Chapters 12 and 13
 During the prosperous 1820s-40s there was an increasing
concern in society as a whole for the need to reform- to
make America as great as we felt it could be.
 The optimism of this time period shaped a number on
movements regarding the desire for reform in social class
issues, women’s rights/political inequality , religion and
racism.
 Most reformers were middle class- generally from
Northeast and Midwest. (south involved in some, but not
others) Women vitally important- guardians of virtue etc…
 Reformers had a profound effect on politics and society.
 If improvement is the goal-
one way to achieve is by
grouping together with like
minded individuals to achieve
your purpose. (whatever that
may be) Often disillusioned
by materialism and
industrialism, wanted to
create a simpler, more
harmonious lifestyle
 Generally collective- all
property owned by the group
(essentially forerunners of
socialism and communism)
 1st American communal movement. Founded by
“Mother Ann” Stanley in England, came to US in 1787.
Name comes from religious ceremonies where they
were supposed to be experiencing the holy spirit.
 Had 20 communities in NY and OH with about 5000
members at peak.
 Believed in equality of sexes - opposed to marriage
(and sex) made it hard for numbers to grow. (adopted
orphans)
 Prosperous- known for quality furniture making
(simplicity) Long lasting- survived until 1940s
 Founded 1848 by John
Humphrey Noyes based on
new religious morality that
sought free love, “complex”
marriage, and selection of
parents for better offspring.
(sort of the anti-shaker)
 Noyes was very controlling,
almost dictatorial.
Prosperous due to
metalwork (traps and
silverware)
 Founded 1841, Brook Farm was another Utopian
Community- but based on the principles of
Transcendentalism- the belief that the spiritual world is
more real, and more important than the physical one.
Truth therefore “transcends” the limitations of what we can
experience.
 Inspired by European Romanticism, a reaction to
industrialization that stressed passion and emotion- esp in
the arts. Emphasized individualism, and self reliance.
Hostile to “conventional” institutions.
 Brook farm was meant to show that intellect and physical
labor are not mutually exclusive. Attracted writers and
artists, nonconformists and reformers- but not farmers.
Community collapsed in 1846 after a fire.
 Robert Owen was a
British industrialistwho didn’t like the degradation of factory workers. 1824
– Owen buys a town in Indiana, and decided to create
“New Harmony”. Wanted to stop pursuit of wealth in
favor of a “new moral world” of communal living.
Failed within a decade
 Josiah Warren created totally unregulated settlements
at Utopia OH, and Modern Times NY. Goods valued
on how much labor it took to make them- no
“nonproducers” allowed. But the NO rules thing ended
up with chaos….
 Many reform movements drew inspiration from the
2nd Great Awakening – which called for people to live
more godly lives.
 “Perfectionism” – all humans are capable of indefinite
improvement.
 Took reform movements that already existed
(temperance, Abolitionism) to much more intense
levels. Didn’t just want to make things “better” striving
for extreme change.
 Evangelicals called drinking a
sin- and alcohol abuse was a serious problem in 19th c
America. Drunkenness decreased ability to work, and
increased abuse of families. Temperance Movement
promoted by churches to get men to slow or stop drinking
voluntarily..
 American Temperance Society founded 1826
 TS Arthur’s “10 Nights in a Barroom and what I saw there” 2nd
best seller of 1850s.
 Temperance Fairly successful in reducing consumption, (in
1840s it was ½ what it had been in 1830s) but many started
to look for Prohibition of Alcohol entirely. (Maine 1st state
to do so in 1851) Least sectional of all reform movements
 Remember- this is the age of individualism – and
reform movements tended to mess with that, which
could get awkward
 Catholic immigrants particularly resentful – didn’t like
“protestant morality” forced on them (and they liked
to drink too). Plus, Catholics believe in original sin, so
perfectionism is a waste of time….
 Individualism and Reform needed to exist in a delicate
balance. Reformers often explained what they were
doing as attempts to “liberate” people from the
“slavery” of drink, or sin
 Also said that true self fulfillment comes from selfdiscipline – and that was what they were trying to
teach people.
 Felt immigrants lacked self control, and led lives of
vice and sin. Published “Tracts” (religious pamphlets)
and flooded them in immigrant areas.
 In America- “crime” has always called for “punishment”.
During 1830s and 1840s, one aspect of reform was
taking those who were outside the system (by choice,
like criminals, or not, like orphans and the mentally ill)
and creating places where their character could be
transformed
 Jails for criminals (long term)
poorhouses, orphanages, asylums
for the mentally ill. Intention was
to “cure” whatever made person
act “incorrectly”
 The largest (and most important) “Institutions” built
during the reform era were tax supported schools. Local
primary schools already common (in North – south not
into this) this expands on those “one room schoolhouses”.
 Horace Mann (educational reformer) said schools would
“equalize the conditions of men”- an alternative for those
who could not afford to buy land, they would provide selfdiscipline and social advancement.
 Would also reinforce morality through rules: obedience to
authority, promptness, attendance, and organizing ones
day into pre-determined periods. (Gee, school is like a
factory….) Also provided the 1st really “respectable” career
for middle class women.
 Abolitionist societies
have been around since
colonial age (Quakers).
Had been often
discussed at end of
revolution, then died
away, only to be
reawakened with the
Missouri Compromise
 Many abolitionists favored gradual
emancipation and Colonization
(return to Africa)- Favored by Henry Clay, John
Marshall, Daniel Webster, J Q Adams, Andrew Jackson
and Abraham Lincoln.
American Colonization society founded 1816established Liberia on West Coast of Africa.
 Assumption was that Blacks/Whites couldn’t live
together on equal terms – much like Indian Removal
 Approx 15,000 blacks go to Liberia (capital Monrovia)
from 1820-1860, some voluntarily (already Free), some
slaves freed on condition they leave
 But since our slave trade outlawed 1808- most Blacks
are native born- not “African”, and they strongly
resented the notion that they couldn’t live here.
 Many Black organizations
removed “African” from
their name- want to be seen
as “American”
 Abolitionist movement became
much more aggressive beginning
in 1830s. Rejected gradual approach of past
 Demanded immediate, complete, uncompensated
emancipation. All about exposing the evils of slaveryoften “in your face” screaming and demanding justice.
 Founded on writings of David Walker (An Appeal to the
Colored Citizens) which was all about hypocrisy of liberty v.
slavery
 Occasional suggestions that the “virtuous” north should
secede from the “decadent” South. Popularity of movement
made it clear this issue was not going to be solved quickly
or easily.
 The voice of the militant abolitionism. 1831
begins to publish “the Liberator” – a weekly
Journal.
 “I will be harsh as truth, I will not equivocate, I
will not excuse, I will not retreat a single inch,
and I will be heard”
 Actually got word out in south- southerners so
offended they reprinted his editorials
 Elijah Lovejoy- his printing press destroyed 4 times,
eventually murdered by pro slavery faction in Illinois.
 Theodore Weld- founder of American Anti-Slavery society,
wrote American Slavery As It Is. great orator, known for
sermons during 2nd awakening. Really started talking about
slavery as a SIN, which changed the conversation- used
stories published in SOUTHERN papers as source- south
could not say he was making things up.
 Arthur and Lewis Tappan- funded the Liberator.
 Grimke Sisters- only well known southern female
abolitionists (but their main focus was women’s rights)
 South said that abolitionist’s goal was to create slave
rebellion – but most (not all, as we will see later)
abolitionists rejected violence
 Instead, their goal was to show people the sinfulness of
slavery (Moral Suasion) – and how BOTH the north
and south were complicit in benefitting from it.
 They were radical social critics, their language was
deliberately provocative, and calculated to stir people
up.
 Continued with the idea that freedom comes not from
owning land- but from individualism- being in charge
of yourself and your own destiny.
 Yes, factory workers have hard lives, but they can quit
their jobs, move, have a family- all things denied to
slaves.
 Insisted upon the idea that Freedom itself (as opposed
to property or self government) is the most
fundamental American right
 Abolitionists were the 1st to take “color” out of the
definition of an American. (up til now, could only be a
full “citizen” if white) Demanded equality before the
law regardless of race.
 1st to say that Blacks ARE American, b/c they are born
here, just like us. They are no more “African” b/c of
their heritage than a white person is “English” (or Irish
or German etc) by theirs. Used Liberty Bell as their
symbol (which helped make it famous)
 Also helped expand the definition of “cruelty”. Beating
etc came to be seen as wrong- the idea that a person
has the right to “bodily integrity”.
 Frederick Douglas escaped as a young man, self
educated. Wrote Narrative on the life of Frederick
Douglas, a famous account of the life of a slave
 Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1851) most famous book of the age
(only the bible sold more) Highly dramatized (and not
super accurate, Stowe had never been to south) but
portrayed slaves as sympathetic characters, Christians
and families at the mercy of slaveholders –
Melodramatic, but effective.
 While Abolitionists fought
hard for reform, Racism
ran deep. Leaders of
movements were generally
white- so by 1840s Free
Blacks sought independent
movements.
 And yet, what is
remarkable is how far
abolitionists pulled away
from what were accepted
ideas of the time, fighting
legal and political battles,
and challenging what it
meant to be a “man”
 In 1852 Fredrick Douglas gave a famous speech on
Independence day “What, to a slave, is the 4th of July” –
saying that America could not choose to celebrate
ourselves as land of the free, and continue to allow
slavery.
 Black communities would celebrate the anniversary of
things like the end of the slave trade, or dates when
various other countries had abolished slavery. Held up
England as a land of Justice, and US as land of Tyranny.
 Free blacks also pointed out that while they were not
property, they were certainly not being invited to be a
full part of America
 It was not only the south that hated abolitionism- (though
they did, and southern postmasters would do things like
burn abolitionist mailings etc, which is against the law)
There were also people in the North – who made big $$
from cotton etc- who wanted abolitionists silences
 William Lloyd Garrison dragged through streets in Boston,
Elijah Lovejoy killed by a Mob in Illinois, Anti-Abolitionists
burned Penn. Hall to prevent meetings.
 To try to sweep the issue under the rug, in 1836 Congress
adopted a “Gag resolution” saying no abolitionist bills
would be debated/voted on. Repealed 1844 (JQA)
 An effective technique was to appeal to Northerners
that their OWN freedoms were threatened by slavery
(after all, if it could happen to one group)
 It’s never easy to hold on to an unpopular opinion- and
most people in North just wanted to ignore the slave
issue. But Abolitionists would not be silenced, and
worked to assure their right to discuss issue- even if it
made others uncomfortable.
 Women were tremendously important to
the abolitionist movement –after all, we
were the guardians of public virtue. Most were
evangelical protestants, fired up after 2nd Great
Awakening
 LOTS of people were involved in politics in the 1830s and
40s (remember those 80% voter turnouts) and women
were excluded. In reform, women found a way to be
involved in the issues our nation was experiencing, some
even with leadership roles. (Dorothea Dix and her work
with mentally ill)
 Attacked double standards of era- demanding a voice.
 Working as abolitionists, women began to see correlations
to their OWN subordinate legal status.
 Grimke Sisters: criticized for giving speeches to mixed
gender crowds on abolitionism led them to feminism.
Defended not only the right of women to take part in
debate, but to share social and educational privileges
enjoyed by men.
 Letter on Equality of the Sexes – critique of the idea that
women and men had to have separate spheres. Demanded
equal pay for equal work. “I know nothing of men’s rights
and women’s rights. My doctrine is that whatever it is
morally right for men to do, it is morally right for women to
do”.
 Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, abolitionists
turned away from international anti-slavery convention in
London b/c of their sex - which led them to feminism.
Organized
 Seneca Falls Convention 70 women and 30 men in upstate
NY. 1st discussion of Women’s suffrage, as well as property
rights (coverture still common), need for education and
increased econ opportunities.
 Declaration of Sentiments: modeled
on Dec of Independence, “All men and
women are created equal” protested
“injuries and usurpations to the rights
of women”
 Women’s Rights advocates insisted that women deserved
individual choices (besides whom to marry) and the
possibility of self realization that was essential to freedom.
 Middle Class women have more time (servants etc) – but
less fulfillment, women were denied higher education and
access to the vast majority of “professions”
 Margaret Fuller: transcendentalist (so freedom is internal,
a quest for personal development), said women needed
education to decide their lives for themselves. Became the
1st female editor of New York Tribune
 Market revolution had given women new roles –and lower class
women worked HARD. Disparity of Republican Motherhood /
Cult of Domesticity vs Economic roles . Women are seen as
mentally/physically weak (despite their work)
 Sojourner Truth – a emancipated (from
gradual era of Revolution) slave gave
famous “Aren’t I a Woman” speech 1851
 Amelia Bloomer: advocated “Turkish
trousers” rather than skirts for women….
seen as indecent
 Feminists challenged the idea that freedom
and reason belonged to men alone, and
that issues of justice and liberty did not
apply to the family.
 Again, women could empathize with the legal issues of
slavery- b/c they had very few legal rights themselvesespecially if married. Remember from the last chaptersouthern slaveholders often compared their wives and their
slaves as naturally inferior.
 Mary Wollstonecraft had written Vindication of the Rights
of Women in 1790s (“Why are all men born free and all
women born slaves?”)
 Women did not have rights to own/control property (even
if they had it before marriage), control their own wages
(often paid to husband) though some states (like NY)
began to enact laws separating husbands/wives property
after Panic of 1837
 Again, like abolitionists- feminists maintained that the
central idea of freedom is having the decision making
power in your own life – including your own body. There
were very few laws against physically or sexually abusive
husbands (as long as they were not “intolerable”), and birth
control, while in infancy, was illegal in many states.
 Though feminists challenged the cult of domesticity, they
did use the stereotype of women’s greater morality to say
that if women were allowed increased access to public lifethey would be an influence for good.
 Lucy Stone: kept her own name after she married.
 Susan B. Anthony: demanded laws that gave
custody rights to mothers, the right to collect their
own wages, and inherit property.
 Abolitionism and Feminism became intertwined, two groups
searching for recognition, and full citizenship. But some MALE
abolitionist leaders became uncomfortable with the dual role of
the struggle, and thought that women had overstepped their
bounds, or that supporting women’s rights as well (as leaders like
William Lloyd Garrison did) made them seem TOO radical.
 1840 Abby Kelly was appointed to a leadership position in the
American Anti-Slavery Society, which offended enough men that
a group split off and formed the American and Foreign Anti
Slavery Society (clever title guys)
 Mainstream press and churches dismissive- said this “nonsense”
would hurt women’s more important reform work. But- women
gained greater access to education (esp college) and property
rights before the Civil War
Chapter 13
 While sectional tensions were rising during the 1840s, a place
where most Americans could agree was on the idea of
Expansionism- That God had chosen America to control the
Western Hemisphere . Really started with Indian removal- that
focused the drive west. Our size and growth (pop doubles every
20 years) seemed to make it obvious- and this was one area
Whigs and Democrats alike could support.
 John O’Sullivan coined phrase “manifest destiny”. Frederick
Jackson Turner Wrote The Significance of the Frontier in American
History (1893). Said the west is what forged America’s character- we
were forged by conquering the continent.
 Yet expansion only exacerbated the tensions, as new territory
gained became yet another place to argue over- esp in regards to
expansion (or not) of slavery
 Panic of 1837 sent a lot of people west of the Mississippi,
and that was a new thing- up till that time it had been
mostly trappers.
 1840-45 5000 people move to Oregon ( “Oregon Fever”
Willamette Valley), by 1860 300,000 people have moved
over the Rockies to OR and CA
 At the time, Oregon was
claimed by both US and Eng
(we said it was Louisiana
Purchase, they say it’s Canada)
Adams – Onis Treaty says we
Share
 Mexico won
independence in 1821and controlled huge
territory -6.5 m people
but not many in “New
Mexico” (30,000 Sp
10,000 In) or California
(3,200 Sp – land grants,
and 170,000 In)
 Santa Fe trail and Pacific
trade linked NM and CA
with US
 In 1821- the new gov’t of Mexico sold a large land grant
(18,000 acres)to Stephen Austin. By 1830, Austin had
organized and sold that land to 7,000 people
 By 1835 there were 27,000 American settlers- who had
come to TX with about 3000 slaves to farm cotton.
 Mexico was worried so many people were coming- and
that they were protestant Americans with no thought
of changing culture- Austin wanted autonomy, and
eventually independence.
 Issue got stickier when Mexico abolished slavery- and
Texans had no intention of complying.
 Pres. Of Mexico sends General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna
to force Texans to follow the law. Lay siege to the ALAMO (a
mission in San Antonio) March 6 1836, Santa Anna attacks
and kills 187 Texans (including Davie Crocket and Jim Bowie)
“Remember the Alamo” become the Texan’s war cry.
 March 2nd Texas had declared itself and independent nationand April 21 Sam Houston led Texans to victory at Battle of
San Jacinto where Santa Anna was taken prisoner and forced
to recognize Texan Independence. When he got home- Santa
Anna (and Mexico) repudiated the treaty
 Issue tricky for US- the Texans were Americans, but support
could bring war with Mexico. Furthermore, if Texas joined US,
it would be a slave state. By 1845 there are 150,000 in TX
 John Tyler had taken presidency in 1841 Wm H
Harrison died. Tyler was a strange Whig presidentthey decline to run him in 1844
 But main issue of the 1840s is expansion- which
makes presidential campaign far more about foreign
policy than domestic
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Abraham Lincoln
Franklin Roosevelt
George Washington
Theodore Roosevelt
Harry Truman
John Kennedy
Thomas Jefferson
Dwight Eisenhower
Woodrow Wilson
Ronald Reagan
Lyndon Johnson
James Polk
Andrew Jackson
James Monroe
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
Bill Clinton
William McKinley
John Adams
George H.W. Bush
John Quincy Adams
James Madison
Grover Cleveland
Gerald Ford
Ulysses Grant
William Taft
Jimmy Carter
Calvin Coolidge
Richard Nixon
James Garfield
29. Zachary Taylor
30. Benjamin Harrison
31. Martin Van Buren
32. Chester Arthur
33. Rutherford Hayes
34. Herbert Hoover
35. John Tyler
36. George W. Bush
37. Millard Fillmore
38. Warren Harding
39. William Harrison
40. Franklin Pierce
41. Andrew Johnson
42. James Buchanan
 An expression of Manifest Destiny- Texas and Oregon were
the central issues in the campaign. (would enter union with
balance of slave/free)
 Henry Clay Whig candidate (again, this is his 4th attempt!)–
waffles on Texas (costs him presidency, as does abolition
party)
 Martin Van Buren expected democratic candidate, but
couldn’t muster support- so Democrats nominate “dark horse”
candidate James k Polk. (a protégé of Jackson’s- some
historians call him the only other Jacksonian Democrat.
“Young Hickory”)
 Polk wins 170-105- seen as a mandate for annexation…but Tyler
steals Polk’s thunder by annexing before he left office
 Polk was virtually unknown before elected, but came with a clear
platform of things he wanted to do. - all of which he achieved in
less than 4 years…
 Lower Tariff from 32%-25% (Walker Tariff- which still makes
good $$ b/c it happens to be a boom cycle economically)
 Restore independent treasury system – 1846
 Settle Oregon Dispute - One of the campaign slogans had been
“54’40 or fight”- but with Texas joining the union in 1845- keeping
balance was more important, so compromise in Oregon became
attractive. Settled along 49th parallel. Polk Knew treaty would be
unpopular- so he didn’t spearhead it himself, passed it to Senate for
negotiation
 Acquire California – this one is going to get tricky- Mexico
does not want to sell…..
 Mexico did not appreciate US
annexation (They cut dip. relations)
Boundary dispute: US says Texas
territory goes to Rio Grande, Mexico
says it stops at Nueces river. Polk
wants to negotiate boundary- and
try to buy CA for $30 million- Mexican officials
won’t even meet- and Mexican army attacks US
troops patrolling disputed area. (btw- Polk sent
army there to provoke attack)
 Polk asks congress for Dec. of War- controversial.
Whigs not sure about land claims…North fears this
is to expand slavery
 Majority of Americans are fans, but the North is worried,
not just b/c of slavery, but b/c we are pushing Mexico
around to get what we want (Thoreau goes to jail) I mean,
it’s not like we aren’t going to win…. Not something that
gets a lot of press here in US, but Mexico still strongly
resents
 Ulysses S Grant, and Robert E Lee (both of whom served in
war) said it was an embarrassment. Training ground for
civil war- many officers (from both sides) get their
military experience here. Not bad in terms of
casualties- only 13,000 Americans die, most of those
from disease- so we decide fighting isn’t all that hard
 Abraham Lincoln (Congressman at time) challenged Polk’s
declaration, and it made him unpopular at home
 1st time we have fought (in a big way) on “Foreign” soil-
changes the game.
 Multi pronged attack:
 California: wants to be a part of US, declares themselves
independent of Mexico (Bear Flag Republic) Capt John
C Fremont and Stephen Kearny arrive with US army to
defend against Mexican forces (took New Mexico for
good measure
 Mexico: Largest amount of fighting took place. Feb 1847
Zachary Taylor (becomes overnight hero) defeats Santa
Anna at Battle of Buena Vista, but Mex. Gov’t still won’t
negotiate…so Polk sends army to take Mexico
city…suddenly they are willing to talk.
 Mexico recognized annexation of Texas (to Rio Grande), and
Ceded territory to US based on successes of Fremont, Kearny,
and Taylor.
 US agreed to pay $15 compensation for land
 Mexican Cession (which, including Texas, is even bigger than
Louisiana Purchase) will eventually create: California,
Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah - and bits of Colorado
and Wyoming.
 We got half a million square miles of land, and about 100,000
Spanish, and 150,000 more Native Americans.
 Treaty guaranteed “male citizens the free enjoyment of their
liberty and property, and all the rights of Americans” – but we
really only meant large landowners of European descent.
 Dark side of manifest destiny is that the “destiny” (like so many
other things) only applies to white men –we are convinced this is
evidence of the superiority of the Anglo Saxon Race (defined by
being NOT black, Indian, Hispanic, or Catholic)
 So….if we want it, we should have it. Many Americans (esp
Southerners) wanted to take all of Mexico. Eventually
decide there are too many Mexicans there….
 Race is more than skin color, it also involved culture,
national origin, class, and religion.
 In Mexican Cession- only whites could purchase land –
and free blacks can’t even live there.
 “Spanish” Mexicans (generally defined by wealth and
social position) were invited to be a part of society,
those who were “too Mexican” were not –and that was
a lot of people. New Mexico did not become a state
until 1912.
 California has a white population of 15,000 when war ended.
 January 1848 Gold found at Sutter’s Mill (outside Sacramento)-
when news got out people began to flood to area, and by end of
year over $6 million in gold had been discovered in various areas
in California.
 In 1849 over 100,000 people came (either overland or by sea) to
try their luck. By 1852, there are 360,000 people there. Including
our 1st real wave of Asian Immigration – 25,000 Chinese (who
had been leased as contract workers)
 Most don’t find gold. Some leave- but businesses serving the
“49ers” made excellent profits - like Levi Strauss- who made
durable work pants for miners.
 Women ran boarding houses and restaurants, ran laundries, and
brothels- but they were scare. Men outnumbered women 3/1
 “Gold Fever” created chaos and lawlessness – and attacks
against “outsiders”: Mexicans, Chileans, Chinese, French,
Indians carried out by “committees of vigilance”.
 To get things under control (they need federal support)California drafted a constitution, and applied to congress
for statehood (bypassing territorial phase). Constitution
did not include slavery, which upset South (we’ll come
back to this)
 As usual, things don’t go well for Native Americans.
Population dropped from 150,000 to 30,000 by 1860. Indian
children could be declared orphans or vagrants and be
bought and sold as laborers.
 Gold discovered in Australia in 1851. During the 1850s,
California and Australia produced 80% of world gold
supply (really helped Eng and US in terms of gold
reserves and capitalism)
 Aborigines did not fair well, nor did Chinese who came
to mine
 Before 1850 we didn’t deal all
that much with Asia- kind of a
pain to get there… but
California and Oregon created US states on a new oceanfacing an new continent on the other side.
 Japanese had been isolationist since 1500s- allowed Dutch 1
ship a year- no trade for anyone else.
 1853 US sent Commodore Matthew Perry (brother of Oliver
Perry from 1812) to open trade with Japan- which he does at
gunpoint
 Successful- sparks Meiji restoration and industrialization
of Japan- turning them into the superpower of the Pacificand they don’t forget who forced them to change