rebuilt it; Leo X was also a patron of Renaissance culture, not as a matter of policy, but as a deeply
involved participantarchbishop at 8, cardinal at 13refined taste in art, manners, and soc life; pope at
37; Rome became the literary and artistic center of the Renaissance