Foundations of Western Civilization:
Greece and Rome
Why Start Here?
• Our civilization stretches back nearly
3,000 years.
– If this was not the case, we would have to
invent technologies and ideas over and
over.
• We benefit from the works of countless
ancestors.
DO NOW!
• What is the difference between a
myth and a legend?
Myth
• A myth is a traditional story of gods or
godlike beings.
– Is used to relate the worldview of a people or
to explain a practice, a belief or a natural
phenomenon.
– Is thought to contain very little truth
• There are many ways to interpret or
understand myths.
Legend
• A legend is a traditional story of ostensibly
historical events and mortal or semi-divine
heroes, often interacting with gods.
– Many legends, like myths, reflect the social or
political world view of a people
• Most legends were originally oral tales; their
transformation into written literature often
occurred several hundred years after the
events they describe.
Folk Tale
• Folk tales, like fairy tales, are traditional
stories told usually about common
people that reflect the worldview of a
rural or village population.
• History is usually absent in these
stories; they are typically set in an
unspecified time and place.
Saga
• A saga is a tale originally recounted orally but
later preserved in written prose.
– We think of them as Scandinavian, but really
they are common to Indo-Europeans.
– Is the story of Troy a saga?
Bronze Age Greece
Migrations in the Aegean Region
Dorian Greek Invaders
• Came to inhabit much of mainland Greece,
having driven the Achean Greeks onto the
islands of the Aegean Sea.
• Main cities were Corinth and Sparta.
• Known for their fair hair and complexion.
• Famous heroes include:
– Helen of Troy (originally from Sparta)
– Leonidas, King of Sparta
– Possibly Achilles (described as being
blonde)
Common Indo-European
Religious Heritage
• The term for "a god" was deiwos
– Latin, deus
– Sanskrit, deva
– Persian, divs
– Welsh, duw
– Irish, dia
– Lithuanian, Dievas
– Latvian, Dievs.
• Dyēus Phatēr is the god of the day-lit sky and the
chief god.
– The name survives in Greek Zeus with a vocative
form Zeu pater (pater = father)
– Latin Jūpiter
• *Perkwunos, known as "the striker,” or the
‘thunderer,’ is known as Slavic Perun, and Norse
Thor.
• *H2eus(os), is believed to have been the goddess of
dawn,[9]
– Greek Eos, in Rome as Aurora, Gallic Esus, a god of
hearths; Greek, Hestia, goddess of the hearth; Latin Vesta,
goddess of the hearth; possibly also in Germanic mythology
as Ēostre
Common Trends
• They believed in living life to the fullest,
because death was going to happen
whether you wanted it to or not.
• The only response to death was to
make a mark on the world. Become a
legend.
• This is in sharp contrast to Christian
beliefs, which stressed rewards in the
next life.
Zeus
• Killed his own father (who deserved it)
• Zeus is the father of Hercules and
many other gods (see later slide).
• He is the most powerful of the Gods.
• He appears in many stories.
• Unfaithful.
All of Zeus’ children
• Zeus had eight children on Olympus
– The twins: Apollo and Artemis
– Athena (born fully armored out of Zeus’s head
when he had a bad headache)
– Hephaestus
– Hermes
– Ares
– Dionysus
– Aphrodite (adopted)
• Wife of Zeus
• Goddess of marriage,
protector of childbirth &
heroes
• Portrayed as extremely
jealous and vindictive
• Tries to kill Hercules.
• God of the sea, horses
and earthquakes
• Lives in a palace
beneath the ocean
• Carries a three-pronged
trident
• Gave people the horse
• Married a sea nymph
named Amphitrite
• Like his brother, he
fathered many children.
• Very fond of his sister
Demeter
• god of the
underworld
and the dead
• god of wealth
(owned all
precious
metal)
• Wore a cap
that made him
invisible
• Kidnapped
Persephone
and made her
his wife
The Underworld
• Is not the same thing as HELL. All people went to
the Underworld when they died.
• Hades is NOT the devil. He’s as noble as the other
gods.
• Charon: the boatman who would ferry
people/spirits across the river Styx so they could
make it to the Underworld. He wanted to get a tip,
so people were buried with coins on their eyes so
they could pay him.
• Cerberus: 3-headed dog who guards the gate.
– 3 Levels: Tartarus: Place of pain and suffering.
– Asphodel Fields: Where spirits roam like shadows.
– Elysian Fields: Where Heroes go – paradise.
• Demeter means “Barleymother”
• Another name for her is Ceres,
from the word cereal
• Goddess of the cornfield,
mistress of planting and
harvesting, lady of growing
things
• She had a son and a daughter.
Her daughter’s name was
Persephone.
• Her daughter was kidnapped by
Hades. (reasons for the
seasons)
• god of light, music and
poetry
• most beautiful god
• also the god of
medicine
• taught people the art of
healing
• fine marksman
• could predict the future
• goddess of hunting, wild
things, unmarried girls
and the moon
• She decided never to
marry
• Once when she was
bathing under the
moonlight a human was
watching her. She threw
rain drops on him and
changed him into a stag.
Then she had him killed
by his own dogs.
• Zeus’ favorite
• goddess of wisdom,
strategy, protector of
cities and civilizations
• goddess of handicrafts
and art
She sprang from her
father’s head fully
clothed and in armor.
Hephaestus, Zeus’ son,
had to release Athena
by cutting his head open
with an axe.
• god of fire
• The only ugly god, but
he was peaceful,
loving and popular.
• He walks with a limp
because Zeus threw
him over the palace
walls one day when
he took his mother’s
side over Zeus’.
• Made all the
Olympians’ thrones,
armor, furniture and
weapons
• Married Aphrodite
•
•
•
•
•
•
Zeus’ graceful, happy son
by the goddess, Maia
God of shepherds,
merchants, travelers and
thieves
Very mischievous and
tricky
– Stole Apollo’s cows
the day he was born
Guided the newly dead to
the underworld
Invented the alphabet,
astronomy, scales,
playing cards and card
games
Zeus’ messenger
–
Wore winged sandals and a
winged cap
• god of war
• Boastful, cruel and
had no manners
• Son of Zeus and Hera
• Loved to fight, but was
a coward once he got
hurt
• Wherever he went
there was violence
and bloodshed
• god of wine
• Zeus’ youngest son
• His mother, Semele, was
a princess and a mortal
woman
• His mother was
consumed by fire when
she was tricked by Hera
• He was saved by Hermes.
• Taught people the art of
wine making & the
consequences of too
much wine
• Goddess of love,
beauty, and desire.
• Wherever she
walked flowers
sprang up beneath
her feet
• she appeared from
the foam of the sea
• Her son is Eros
(Cupid)
DO NOW!
• Suppose that Helen of Troy was not
the reason for a major war between
mainland Greece and the Trojans.
• What other, more realistic, reasons
might there have been for conflict?
w
Homer w
• Greatest of the Greek poets
• Lived approximately 1000 B.C.
• Epic poems- 1st to make stories a unified
whole
• Sung for entertainment
• Stories taught Greek ideals
Homer’s Great Epics
The Iliad
Ilium- Greek for Troy
Story of the Trojan War
10 years
Fought over Helen of
Troy
The Odyssey
Follows the Trojan War
10 years
Odysseus’s journey to
return to Greece
A metaphor for every
person’s journey
through life.
What were the
real & mythical
causes of the
Trojan War??
The Start of it All…
Three
generations of
misery and
bloodshed
started
because a
wedding
planner failed
to invite an
important
goddess…
Peleus and Thetis’ Wedding
• Peleus was a mortal man.
• Thetis (mother of Achilles) was a sea
nymph and the daughter of Zeus.
• Peleus had been on many adventures and
had already been married, but things went
sour when he accidentally killed his fatherin-law.
• He saw Thetis, fell in love with her, and
tried to kidnap her.
• She managed to fight him off with a snake
until he eventually won her over.
The Big
Affair –
Peleus and
Thetis’
Wedding
• With Zeus’ consent, all the famous mortals,
gods, and goddess attended
• Eris, the goddess of strife was not invited
• Eris was insulted and snuck into the wedding
reception…
To the fairest
A Golden Apple
• Eris tossed a golden apple onto the
dance floor.
• On the apple were the words, “To the
fairest.”
• The golden apple was a serious party
killer. Who was the most beautiful?
Who is the fairest of them all?
The competition was between:
Athena – Zeus’ daughter and a real
daddy’s girl
Hera – Zeus’ wife and Queen of the
Gods
Aphrodite – The Goddess of Love
They asked Zeus, as the King of the
Gods, to award the prize, but he
was no fool…
The Judgment of Paris
• Zeus gave the task to Paris, son of Priam, the King
of Troy.
• Zeus knew that Troy was fated to be destroyed
because of an old run-in with Apollo and
Poseidon.
• Paris was the “torch to set the whole city on fire.”
Paris’ Ill-fated Choice
Athena offered him
victory in war
Hera offered him
power over nations
Aphrodite offered
him the most
beautiful woman in
the world
What would you
choose?
Helen of Troy
• Paris accepted
Aphrodite’s offer
• He then learned that the
most beautiful girl in the
world was ALREADY
MARRIED
• She was Helen, daughter
of Leda and Zeus
• She was married to
Menelaus, king of Sparta
Helen’s father, Tyndareus
Knew many men
would pursue Helen
Was afraid conflicts
or wars would be
fought over her
Convinced suitors to
swear an oath
- to always protect Helen
- to support her husband ,
whomever she chose
Helen of Troy:
“The Face That Launched 1000
Ships”
What
did she
look
like?
The Kidnapping of Helen
• Paris already had a
wife named Oenone
who warned him not
to go through with the
kidnapping
• He didn’t listen
• He sailed off to
Sparta to be guest at
the palace of
Menelaus
The Kidnapping of Helen
• Zeus was the “Protector
of Hospitality”
• Kidnapping your host’s
wife isn’t exactly
hospitable
• Troy is now doomed.
In Sparta, Paris either
forcefully carried Helen
away from Troy or he
seduced her and she left
with him on her own
Troy in Trouble
• When Menelaus discovered
that his wife was kidnapped,
he ran to his big brother
Agamemnon who agreed to
get wage war to get Helen
back
• Menelaus called all Helen’s
suitors, who were bound to
help him get her back.
• Helen is thus known as the
“face that launched a
thousand ships”
Clever Odysseus!
• Odysseus tried to get out of joining
Agamemnon and Menelaus in their fight for
Helen by pretending to be crazy.
• Thetis (whose wedding started all this) tried
to get her son Achilles out of fighting, too.
Now the War Can Begin!
Bronze Age Enemies: The Trojan War
Siege of Troy - lasts 10 years
Troy – high and thick
walls, surrounded by plain of
Troy
Aphrodite- sides with the
Trojans
Athena and Hera side with the Greeks
Zeus- remains impartial
Achilles kills Hector,
Prince of Troy –
defiles body by dragging it
behind his chariot
Paris takes revenge
for brother – shoots
Achilles in heel, killing him
Greeks – create a plan
- Odysseus – known for
strategy
Athena’s favorite
warrior
Plan of the City of Troy
Sir Heinrich Schliemann
The Seven “Layers” of Ancient Troy
Homer’s Troy
(VII)
Original Wall of the City of Troy
Wall of Troy Recreated
Dome of King Priam’s Treasury
King Priam’s Treasure
Mask of Agammemnon
Brutal
Combat
The “Trojan Horse”?
DO NOW!
• Greeks or Trojans? Why?
Project Examples
Learning Targets
Transfer Goals
DO NOW!
• What might motivate the people of a
city or region to radically change their
government? What modern examples
can you think of where this
happened?
Greek & Phoenician Colonization:
750-500 BC
The Rise of the Greek Polis
Athens
Sparta (forbid
coinage)
Naxos
Eboea
Larissa
Syracuse
Corinth
Rule and Order in Greek CityStates
• By 750 B.C. the Greek city-state, or
polis, is the formal government.
• A polis is a city and its surrounding
villages; 50-500 square miles.
• Population of a city-state is often less
than 10,000.
• Citizens gather in the marketplace and
acropolis—a fortified hilltop
Rule and Order in Greek CityStates
• Greek Political Structures
– City-states have different forms of
government.
• Monarchy
• Tyranny
• Aristocracy
• Oligarchy
Infantry Elite: Sparta
DO NOW
• What problems did early Greece face,
and why?
• What did Lycurgus do to try and fix
these in Sparta?
Spartans Arrive
• Spartans – Dorian Greek invaders
from the north.
• Conquer their neighbors, making
them slaves, called ‘helots.’
• Slaves greatly outnumbered Spartans
(more than 10:1)
• This led to fear of a slave revolt, and
the reformation of Spartan society.
Reform of Lycurgus
Bas-relief of Lycurgus, one
of 23 great lawgivers
depicted in the chamber of
the U.S. House of
Representatives.
Lycurgus Travels
• In the climate of great fear, Lycurgus, regent of the King, was
asked to create laws to fix Sparta.
• Realizing that Sparta was in need of reform, Lycurgus set off a
series of travels and went first to Crete.
– The Cretans were related to Spartans; both of them were
Dorians and came from the northern Greece to the South
after the fall of the Mycenaean. Lycurgus studied the
characteristic institutions of Crete, which had a very war-like
society.
• Then he went to Ionia, where the Iliad was composed, and there
he also studied their institutions and compared the softness and
love of luxury that characterizes the Ionians with the rigorous
society of Crete.
• And then he also went to Egypt. We know very little about this
part of his trip
• He then came back to Sparta and called for a great reform.
The Reform of Lycurgus
• The idea of reform
• From the very start, reforms undertaken by Lycurgus
rested upon the ideal of achieving absolute equality
among all Spartans.
• In this age the bane of almost all Greek city-states was
civil war brought about by economic and social
disparity.
• Lycurgus therefore sought to avoid this through his
reforms by making every Spartan equal.
• He aimed to establish a balanced constitution and it
was this very balanced constitution of Sparta attributed
to Lycurgus was very much admired by the founders of
many later countries.
– Balance between Monarchy, Aristocracy, and Democracy.
The Reform of Lycurgus
The Dual Kinship: The Monarchy
• Two kings from separate royal families: equal power and held
office for life.
• The kings’ power in domestic matters was strictly limited. But
in time of war, the kings were commander-in-chief invested
with enormous power.
– They had the right of making war upon whatever country
they chose, and in the field they exercised unlimited right of
life and death and had a bodyguard of 100 men.
• Their main source of income was from royal land. They were
ceremonially honored with the first seat at banquets, were
served first, and received a double portion. One king acted as
a check on his colleague.
The Reform of Lycurgus
The Assembly: Democracy
• The Assembly of all Spartans was the ultimate sovereign; it
decided all matters of war and peace.
• It was made up of Spartan male citizens over the age of thirty.
• Citizenship depended upon successful completion of the course
of training and education which was provided by the state, and
upon election.
• The Assembly elected the magistrates, decided disputed
successions to the kingship, and determined matters of war and
peace and foreign policy.
• Debate was not allowed, only assent or dissent. Thus,
theoretically Sparta was a democracy, but the power of the people
in the Assembly was strictly limited, and the Assembly’s decisions
were subject to overturned.
The Reform of Lycurgus
The Gerousia: Aristocracy
the Gerousia guided policy, particularly foreign policy.
The Gerousia elected by the Spartan Assembly consisted of
thirty members, including the two kings.
This was the Senate of Sparta, literally the Council of Old Men for
members had to be over sixty years of age and were chosen
for their outstanding abilities and service to Sparta. They
served for life.
The Gerousia acted as a supreme court. It could declare a law
passed by the Assembly as unconstitutional. And if the
decision of the Assembly was “unjust,” the Gerousia had the
power to overturn it.
The Reform of Lycurgus
the Ephors:The Guardians
• Another ruling entity was formed after Lycurgus – the Ephors.
• Five Spartans were elected annually for a one-year term.
They were the guardians of the rights of the people and a
check on the power of the kings.
•
• They enforced the Spartan way of life and its educational
system. There was a monthly exchange of oaths between
the ephors and the kings: the ephors swore to uphold the
rule of the kings as long as the kings kept their oath, while the
kings swore to govern in accordance with the laws.
The Reform of Lycurgus
Result: Balanced Constitution
• By the Classical period, these constitutional
reforms had resulted in a balanced constitution
that combined the merits of monarchy, democracy,
and aristocracy.
• The ability to compromise and to bring into
harmony the interests of competing groups had
enabled the Sparta to avoid the phase of tyranny
through which many other Greek poleis passed in
order to achieve similar reforms.
• Sparta’s balanced constitution was the admiration
of other Greek cities and of the Founders of the
United States.
The Spartan Way of Life
Civil Virtue:
• Lycurgus understood that even the best
constitution will fail unless it is vitalized by
civic virtue.
• He defined civic virtue as “the willingness of
the individual to subordinate his interest to
the good of the community”.
• To instill civic virtue was the goal of the
educational system –the Spartan way of life
– attributed to Lycurgus.
The Spartan Way of Life
• In the Spartan system, the polis and its
welfare was paramount. Individual and family
interests and ambitions were to be put aside to
create a society focused on the common good.
• A Spartan newborn had first to be formally
“recognized” by the five Ephors.
– Unrecognized and very sick infants were
“exposed”—abandoned to die.
• “Recognized” infants were given a plot of land,
to be worked by slaves (helots).
• A Spartan child was raised by his mother until
the age of seven.
The Spartan Way of Life
• At seven, the child began to be educated in a system called the
agoge (the Greek word comes from the verb ago, “to lead,” and
denoted a system of training and a way of life).
• The agoge was carefully planned to weaken ties to family and
to strengthen collective identity.
• When they entered the agoge, boys were divided into age
groups and lived under the immediate supervision of older boys.
• Although they were taught the rudiments of reading and writing,
the focus of the agoge was on rigorous physical training to
develop hardiness and endurance.
• They were also acculturated to Spartan values by listening to
patriotic choral poetry and tales of bravery and heroism at
the common meals.
The Spartan Way of Life
• At age twelve, the agoge became increasingly more
military in form and more demanding.
• The boys were allowed only a single cloak for winter
and summer, required to sleep in beds that they
made themselves from rushes picked from the
Eurotas River.
• They were fed meager rations that they were
expected to supplement by stealing (if caught, they
were whipped for their failure to escape detection).
• On occasion they attended the men’s messes,
perhaps in a form of “rushing,” in preparation for their
later election to one of these groups.
Naval Republic: Athens
• Achaean Greek city, most of which
grew up around (not on) the
‘Acropolis.’
• Close to the sea
– How does this influence their
development?
• Begins ‘incorporating’ neighboring
settlements.
• These settlements demand a choice
in the leadership.
Building Democracy
• About 621 B.C., democracy develops in
Athens.
– Democracy is where the people vote. It is
not a type of government, but a form of
choice.
• Nobleman, Draco, develops legal code based
on equality of citizens.
– (Draconian)
• Ruler Solon abolishes debt slavery;
Cleisthenes has citizens make laws.
– Only native-born, property-owning males
are citizens.
Direct Democracy
• The form of government that Athens had was a
direct democracy, where the citizens vote on
everything.
• In Athens, ‘citizenship’ was a tightly controlled
idea. However, if you were a citizen, you had a
great voice in policy.
Compare to U.S.
• Is the U.S. a direct democracy?
Discuss with your neighbors.
• The U.S. today is a representative
republic, where we utilize democracy
(voting) to pick people to make
decisions for us. In a republic the
citizens have certain rights that
cannot be infringed without a lengthy
‘amendment’ process.
Peloponnesian Wars
Sparta Builds a Military State
• Sparta’s Government and Society
– Sparta government has four branches:
citizens elect officials
– Three social classes:
• Citizens
• Free non-citizens
• Helots--slaves
Sparta Builds a Military State
• A Unique City State
– Sparta, isolated from much of Greece, builds
a military state.
• Sparta Dominates Messenians
– Around 725 B.C., Sparta conquers Messenia
– Messenians become helots—peasants forced
to farm the land.
– Harsh rule leads to Messenian revolt;
Spartans build a stronger state.
Sparta Builds a Military State
• Spartan Daily Life
– Spartan values: duty, strength, individuality, discipline over
freedom.
– Sparta has the most powerful army in Greece
– Males move into barracks at age 7, train until 30, serve
until 60.
– Girls receive some military training and live hard lives
– Girls are also taught to value service to Sparta above all
else
Role of Women in Sparta
from Persian Fire by Tom Holland
• “Visions of female flesh, oiled and tanned,
glistened in the imaginings of many a Spartawatcher. The Spartans themselves, sensitive to
the mockery that labeled their daughters ‘thighflashers,’ would retort sternly, ‘that there was
nothing shameful about female nudity, nothing
immoral in the slightest.’ In fact, ‘since it
encouraged a sense of sobriety, and a passion for
physical fitness,’ precisely the opposite.”
Role of Women in Sparta
from Persian Fire by Tom Holland
• “Yet paramount though the requirements of
Sparta’s eugenic program undoubtedly were, an
aura of the erotic still clung to the training grounds
nevertheless. The fertility of a future mother was
best gauged, a Spartan might argue, by the
glowing of her skin and the perfection of her
[body]. Physical beauty—the long blond hair and
elegant ankles for which Spartan girls were
celebrated—provided the readiest measure by
which moral beauty too could be judged. An ugly
daughter, inevitably, would cause her parents
alarm and distress.” (p. 83)
The Persian Wars
• A New Kind of Army Emerges
– Cheaper iron replaces bronze, making arms
and armor cheaper
– Leads to new kind of army; includes soldiers
from all classes
– Phalanx—feared by all, formation of soldiers
with spears, shields
The Persian Wars
• Battle of Marathon
– Persian Wars—between Greece and the
Persian Empire—begin in Ionia
– Persian Army attacks Athens, is defeated at
Marathon in 490 B.C.
• Pheidippides Brings News
– Runner Pheidippides races to Athens to
announce Greek victory.
The Persian Wars
• Thermopylae and Salamis
– In 480 B.C. Persians launch a new invasion of Greece.
– Greeks are divided; many stay neutral or side with
Persians.
– Greek forces hold Thermopylae for three days before
retreating.
– Athenians defeat Persians at sea, near island of Salamis.
– Victories at Salamis and Plataea force Persian retreat.
– Many city-states form Delian League and continue to fight
Persians.
The Persian Wars
• Consequences of the Persian Wars
– New self-confidence in Greece due to victory.
– Athens emerges as leader of Delian League.
– Athens controls the league by using force
against opponents.
– League members essentially become
provinces of Athenian empire.
– Stage is set for a dazzling burst of creativity in
Athens.
The Ancient Olympics:
Athletes & Trainers
Olympia: Temple to Hera
The 2004 Olympics
Early Greek
Geometrics
Phidias’ Acropolis
The Acropolis Today
The Parthenon
The Agora
Olympia
Science and Technology
• Mathematics and Physics
– Euclid—mathematician; his work Elements is
the basis for courses in geometry.
– Archimedes—scientist and mathematician
• He accurately estimated the value of pi (p).
• He explained the law of the lever.
• He invented the Archimedes screw—a pump
which raised water from one level to another.
• He invented the compound pulley for lifting objects.
Philosophy and Art
• Stoicism and Epicureanism
– Zeno founds Stoic school of philosophy which
promoted virtuous and simple lives.
– Epicurus believes people should focus on
what the senses perceive.
• Realism in Sculpture
– Colossus of Rhodes—Hellenistic bronze
sculpture over 100 feet tall.
– Sculptors move to non-classical, natural
forms; real people.
Glorious Art and Architecture
• Architecture and Sculpture
– Pericles builds the Parthenon—a large temple
to honor the goddess Athena.
– Within temple, sculptor Phidias crafts 30 foot
statue of Athena
– Sculptors create graceful, strong, perfectly
formed figures.
– Classical art—values harmony, order,
balance, proportion, beauty
The
Parthenon
from the
south.
Drama and History
• Tragedy and Comedy
– Greeks invent drama as an art form; includes chorus,
dance, poetry
– Two forms of drama: tragedy and comedy
• Tragedy—tells story of heroes’ downfall; themes of love,
hate, and war
• Comedy—makes fun of politics and respected people;
slapstick humor
– Greek dramatists include Aeschylus, Euripides,
Aristophanes, Sophicles
• Historians Herodotus and Thucydides record
and study past events
A Greek theater
Philosophers Search for Truth
• Rise of Great Philosophers
– After the war, thinkers emerge who are called
“lovers of wisdom.” This is from the Greek
words:
• phileo-to love
• sophia—wisdom
– Philosophers believe the universe is subject
to absolute and unchanging laws.
– People could understand these laws through
logic and reason.
Philosophers Search for Truth
• The Sophists
– The word means “the wisest,” so they were proud of
their supposed philosophical knowledge.
– They claimed they could find the answers to all
questions.
– They used rhetoric to win arguments.
– They often charged fees for teaching their skills and
for arguing for others. They might be considered a
type of lawyer of the time.
– Sophist philosopher Protogoras questions the
existence of Greek gods.
Philosophers Search for Truth
• Socrates
– He believes in questioning and teaches
through the method of questioning.
– He is believed to have said “The unexamined
life is not worth living.”
– He is convicted of “corrupting the youth of
Athens and sentenced to death in 399 B.C.
– He dies by drinking hemlock, a slow acting
poison.
Philosophers Search for Truth
• Plato
– He is a student of Socrates.
– He writes The Republic, about an ideal
society ruled by Philosopher-Kings
– His writings dominate European philosophy
for 1,500 years.
Philosophers Search for Truth
• Aristotle
– He was a student of Plato.
– He uses rules of logic for argument.
– His work provides the basis for scientific
method, still used today.
– He tutors 13-year-old prince who becomes
Alexander the Great
Persian Wars: Famous Battles
$ Marathon (490 BCE)
 26 miles from Athens
$ Thermopylae (480 BCE)
 300 Spartans at the
Mountain pass
$ Salamis (480 BCE)
 Athenian navy victorious
Persian Wars: 499 BCE – 480 BCE
The Persian Wars
• Battle of Marathon
– Persian Wars—between Greece and the
Persian Empire—begin in Ionia
– Persian Army attacks Athens, is defeated at
Marathon in 490 B.C.
• Pheidippides Brings News
– Runner Pheidippides races to Athens to
announce Greek victory.
The Persian Wars
• Thermopylae and Salamis
– In 480 B.C. Persians launch a new invasion of Greece.
– Greeks are divided; many stay neutral or side with
Persians.
– Greek forces hold Thermopylae for three days before
retreating.
– Athenians defeat Persians at sea, near island of Salamis.
– Victories at Salamis and Plataea force Persian retreat.
– Many city-states form Delian League and continue to fight
Persians.
The Persian Wars
• Consequences of the Persian Wars
– New self-confidence in Greece due to victory.
– Athens emerges as leader of Delian League.
– Athens controls the league by using force
against opponents.
– League members essentially become
provinces of Athenian empire.
– Stage is set for a dazzling burst of creativity in
Athens.
The Persian Wars
• A New Kind of Army Emerges
– Cheaper iron replaces bronze, making arms
and armor cheaper
– Leads to new kind of army; includes soldiers
from all classes
– Phalanx—feared by all, formation of soldiers
with spears, shields
The Economy of the Hellenistic World
The Breakup of Alexander’s Empire
Alexander the Great
Alexander the Great’s Empire
Alexander the Great
356-323 B.C.E.
Alexander the Great in Persia
Building Greek Cities in the East
Library at Alexandria (333 B.C.E.)
The “Known” World – 3c B.C.E.
Hellenistic Culture in Alexandria
• Cultural Blending
– Result of Alexander’s Policies—a new vibrant
culture
– Hellenistic culture—Greek blended with
Egyptian, Persian, Indian culture
• Trade and Cultural Diversity
– Alexandria—Egyptian city become the center
of Hellenistic civilization
Hellenistic Culture in Alexandria (cont.)
• Alexandria’s Attractions
– Lighthouse, called the Pharos, stands over
350 feet tall
– Museum contains art galleries, a zoo,
botanical gardens, dining hall
– Library holds masterpieces of ancient
literature; supports scholars
Science and Technology
• Alexandria’s Scholars
– Scholars preserve Greek and Egyptian
learning in the sciences
• Astronomy
– Astronomer Aristarchus proves sun is larger
than Earth
– Proposes planets revolve around sun; not
accepted for 14 centuries
– Eratosthenes uses geometry to calculate
Earth’s circumference
Philip Builds Macedonian Power
• Macedonia
– Macedonia—Kingdom of mountain villages
north of Greece
– King Philip II—ruler, brilliant general; dreams
of controlling Greece
– Macedonians call themselves Greek; rest of
Greece does not
• Philip’s Army
– Philip creates well-trained professional army;
plans to invade Greece
Philip Builds Macedonian Power
• Conquest of Greece
– It was easy because “more than one Greek
city felt ambivalent about fighting back.”
(Bauer, p. 579)
– Some Greek cities invited Philip to invade
– Athens asked Sparta for help against
invasion, but Sparta declined
– At the Battle of Chaeronea one thousand
Athenians were killed.
– 338 B.C. Macedonians defeat Greece
Philip Builds Macedonian Power (cont.)
• After the Battle of Chaeronea, Philip changes his
strategy and treats Athens with great respect,
releasing Athenian prisoners of war.
• As a result the Athenians then “chose to pretend
that Philip was now a friend of Athens.” (Bauer,
p. 580)
• Philip makes a speech at Corinth suggesting
Greek submission to his kingship would be good
for Greece.
• The Corinthian League is formed, led by King
Philip, with the intent of attacking the Persians.
Murder of Philip
• Philip married again, for a fifth time, a
Macedonian woman.
• His son Alexander was legitimate, but half
Greek.
• This marriage gave Attalus, one of Philip’s
generals, occasion to call into question the
legitimacy of a half-Greek prince inheriting
the Macedonian throne.
Murder of Philip (cont.)
• Greek historian Diodorus tells us that Philip was killed by
his ex-lover Pausonius (who was one of his guards)
because Philip rejected him.
• Some suspect, however, that Alexander was behind the
murder.
• The 2004 film Alexander directed by Oliver Stone puts
the lays the blame at the feet of Olympias, Alexander’s
mother so that her own son would become king and
there would be no full-blood Macedonian heir. The film
depicts Alexander was an innocent bystander.
• This occurs in 336 B.C.
• His son named king of Macedonia and becomes
Alexander the Great
Alexander Defeats Persia
• Alexander’s Early Life
– Tutored by Aristotle
– Inspired by the Iliad
– Military training
– Becomes king when 20 years old
– Destroys Thebes to curb rebellion
Alexander Defeats Persia
• Invasion of Persia
– 334 B.C. Alexander invades Persia with a
quick victory at Granicus River.
– Darius III, King of Persia, assembles an army
of 50,000-75,000 men.
– Alexander defeats Persians again, forces
King of Persia to flee.
Alexander Defeats Persia
• Conquering the Persian Empire
– Alexander marches into Egypt and is crowned
Pharaoh in 332 B.C.
– At Gaugamela in Mesopotamia, Alexander defeats
the Persians again.
– Alexander captures cities of Babylon, Susa, and
Persepolis
– Persepolis, the Persian capitol is burned to the
ground.
– Ashes of Persepolis signal total destruction of the
Persian Empire
Alexander’s Other Conquests
• Alexander in India
– Alexander fights his way across the deserts of
Central Asia to India
– Alexander conquers Indus Valley area in 326
B.C.
– Reluctantly returns to Babylon and dies in 323
B.C.
Alexander’s Legacy
• Alexander melds Greek and Persian
cultures.
• He takes a Persian wife.
• Empire becomes three kingdoms
– Macedonia, Greek city-states
– Egypt
– Old Persia, also known as the Seleucid
kingdom