生態學 (Ecology)
2005
鄭先祐(Ayo)
靜宜大學 生態學系
Ayo 台南站： http://mail.nutn.edu.tw/~hycheng/
Email add: Japalura@hotmail.com
Manuel C. Molles Jr.
 (2005)
 Ecology: Concepts
and Applications.
 3rd ed.
 McGraw Hill.

Ecology 2005
2
About the Author
Manuel C. Molles Jr.
 Professor of Biology at the university of
New Mexico (since 1975)
 Ph.D. (Dept. Ecology and Evolutionary
Biology of the University of Arizona)
 He has taught and conducted ecological
research in Latin American, the Caribbean,
and Europe.
 Originally trained as a marine ecologist
and fisheries biologist.

Ecology 2005
3
研究主題
His research has covered a wide range of
ecological levels, including behavioral
ecology, population biology, community
ecology, ecosystem ecology, biogeography
of stream insects and the influence of a
large-scale climate system (El Nino) on the
dynamics of southwestern river and
riparian ecosystems.
 His current research concerns the effects
of flooding and exotic vegetation on the
structure and dynamics of the Rio Grande
riparian ecosystems.

Ecology 2005
4
教學、研究與服務

Dr. Molles has attempted to combine
research, teaching, and service, involving
undergraduate as well as graduate
students in his ongoing projects.
Ecology 2005
5
Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Introduction: What is Ecology?
Section
 Section
 Section
 Section
 Section

I Natural History (自然史)
II Individuals (個體)
III Population Ecology (族群生態學)
IV Interactions (互動)
V Communities and Ecosystems
(社群與生態體系)

Section VI Large-scale Ecology (大尺度生態學)
Ecology 2005
6

Section I Natural History (自然史)



Chapter 2 Life on Land
Chapter 3 Life in Water
Section II Individuals (個體)




Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
4
5
6
7
Temperature Relations
Water Relations
Energy and Nutrient Relations
Social Relations
Ecology 2005
7

Section III Population Ecology (族群生態學)






Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
8 Population Genetics and Natural Selection
9 Population Distribution and Abundance
10 Population Dynamics
11 Population Growth
12 Life Histories
Section IV Interactions (互動)



Chapter 13 Competition
Chapter 14 Exploitation: Predation, Herbivory,
Parasitism, and Disease
Chapter 15 Mutualism
Ecology 2005
8

Section V Communities and Ecosystems (社群與
生態體系)






Chapter 16
Chapter 17
Structure
Chapter 18
Chapter 19
Chapter 20
Species Abundance and Diversity
Species Interactions and Community
Primary Production and Energy Flow
Nutrient Cycling and Retention
Succession and Stability
Section VI Large-scale Ecology (大尺度生態學)



Chapter 21 Landscape Ecology
Chapter 22 Geographic Ecology
Chapter 23 Global Ecology
Ecology 2005
9
Preface
The accelerating pace of ecological
discovery makes staying current with the
field very difficult.
 However, with careful organization and
modern tolls, such as the Internet, they
come close.

Ecology 2005
10
Unique Approach




1991, Paul Risser challenged ecology instructors
to focus their attention on the major concepts of
the field.
If we subdivide a large and dynamic subject,
such as ecology, too finely, we cannot cover it in
one or two academic terms.
This book attempts to address Risser’s challenge.
Each chapter is organized around two or
four major concepts, presenting the student
with a manageable and memorable
synthesis of the subject.
Ecology 2005
11
基本先修課程
Basic chemistry
 Mathematics
 General biology (physiology, biological
diversity, and evolution)

Ecology 2005
12
Features designed with the student in
mind








Introduction
Concepts
Concept discussions
Application & Tools
Investigating the Evidence (Boxes)
Illustrations
Summary
End-of-Chapter material



Review questions
Suggested readings
On the Net
Ecology 2005
13
End-of-Book Materials:

Appendixes



Abbreviations used in this text
List of Chapter Concepts
Statistical Tables
Glossary
 References

Ecology 2005
14
Useful supplements
Digital content Manger (DCM)CD-Rom:
 Instructor’s testing and Resource CD-Rom:
 Transparencies
 Online Learning Center (OLC)



http://www.mhhe.com/ecology
Ecology essential study partner CD-Rom:
Ecology 2005
15
Packaging opportunities









Exploring Environmental science with GIS
General Ecology Lab Manual, 8th edition
Field and Lab methods for General Ecology, 4th
edition
Conservation Biology workbook
Annual Edition: Environment
Taking slides: Clashing views on controversial
environmental issues
Sources: Notable selections in environmental
studies, 2nd edition.
Student Atlas of Environmental Issues
You can make a difference: be environmentally
responsible.
Ecology 2005
16
Chap. 1 Introduction: What is Ecology?

Overview of Ecology




The Ecology of Forest birds: using field studies
to test theory
The Ecology bumblebees: contribution of field
and laboratory studies
Forest nutrient budgets: inventories and largescale experiments
Vegetation changes: information from pollen
records and modeling
The Nature and scope of Ecology
 On the Net

Ecology 2005
17
Overview of Ecology

Ecology: Study of relationships between
organisms and the environment.


Simple definition does not convey the extreme
breadth of this discipline.
Ecosystem: Includes all organisms living in
an area, and the physical environment with
which these organisms interact.

Biosphere: Highest level of ecological
organization.
Ecology 2005
18
What is Ecology?
Ecology 的字首是來自希臘的oikos，意指
“house”，也就是我們周遭的環境。
 1870年德國動物學者 Ernst Haeckel的定義：
the study of the natural environment and
of the relations of organisms to one
another and to their surroundings.
 Ecology is the science by which we study
how organisms interact in and with the
natural world.

Ecology 2005
19
This text, The Economy of Nature, presents
the basic principles of the scientific
discipline of ecology.
 These principles have been defined through
more than a century of observation,
experimentation, and theoretical
exploration of natural systems.
 Ecological principles offer guidelines for the
preservation of biodiversity and
management of the environment for
sustained use.

Robert E. Ricklefs and Gary L. Miller (2000) Ecology. 4th ed. W.
H. Freeman and Company.
Ecology 2005
20
生態學是整合性的科學
生態經濟學、復原生態學(+工程學)、保育生
態學(+野生動物的經營管理)、生物多樣性的
研究(+分類學)、生態毒理學(+化學)、地景
(景觀)生態學(+地理學)、溼地生態學(+水文
學)、農業生態學、環境倫理學(+哲學)。
 生態學是一門整合科學，它有強大潛力作為科
學與社會之間的橋樑。

Ecology 2005
21
Ecology is an interdisciplinary science.
Ecology 2005
22
Four broad areas
Behavioral ecology (行為生態學)
 Population ecology (族群生態學)
 Community ecology (群區生態學)
 Ecosystems ecology (生態體系生態學)

Ecology is to environmental Science as
physics is to engineering.
Ecology 2005
23
Galaxies
E
C
O
L
O
G
Y
P
H
Y
S
I
O
L
O
G
Y
Solar
system
Scale
Earth
Ecosystems
Communities
Community ecology
Populations
Organisms
Organs
B
I
O
C
H
E
M
I
S
T
R
Y
Tissues
Cells
Molecules
Atoms
C
E
L
L
B
I
O
L
O
G
Y
Ecology 2005
Fig.1.3 The organizational levels of ecology
24
Ecology 2005
25
生命世界的組成架構
Emergent 特質(transcending processes)
簡單
複雜
分 胞 細 組 器 系 個 族 群 生 生物
子 器 胞 織 官 統 體 群 落 態系 界
生態學
生理學
行為學
Ecology 2005
26
Ecology of Forest Birds
 MacArthur
studied ecology of five
species of warblers in spruce forests
in N.A.

Theory predicted two species with
identical ecological requirements could
not coexist indefinitely.
 Studies
found warblers coexisted by feeding
in different zones of the same tree.
Ecology 2005
27
Warbler Feeding Zones
Ecology 2005
28
Ecology of Bumblebees
 Bumblebees
regions.
live in many cool
 Heinrich
estimated energy budget
of individuals foraging on different
flowers and under different
temperatures.
 Energy
Gain / Loss
 Energy Intake - Energy Expenditure.
Ecology 2005
29
Ecology of Bumblebees
 Field
and Laboratory Results
Amount of energy expended during
flight was independent of air
temperature.
 Bees elevated temperature of thorax to
stay warm in cool climates.

Ecology 2005
30
Ecology of Bumblebees
Ecology 2005
31
Forest Nutrient Budgets
 Due
to heavy rainfall, many
rainforest soils are nutrient-poor.
 Nutrient
stores in rainforest
canopies are associated with
epiphytes.
 Epiphyte
mats contain significant
quantities of nutrients.
 Trees send roots up to epiphyte mats to
access nutrients.
Ecology 2005
32
Forest Nutrient Budgets

Likens and Bormann estimated 90% of
nutrients in a New Hampshire forest were
locked up in soil organic matter.


Approximately 9.5 % was tied up in vegetation.
Streamflow output amounted to < 1%.
Ecology 2005
33
Vegetation Change: Pollen Records
Many environmental changes occur over
large spatial or temporal scales.
 Davis monitored plant pollen deposited in
lake sediments in the Appalachian Mtns.


Documented large temporal changes to nearby
plant communities.
Ecology 2005
34
Vegetation Change: Pollen Records
 Milne
modeled transitions between
ecosystems (ecotones) as phase
transitions.

Searched for edges between critical
densities of vegetation along ecotones.
 Suggested
areas of gradual change within a
landscape are most likely to contain
biological responses to environmental
changes.
Ecology 2005
35
Vegetation History from Pollen Sediments
Ecology 2005
36
Nature and Scope of Ecology
 Ecology: Study of relationships between
organisms and the environment.
 Wide variety of approaches.
 Large temporal and spatial scales.
 Field
 Lab
 Observational
 Manipulative
Ecology 2005
37
The Scientific method—
Questions and Hypotheses





Scientist ask and attempt to find answers to
questions about the natural world.
Questions are the guiding lights of the scientific
process.
A hypothesis is a possible answer to a question.
The next step is to determine its validity by
testing predictions that follow from the
hypothesis.
Three fundamental ways to test hypotheses are
through observation, experiments and modeling.
Ecology 2005
38
What is the ``scientific method''?
1. Observe some aspect of the universe.
2. Invent a tentative description, called a
hypothesis, that is consistent with what you
have observed.
3. Use the hypothesis to make predictions.
4. Test those predictions by experiments or further
observations and modify the hypothesis in the
light of your results.
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 until there are no
discrepancies between theory and experiment
and/or observation.
Ecology 2005
39
When consistency is obtained the
hypothesis becomes a theory and provides
a coherent set of propositions which
explain a class of phenomena.
 A theory is then a framework within which
observations are explained and predictions
are made.

Ecology 2005
40
Fig. 1 Graphic summary of the scientific method.
Ecology 2005
41
Experimental Problems

Logistic problems lead to low replication

Which leads to a Type I error; declaring
that a hypothesis is false when in fact it
is true. (否定 null 假說，但事實上是「null 假
說是成立的」)

Low replications lead to greater standard
error (SE) values.
Ecology 2005
42
two types of error in measurement

type I error—the conclusion that there is
an effect when in fact there is none, (否
定 null 假說，但事實是「假說是成立的」)

type II error—when an impact exists but
is not detected. (接受 null 假說，但事實是
「假說是錯誤的」)
Ecology 2005
43
two types of error


自然現象的研究，盡量的下降 type I error。

盡量避免否定 null 假說。

如此可以避免研究方向的錯誤。
然而，對於自然資源(災害)的研究，則需要選擇
下降 type 2 error

譬如：漁業資源的耗減
Ecology 2005
44
Review
Overview of Ecology
 Ecology of Forest Birds
 Ecology of Bumblebees
 Forest Nutrient Budgets
 Vegetation Change: Pollen Records
 Nature and Scope of Ecology

Ecology 2005
45
Ecology 2005
46
On the net

http://www.mhhe.com/ecology




http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0072439696/student_view0/chapter1/web
_links.html
Careers in Science
http://www.mhhe.com/links/pages/General_Biology/Car
eers_in_Science/
Scientific method
http://www.mhhe.com/links/pages/General_Biology/Scie
ntific_Method/
Ayo 靜宜站：http://www1.pu.edu.tw/~hycheng
Ecology 2005
47
Careers in Biology

Biology Careers for the Next Century


Careers in Biology.


http://www.emporia.edu/biosci/carebiol.htm#jobs
Environmental Jobs and Careers


http://www.mhhe.com/cgi-bin/links/jump.cgi?ID=56
http://www.ejobs.org/
Sources for Information on Careers in
Biology, Conservation, & Oceanography –

http://www.mhhe.com/cgi-bin/links/jump.cgi?ID=51
Ecology 2005
48
Scientific Method

Introduction to the Scientific method

http://teacher.nsrl.rochester.edu/phy_labs/App
endixE/AppendixE.html
Ecology 2005
49