Structural Analysis of
English Syntax
Part II - C. Chapter 8 (pp. 98-114)
Herndon, J.H. (1999). A Survey of modern grammars (2nd
Facsim ed.) Forth Worth, TX. ; Hartcourt College Publishers.
Prepared by: Aníbal Muñoz Claudio
Course: Educ 8145
Professor: Dr. María A. Irizarry
Date: September 13, 2005
Preview
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Definitions
Inflectional Paradigms
Derivational Paradigms
Intonation Patterns
Position or Word Order
Form Class Words
Nouns –Class I, Pronouns, Verbs –Class II, Adjectives –Class III, Adverbs –
Class IV
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Function Words (determiners, conjunctions, others)
Syntactic Combinations, Phrase Analysis, Immediate
Constituent Analysis, and Sentence Formulas
What is syntax?
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The forms that English words may be given and
the sequences in which they are arranged with
other words to express larger, more complex
meanings make up the syntactic pattern or
system of English.
The syntax of English –the third level of
grammar and the third level of analysis –deals
with the more complex combinations of
linguistic forms. Identification of a word class is not, then, a
matter of “What do these words mean?” but “How do they fit into a
pattern?” “What forms will they take?” and “How do they behave in
combination with other forms?” (1999, Herndon)
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The way in which words are put together to
form constructions (American Heritage Dictionary)
Paradigms
The devices used by structuralists for establishing word classes
in English include consideration of ways in which certain
types of words can be grouped into sets, called paradigms,
on the basis of the inflectional and derivational affixes that
they will take.
1.
Inflectional paradigms
They are sets of forms. Each set is made up of a base form
(singular), plus whatever morphemic changes –either the
addition of suffixes or sound changes or both –may be used
to adapt the base form to certain functions without changing
the lexical meaning.
(1999, Herndon)
For example, the inflectional paradigm for the class form
(NOUNS) is made up as follows.
Nouns – inflectional
paradigms
Base
(singular)
Base Form +
plural
Base Form +
possessive
teacher
teachers
teacher’s teachers’
teacher’s desk
student
students
Base Form +
Possessive
plural
teachers’ rights
student’s students’
2. Derivational paradigms
Noun
Derivational paradigms
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Derivational paradigms
are made up of sets of
endings that may be
attached to bases that
may shift their lexical
meaning or part of
speech or both. Some
examples of nounmarking derivational
suffixes are –hood, -ship,
-ness, and –ment. Words
having these endings are
recognized, even in
isolation, as nouns. (1999,
Herndon)
friend
friendship
neighbor
neighborhood
dark (adj.)
darkness (N)
establish (V)
Establishment (N)
Other aspects of syntax
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Intonation Patterns –contrasts
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made by the differences of stress,
pitch, and juncture often identify a form
as belonging to one word class or
another. For example the difference
between the noun contract and the
verb contract, is determined by
differences in intonation pattern.
(1999, Herndon)
Position or Word
Order – word classes are
usually identifiable on the basis of
where they appear in a given
sentence. Many words are not
recognizable as a single part of
speech when they are met in
isolation. According to Herndon,
we do not need the structuralists
to prove this, but rather to rely on
Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary,
which lists the word round as
adjective, noun, transitive verb,
preposition, and adverb. In order
to isolate the definition that you
seek, you must have the word in a
context.
Function Words
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Some words in English may not
make use of the structural
paradigms. They have no
inflectional or derivational endings.
determiners
They perform a function in the
Auxiliary
subordinators
system –outside of the
verbs
grammatical relationships they
signify, they have little or no
Function
meaning.
words
qualifiers
conjunctions
The categories of function words
are often called closed classes
because new forms are rarely, if
ever, added to them.
prepositions
interrogatives
Function words represent only a
few hundred of the more than half
a million words in English. (1999,
Herndon)
Form Class Words
1. Nouns –Class I Words
1.
2.
3.
Inflectional paradigm –generally speaking, nouns are forms
that will accept inflections. (slide # 5)
Derivational paradigms –many forms may be recognized as
nouns on the basis of various noun-marking derivational
suffixes added either to bound bases or to other words –often
words belonging to other classes. There are literally dozens of
these endings. For example, -er, -or, and –ment adapt verbs to
use as nouns;
Examples: verbs
+ derivational suffix = noun
work
+ er = worker
play
+ er = player
stimulate + or = stimulator
govern + ment = government
Intonation Pattern – differences of stress may distinguish
nouns from verbs (slide # 7). Heavier stress on the first syllable
almost always signals a noun; heavier stress on the second
signals a verb. noun -súspect / verb -suspéct
4. Position or Word Order
Nouns fill certain characteristic positions in relation to
other parts of speech. The most obvious is that just
before the verb.
Examples: The _____ is here. These _____ are
beautiful!
5. Function Words –In English, noun determiners
immediately precede nouns or precede them with
certain words in between. Some noun determiners
never appear except when followed by a noun and
invariably signal its coming. These are the articles the,
a, and an and the possessive pronouns my, your, our,
and their. Other pronouns are quite frequently used as
determiners, but have other functions as well. These
are the demonstratives this, that, these, and those and
the other possessive pronouns, his, her, and its.
Pronouns
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When considered a separate class, pronouns are Class II words,
but most school texts consider them a subcategory of nouns.
In contrast to nouns, pronouns constitute a closed class –no new
pronouns have been added to English for hundreds of years. If
anything, the class has become smaller instead, as few speakers
now make use of the forms thee, thou, thy, and thine.
Personal pronouns fall into an inflectional paradigm that is similar
to, but not exactly like, that for nouns. Forms show both number
and the possessive case, but they also show gender and the
nominative and objective cases.
Example: he / his / him (see enclosures)
Pronouns, in most cases are identifiable by the ability of each to
substitute for a type of noun or noun phrase.
(1999, Herndon)
2. Verbs Class II Words
a. Inflectional Paradigm –English verbs commonly have five forms , the base form
and four inflected forms. These inflections are the present 3rd person singular, the past,
the present participle, and the past participle form. (see example below)
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The present 3rd singular is similar in many ways to the noun inflections
The past tense, or preterit, is commonly formed with the –ed ending, but
there are several irregular allomorphs.
The present participle is formed by an –ing suffix.
The past participle makes use of –ed and –en endings or internal vowel
changes. In a class by itself in many ways is the verb be, which has eight
inflected forms (be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been)
base
3rd sing.
past
present part. past part.
eat
eats
ate
eating
eaten
2. Verbs –cont.
b. Derivational Paradigm
Some verbs are marked by
suffixes such as the –ate
ending added to bound bases
and nouns, the –ize added to
bound bases, nouns, and
adjectives, and the –fy added
to bound bases, nouns, and
adjectives, and the prefix –en
added to nouns and some
other verbs.
Examples: summarize,
beautify, locate, etc.
c. Intonation Pattern See
contrasts with nouns marked
by intonation
d. Position or Word
Order
Some positions mark verbs.
Verbs commonly occupy the
first position in requests, a
position between two nouns
or pronouns, or between
noun and adjective or
adverb. Here’s a simple set
of test frames for verbs.
1.
2.
3.
The child may___ something.
The children ___ friendly.
___ you ____ me that?
e. Function Words – function
words that work with verbs
are the various forms of
have and be and the modals
can, may, should, will, and
others. (1999, Herndon)
3. Adjectives – Class III Words
a.
Inflectional Paradigms
True adjectives commonly
show comparative and
superlative degrees by adding
–er and –est inflections.
Derived adjectives make use
of the function words more
and most for this purpose.
b.
Derivational Paradigms
True adjectives fit into
derivational patterns with
nouns formed by adding the
suffix –ness to true adjectives
and adverbs formed by adding
the suffix –ly to the same
adjectives. (1999, Herndon)
happy-happiness-happily
b. (Cont.) Adjectives are derived
from other words by adding
such endings as –y, ic, and –
ous to nouns and bound
bases; -ful and –less to nouns;
-able,-ent, and –ive to verbs
and bound bases.
1. greed
greedy
2. class
classic
3. danger dangerous
4. need
needful
5. home
homeless
6. manage manageable
7. differ
different
8. persuade persuasive
4. Adverbs – Class IV Words
Many adverbs share several structural distinctions with adjectives
a.
b.
Inflectional Paradigm
c.
In a few cases adverbs admit
the comparative and
superlative degree endings (er,
est), usually they use more
and most. Some adverbs have
a base form that also serves
as an adjective (fast, hard). In d.
this case the class will depend
upon other structural devices.
(1999, Herndon)
Derivational Paradigm –the
most common adverb-marking
suffix is the –ly added to
adjectives (common + ly),
(soft+ ly), (bare + ly). .
There are other
combinations.
Intonation Patterns
The intonation patterns of
larger structures often show
adverbs patterning closely with
verbs, in contrast to adjectives
which usually pattern with
nouns.
Word Order
Most adverbs in English are
extremely mobile. Various
types may fill any of several
positions or positional
combinations, but almost all
can fill the position following a
noun-verb-complement
sequence like the following.
The boy ate his cookies
_____.
(1999, Herndon)
Function Words
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Determiners – The workings of the determiner class of function words is
described in some detail under the form class with which they appear, the
nouns or class I words. The most commonly used members are the, a,
an, and some.
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Auxiliary Verbs – Forms of the auxiliaries have and be work with various
inflected forms of verbs. Modals are usually considered a subcategory
because their operation is somewhat different from that of have and be.
Other auxiliaries are forms of get and do.
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Qualifiers – They work with both adjectives and adverbs. Some of the
most frequently used are more, most, very, quite, rather, and somewhat.
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Prepositions – They introduce modifying or qualifying phrases set apart
by intonation pattern and the presence of the preposition form. They
indicate the relation of words with other words. (eg. location, direction,
time, etc.)
Function Words (cont.)
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Conjunctions – They always work as coordinators
of linguistics forms or syntactic units having equal
value. The two most frequently used are and and
but.
Subordinators – they connect dependent clauses
and include words such as because, after,
although, unless, and so on, as well as the relative
pronouns who, whose, which, and that.
Interrogatives – they operate in the formation of
questions and include words such as when, where,
why, how and so on, as well as the interrogative
pronouns who, which, and what
Syntactic Combinations
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When smaller structures enter into combinations, some consideration must
be given to the relationship holding between them within the combination.
For example, “Birds fly” consists of structures commonly called noun and
verb.
The combination is a larger structure called a sentence. Within the
sentence both words have a structure and a function.
Analysis of any larger structure involves sorting its parts into types of
smaller structures and identifying the functions performed in the
combination.
Structural grammarians vary somewhat in the methods used to analyze
complex grammatical structures in English. (1999, Herndon)
This chapter discusses three of the principal methodologies used by
grammarians. (1999, Herndon)
a. phrase analysis b. immediate constituent analysis c. sentence
formulas
Phrase Analysis
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One of these methods begins with consideration of word “clusters
that are set apart on the basis of the intonation pattern that they
show. A group of words appearing between well-defined junctures
is described as a phrase or cluster.
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The principal word in each phrase is called the head word.
In general, phrases function as units in larger structures, and they
fall into groups based on the type of function the unit performs.
Noun phrases, verb phrases, and various types of modifying or
qualifying phrases –adjectival, adverbial, prepositional, and so on
–may be defined.
Analysis may then be made of relationships holding between the
various types when they appear in various combinations. Finally,
clause and sentence types may be defined. (1999, Herndon)
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Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC)
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The second method and
perhaps the most widely used
means of dealing with English
syntax is the IC.
Sentences are divided into
their principal parts or
immediate constituents.
Each of these is then divided
and subdivided until the
ultimate constituents of the
sentence are reached.
1. The boys / shyly touched the puppy.
shyly touched / the puppy.
The / boys / shyly / touched / the / puppy.
Small puppies / are fat and frisky.
are / fat and frisky.
Small / puppies / are/ fat / and/ frisky.
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Further cuts might even divide the
plural morphemes from boy and
puppy, the inflectional –ed from
touch and the ly from shy.
ICs –structures and functions
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In ICs the relationship is analyzed and identified after each cut is made.
The first cut yields structures that function as subject and predicate.
The boys
shyly touched the puppy.
Structures: (NP) noun phrase
Functions: Subject
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(VP) verb phrase
Predicate
The second cut yields structures that function as verbal element and
complement (or object) within the predicate
The boys
Structures:
Functions:
shyly touched
VP
Verbal Element
the puppy.
NP
Complement (Object)
ICs – final cut
The
boys
S. Det. Noun
F. Mod. Head
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shyly
touched
Adverb
Modifier
Verb
Head
the
puppy.
Det.
Mod.
Noun
Head
Among other things, this type of analysis gives rise to the
practice of referring to noun-headed and verb-headed
structures when speaking of phrases. (1999, Herndon)
Sentence Formulas
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The third method is one that begins
with a consideration of basic sentence
patterns and proceeds to analyze the
relationships between the different
parts of the patterns
Each of the parts of a very simple
sentence can be expanded in various
ways so that more complex sentence
patterns –and more complex layers of
relationships –are produced
Sentence patterns of the simplest
noun-verb-noun, noun-verb-adjective
types are considered first.
The sentence parts are designated by
the numbers and letters assigned to
their form class or function word
groups. (1999, Herndon)
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A short sample list might
include these groups:
Form Class Words
1.
Noun or pronoun
2.
Verb
3.
Adjective
4.
Adverb
Function Words
D. Determiner
A. Auxiliary
Q. Qualifier
P. Preposition
Practice Exercises
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Sentence Type I
1-2
variations
D–1–2
The woman spoke.
D – 3 – 1 – 2 The beautiful woman spoke.
D–1 –2–4
D–Q–3–1–2
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Sentence Type II
1–2–3
variations
D–1–2–3
D–3–1–2–3
D–1–2–Q–3
D–3–1–2–Q–3
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Sentence Type III
1–2–1
variations
D–1–2–1
D–1–P–D–1–2–1
D–1–2–1–P–D–1
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Sentence Type IV
Summary
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Structural analysis of English syntax
divides the parts of speech into form class
words and function words. Categories of
form class words are identified on the basis
of the following criteria:
1. inflectional paradigm
2. derivational paradigm
3. intonation pattern
4. word order
5. function words that work with them
Several methods of phrase and
sentence analysis have been used by
structuralists. The most influential one
is called immediate constituent (IC)
analysis.
(1999, Herndon)
References
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Herndon, J.H. (1999). A Survey of modern grammars (2nd
Facsim ed.). Forth Worth, TX.: Hartcourt College
Publishers.
Verspoor, M., Sauter, K. (2000). English sentence
analysis: an introductory course. Philadelphia, PA. John
Benjamins Publishing Co.
Benson, M., Benson, E., & Ilson, R. (1997). The BBI
dictionary of English word combinations. Philadelphia,
PA. John Benjamins Publishing Co.
American Heritage Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Co.