CHAPTER 1
1.1 Introduction
This thesis investigates whether there is knowledge management practice in the
Nigerian public service and the effects of organisational culture on knowledge
transfer. In this specific context, knowledge transfer, one of the aspects of
knowledge management practice (KM) is the main area of enquiry, while
bureaucratic culture is the main facet that is examined in organisational culture.
The public service in Nigeria, also referred to as the civil service, and, like most
formal organisations, is characterised by a high degree of bureaucracy (Claver
et al., 1999; Babura, 2003). This is intertwined in its hierarchical strata,
constituting a substantial part of its modus- operandi. The bureaucratic culture
in the Nigerian public service is manifested in laid down procedures, rules,
norms and values as well as acceptable behaviour (Mukoro, 2005). Details of
these are contained in formal documents such as the public service rules,
financial instructions, scheme of service, guides to administrative procedures
and establishment circulars. These rules are imbibed and strictly adhered to as a
matter of right, just as public servants perform their day to day tasks. There is
no distancing of the Nigerian public service from bureaucracy as the rules that
guide its conduct are tailored along the lines of absolute recourse to seniority,
nomenclature and hierarchy at all times (Arowolo, 2010). These vital aspects of
bureaucratic culture account for the reason why the Nigerian public service is
termed public bureaucracy, which is; “the administrative machinery, personnel
of government at the federal, state and local levels and the corpus of rules and
regulations that govern their behaviour” (Okafor, 2005 p.67).
1
The way the Nigerian public service is structured is tripartite in nature; this
consists of the federal, state and local governments’ public service, depicting
the Nigerian federal system of government (Constitution of the Federal
Republic of Nigeria, 1999). The functions of the public service amongst others,
is to provide social services to the populace, in course of doing this therefore,
the need to manage the available knowledge in the organisation becomes
imperative. This is more so as sharing knowledge among staff and departments
that are in charge of performing duties geared towards the solving of problems,
will not only avail them of the opportunity to be equipped with the requisite
knowledge, but also to deal with any eventuality that may arise in course of
carrying out such duties. In addition, the sharing process will also make the
provision of such knowledge available in case there is the need for its re-use in
future.
Knowledge transfer between colleagues and departments within the public
service is better appreciated if the available mechanisms used in sharing
knowledge are highlighted. This is because the presence of these mechanisms is
a pointer to whether knowledge is either being transferred or not. While at the
same time, the examining of the features of the Nigerian public service
bureaucratic culture (i.e. respect for seniors, hierarchy and constituted
authority) is a precursor to exploring its effects on knowledge transfer.
1.2 Statement of problems
The established bureaucratic culture in the public service is one that is of very
special importance to the way knowledge is managed. This is because culture is
a way of life of people (i.e. public servants) which determines how they behave
in a given situation (Miroshrik, 2002; Dunphy 1998).This is due to the fact that,
it programmes attitude to either be receptive or unreceptive towards a given
2
situation. In this case, it is done through the collective programming of the
minds of the public servants (Hofstede, 1991). In this study, an exploration of
what constitutes the Nigerian public service bureaucratic culture, goes a long
way in determining whether knowledge transfer takes place or not and if
bureaucratic culture plays any role in it.
This research is necessitated by the need to bridge the gap created by the dearth
of literature in the area of knowledge management (transfer) in the Nigerian
public service. This is viewed from the angle of the importance of knowledge
management practices to any organisation, particularly knowledge transfer
within the Nigerian public service as it pertains to the effects of bureaucratic
culture. This culture, although organisational, stems from that of the national
culture and as such the national culture becomes a part of that of the
organisational (bureaucratic) culture in the sense that what constitutes the
organisational culture is a concomitant effect of the national culture (i.e. it
emanated from national culture).
For the purpose of this research, the relationship that holds between knowledge
transfer and organisational (bureaucratic) culture is explored to proffer answers
to the research questions. The type of knowledge needed to run the public
service, awareness about it and the culture as well as how these are transferred
also forms the basis for this research. Apart from this, the particular features of
the Nigerian public service bureaucratic culture are also explored, in order to
examine its difference from other bureaucracies and discover how its distinct
characteristics affect knowledge transfer.
3
1.3 Research questions
In view of the perceived benefits of knowledge management (transfer) to the
Nigerian public service, the main research questions of this thesis are:

Is knowledge transferred in the Nigerian public service?

How does bureaucratic culture affect knowledge transfer?
The answer to these questions enables this study to ascertain the
appropriateness of applying and implementing knowledge management to the
fullest in the Nigerian public service. The following sub research questions
assists in answering the main research questions and also help in exploring if
there is knowledge management practice (transfer) in the Nigerian public
service. And also, the role that bureaucratic culture plays in knowledge transfer
within the Nigerian public service. The sub research questions are;

How is knowledge transferred between individuals and departments in
the Nigerian public service?

What are the available mechanisms with which knowledge is
transferred?

Is there any relationship between the regular task of public servants and
knowledge transfer?

To what extent is relevant knowledge accessible to public servants?
4
1.4 Objectives of the study
This study is carried out to empirically examine the presence of knowledge
transfer (an aspect of knowledge management) on the one hand, and the effect
of bureaucratic culture on knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public service on
the other hand. Specifically, the main objectives of this study therefore are to:

Examine if there is knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public
service

To identify what constitute knowledge that is needed to run the
Nigerian public service

Examine the role of bureaucratic culture in knowledge transfer

Explore the features of the Nigerian public service’ bureaucratic
culture in relation to knowledge management (transfer)

To explore the extent to which public servants have access to
knowledge

Identify better ways of applying knowledge transfer in the Nigerian
public service

To suggest how knowledge management (transfer) can be better
implemented
5
1.5 Hypothesis of the study
The following null and their alternate hypotheses were formulated based on the
literature that organisational (bureaucratic) culture is a crucial antecedent as far
as the success of knowledge management(transfer) is concerned (King, 2008;
Wu et al., 2008). This needs to be further investigated especially, in the case of
the Nigeria public service bureaucratic culture so as to verify its veracity.
It has also been argued in recent times that, the success of knowledge transfer,
to a large extent depends on cultural characteristics as against earlier
assumptions that it is a universal practice that can be transferred from one place
to the other without recourse to these considerations (Wilkesmann et al 2009).
Against this backdrop, the need to put forward a robust position about the
presence of knowledge transfer and the role that bureaucratic culture plays in
the public service informed the proposing of the two hypotheses for this study.
These were tested to prove whether they hold true in the Nigerian public
service.
i.
(H0) There is no significant relationship between the mechanisms
used in sharing knowledge and knowledge transfer in the Nigerian
public service
(H1) There is a significant relationship between the mechanisms used
in sharing knowledge and knowledge transfer in the Nigerian
public service
ii.
(H0) There is no significant relationship between bureaucratic
culture and knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public service
(H1) There is a significant relationship between bureaucratic culture
and knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public service
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1.6 The rational and justification behind the study
The rationale for this study was borne out of the fact that the studies on
knowledge transfer in the public service which considered culture as a variable
did this with very limited sample sizes (13 interviews), using only the
qualitative technique (Wilesmann et al 2009). These studies looked at
organisational culture (King, 2008) in the generic sense, (i.e. in general,
formal/structured organisations) and not in any particular organisation, thereby
leaving out particular aspects of organisational culture such as bureaucratic
culture, which is an integral part of the public service. The need to narrow the
cultural sub-set within organisational culture (that specifically investigates the
issue of bureaucratic culture, as influencing knowledge transfer) becomes
necessary to fill this gap. Furthermore, doing this in the context of the Nigerian
public service is even more unique, in the sense that it fills the gap that is
created by the limited literature in the area of knowledge management (transfer)
thereby attempting to reduce this dearth. In addition, the observed gap in the
literature (e.g. Agoulu, 1997) between knowledge generation and dissemination
(transfer) noticeable in most developing countries as evident in the degree of
unawareness about the relevance of knowledge will be filled. This is achieved
by appraising the level of awareness about knowledge in the public service in
order to suggest better ways of implementing knowledge management.
A further justification for this study comes from the test of Hofstede’s theory of
culture which has been previously undertaken in Nigeria by Zagorsk et al.,
(2004) and Awa et al, (2010). In these studies, only four dimensions out of the
five put forward by Hofstede were tested. Also, the test involved a comparative
study of leadership practices involving Nigeria, Slovenia and the United States,
as well as cultural factors that affected behaviour in the south- south
geopolitical zone of Nigeria. In this study, the five dimensions were tested and
7
this was done not in Nigeria as a whole, but narrowed down to the public
service.
The uniqueness of this study apart from the forgoing is also borne out of the
demand for the Nigerian public service to move from its present over
dependence on hierarchy, to the transferring of knowledge from one colleague
to the other by imbibing networking and collaborative attitudes that are flexible
in nature and proved efficient in knowledge transfer (Pepple, 2009).
1.7 Methodology
This research uses a case study of the Bayelsa state public service of Nigeria.
The methodology comprised of qualitative and quantitative methods of data
collection to obtain data. These data gathered from primary sources (i.e. using
semi-structured interviews and survey questionnaires), were triangulated to
ensure validity and reliability of findings (Kelle, 2001; Creswell, 2003; Gorard
& Taylor, 2004, Cox& Hassard, 2005; Jack et al., 2006). The qualitative data
from semi structured interviews also incorporated collaborative narration
(Czarniawska, 2006; Nwankwo, 2009).
In analysing the qualitative data, the process of data reduction, data display and
conclusion drawing approaches, put forward by Miles and Huberman (1994)
were employed. This involved using themes generated from the interviews to
draw conclusions. Also used for analysing the features of the Nigerian public
service bureaucratic culture, was Hofstede’s (1991) theory of culture (otherwise
known as Hofstede’s five dimensions of culture).
8
The quantitative (survey) data were analysed using SPSS 16.0 version. The
presentation of its results were mainly descriptive, using counts, tables, graphs,
frequencies, scatter plots, bar charts and percentages. The two hypotheses
proposed for this study was tested employing Pearson’s chi square test and
correlation.
The mixed method is favoured for doing this study because some of the issues
that are highlighted such as bureaucratic culture and its features, are better
measured by using interviews that are narrative in nature to describe the
phenomenon than just surveys. This, apart from affording the researcher the
opportunity to observe and listen to answers to the questions, (i.e. in case they
are not in line with the question asked) also made further clarification possible,
due to the what, how and why questions that was asked (Woolley, 2009). This
was done by drawing on public servants’ perception of the effects of
bureaucracy on knowledge transfer and their awareness about the presence of
knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public service. The results would have been
different if just the survey method was used.
1.8 Scope of the study
This study investigates the presence of knowledge transfer and the role that
bureaucracy plays in knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public service and
focuses on the period between 1999 and 2009. It also examines the available
mechanisms of knowledge transfer that is employed by colleagues and
departments and the knowledge needed to run the public service.
9
It should be noted that Nigeria is a very large country with a population of one
hundred and forty three million (143.3m) people that are spread across thirtysix states and a federal capital territory (EIU 2000). Drawing data from the
whole of the country therefore is practically impossible. In this regard, data was
collected from the Bayelsa state public service. This was done bearing in mind
the homogeneity of the Nigerian public service (Mabawonku, 2006).
1.9 A brief history of Nigeria and its public service
Nigeria1 has a population of one hundred and forty million, four hundred and
thirty one thousand, seven hundred and ninety (140,431,790) people (Akanbi,
2009). It practises the federal system of government (federation), with three
tiers of government. Comprising of a federal government with a federal capital
territory located in Abuja and headed by the President. There are 36 state
governments, each having a state capital territory headed by a Governor and
774 local government areas with a local government headquarters headed by a
Chairman/Chairperson each (Nigeria Country Profile, 2009). Each tier of
government has a public service of its own and is autonomous.
In recent times (i.e. the military regime, November 1993- June 1998), the 36
states of Nigeria have been divided into six geo-political zones, namely; SouthSouth, South-West, South East, North-West, North-East and North – Central
(Olaleye & Akanbi, 2009). Although these zones are not contained in the
Nigerian constitution, they do, however, form the basis for a lot of permutations
that take place in political circles, especially in areas of political appointment
and the locating of federal projects.
1
See map of Nigeria showing the states in the federation in appendix I
10
The origin of the Nigerian public service dates back to the period of British
colonial rule, in which the British civil service was established in 1861 to
govern Nigeria as a colonial territory (Oluwo et al., 1997). Even after
Independence in 1960, this system was still in place until the civil service
reform of 1988. Some traditions that were part of the British civil service
became the basis for organising that of the Nigerian civil service even till this
day (Ademolekun & Gboyega 1997).
The Nigerian public service consists of the federal civil service, the 36
autonomous states and local governments’ civil services. These comprise of
government agencies, parastatals, extra ministerial department, corporations
and statutory boards (CIA World fact book, 2009). At the federal level for
example, a minister (i.e. a political appointee), is at the helm of affairs of the
ministry with a permanent secretary as the accounting officer, (being the most
senior civil servant in the ministry). While at the state level, it is the
commissioner (political appointee) and also a permanent secretary as the
accounting officer. In the case of the local Government, there are supervisory
councillors (political appointees) and the Head of Personnel Management who
is the most senior civil servant.
It is worth noting that, the boards and parastatals both in the state and federal
level, are headed by politicians that may be appointed by the president or
governor. These appointees are usually assisted in their task of administering
these agencies by top career civil servants referred to as secretaries or in some
cases permanent secretaries. These agencies are supervised by ministers in the
parent ministries. For example, the federal scholarship board, is a parastatal of
government that is headed by a Director General with an executive secretary as
accounting officer, despite the fact that this agency of government is self
accounting, it still reports to the minister of education who is its supervisory
minister.
11
Apart from the aforementioned, there is a federal Head of Service (HOS) who
takes charge of the entire federal civil service and who all the permanent
secretaries that head the public servants in the various ministries report to and
are accountable to. The Federal HOS is a member of the federal executive
council, the highest council of government in Nigeria. The same system is seen
in the states, while at the local government, the head of personnel management
(HPM) performs this role. Suffice it to state that, the political appointees
(ministers) are answerable to a secretary to the federal government (SFG). In
the case of the state, there is a secretary to the state government (SSG), who all
the commissioners report to. While for the local government, the political
appointees report to the secretary of the council (SLG), the civil servants to the
HPM. They are all members of the executive council of their various tiers of
Government.
There are three main cadres in the public service, these are classified by their
grade levels, depicting the hierarchy; Junior staff (Gl2 01- 06), Senior (Gl 0712) Management (Gl 13 -17) .The management cadre is also referred to as the
directorate cadre (Briggs, 2007).
In the performance of their duties, the Nigerian public servants are guided by
rules which are entrenched in documents. Notable among these are the public
service rules, schemes of service, financial regulations and establishment
circulars. (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2000). These documents are regarded
as the most important documents in the public service. They contain all the
instruction and laws that regulates the conduct of public servants in the course
of their duties.
2
Grade level
12
The diversity and autonomous nature of the various public services that exist in
the various tiers of government which constitute the Nigerian public service as
has already been presented, can be narrowed down to a single homogenous
public service. This is made possible by the adoption of the same public service
rules across the various tiers of government. This adoption brings about the
homogeneity that exists in the entire Nigeria public service, both in content and
setting (Mabawonku, 2006).
Another factor that depict the homogeneity in the Nigerian public service is that
staff from the local government service can apply for transfer of service either
to the state or federal public service and vice versa (Federal Republic of
Nigeria, 2000). Figure 1.1 depicts an organisational chart of an ideal ministry
set up in the Nigerian public service.
Figure 1.1:Organogram of the Ministry of Gender and Social Development
Minister
(CEO)
Permanent secretary
(Accounting Officer)
Dir of admin
Head of unit
Open / secret
Registry
Dir Finance
supply
Head of final
accounts.
Cahier
Dir of
planning
research
statistics
Head
planning
Head
research
Dir of child
development
Head
childrens
home
Head School
services
Dir of
rehabilitation
Head
emegency
relif
Head
pilgrims
board
Dir of social
Welfare
Head probation
Head of reman
home
13
For the purpose of this study, the segments of the public service that was
researched were the main ministries. Questions about public service rules
formed an integral part of the interview schedules and that of the survey. The
reason for this inclusion is to elicit responses about its accessibility and
availability, two yardsticks in ascertaining knowledge transfer. In addition to
this, the homogeneity of the public service explains the rationale behind this
study’s resolve to choose Bayelsa state3, as the site to gather the primary field
data.
1.10 Structure of the study
This research is divided into seven chapters, with chapter one being the
introduction and an overview of the study, basically in the form of a
background of the entire thesis. Issues that necessitated this research form an
integral part of this chapter, and include the positioning of the research
questions and objectives of the study in perspective as well as a brief history of
Nigeria and its public service.
Chapter two takes a critical look at what some writers have contributed to this
body of knowledge in terms of engaging the literature, which is in the form of
literature review. The review is based primarily on the broad issues that
constitute knowledge management, knowledge transfer and organisational
(bureaucratic culture). In the area of knowledge management, the various types
of knowledge and dimensions are looked into, while at the same time, the
public service as an organisation also forms a vital part of the literature review.
3
Appendix 11 contains a map of Bayelsa state
14
Chapter three is on culture, specifically issues that constitute culture are
discussed in detail. This is guided by the five dimensions of
culture as
propounded by Hofstede (1991), from his theory of culture. Chapter four looks
at the methodology for this study, a brief history of social research and the
schools of thought that exist to substantiate the chosen methodology employed
in this research is put forward. An explanation of the research instruments used
and how this study achieves its objectives in light of the justification of the
selected instruments is also adduced.
Chapter five includes the presentation and analysis of data that has been
gathered during the study, while chapter six contains the discussion of findings
from the data collected and analysed, making reference to related past research
that has being previously undertaken and as well as carefully comparing notes,
with a view to coming out with sound standpoints. In chapter seven, a summary
of the entire thesis is undertaken, this is followed by recommendations and the
contribution made to knowledge. The limitations of this study are highlighted
as well as suggested areas of further research. The chapter ends with a
conclusion.
1.11 Conclusion
This chapter has given an introduction of the background of this study, giving
reasons for the research and the gap in knowledge that exists which needs to be
filled. It has also put forward the rationale for the study which amongst other
reasons is the examination of the relationship that exists between organisational
(bureaucratic) culture and knowledge transfer. This examination (to the public
service) is vital in answering the research questions and addressing the
objectives of the study that amongst other things sets out to pinpoint the effects
of bureaucracy on knowledge transfer.
15
The main research questions were also highlighted in light of the objectives of
the study, as well as the hypotheses that are proposed and the reason for their
proposition. In course of introducing this study, the problems and gap in the
literature that necessitated this study was highlighted, as well as the
methodology used in collecting data and analysing them so as to answer the
research questions, as well as meet the objectives of the research.
A brief history of the Federal Republic of Nigeria was also given, as well as
that of the Nigerian public service; this was done in order to set the stage for
discussions on the subsequent chapters of this study which revolves around the
Nigerian public service and Nigeria.
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
“The thrust is on building knowledge and expert based organizations
through the creation of an enabling environment for the acquisition, sharing
and management of knowledge, involving networking and collaboration,
with colleagues...it involves more flexibility in organizational systems,
through a shift from hierarchical to multiple accountability (professional
and 360 degrees), as well as a more adaptive system that encourages
knowledge generation, knowledge leadership, professionalism, innovation,
initiative taking, and greater communications across all levels of the
Service...moreover, it requires the application of IT‐enabled knowledge
management practices”
Ama Pepple, Head of Public Service Nigeria (2007-2009).
2.1 Introduction
This chapter defines and explain key concepts that feature prominently in the
entire research, specifically, concepts such as data, information, knowledge,
knowledge management (KM), and knowledge transfer. The public service and
organisational culture (i.e. bureaucracy) were also elucidated. The reason for
undertaking this task was to adequately clarify these concepts more succinctly,
particularly KM and the place of knowledge transfer, an integral part of KM in
the Nigerian public service. Furthermore, this task is undertaken because the
objectives of this study and its associated research questions can be better
appreciated and answered if these concepts are adequately examined.
17
This chapter is structured into six broad headings; 2.1 deals with a brief
introduction of constituents of the entire chapter; definition of key concepts is
in section 2.2. Three key concepts are defined in this section, one concept per
sub-section. These include data, information and knowledge. Under the
knowledge sub-section are further three sub-sections, with one sub-section
dedicated specifically to the linking of data, information and knowledge. The
other is on the dimensions of knowledge, while the last discusses the typology
of knowledge.
Section 2.3 contains organisational knowledge and the contributions of a
contemporary scholar H. Tsoukas. Section 2.4 undertakes an explanation and
definition of Knowledge Management (KM), highlighting what scholars such
as Davenport and Prusak (1998a) say. Also contained in this section is a
working definition of KM. The topic of knowledge transfer will form
discussions in section 2.5, side by side knowledge exchange and sharing,
highlighting the areas of convergence and divergence. The working definition
of knowledge transfer sums up the section. The public service in general, with
that of Nigeria in particular, is contained in section 2.6. The final section of this
chapter (section 2.7) is the conclusion where a summary of the entire chapter is
undertaken, while at the same time, showing the gap that exists as identified in
the reviewed literature.
2.2 Definition of key concepts
Research studies show a growing concern about the misconceptions held on the
use of the terms; data, information and knowledge, which makes the
understanding of knowledge management difficult to comprehend (Corner et
al., 1997). This confusion arises from the mistaking of data either to mean
information or knowledge (Harmaakorpi & Melkas, 2008). Hence, the need to
delve into their definitions becomes imperative. In doing this, an explanation of
18
the various types of knowledge also forms a part of the discussions contained in
this section. The first concept to be reviewed in this regard is data.
2.2.1 Data
The term data, information and knowledge are used interchangeably in the
literature (Harmaakorpi & Melkas, 2008). This interchange of one concept to
mean the other is necessitated by the thin line that separates them, owing to the
fact that, data, information and knowledge form a continuum that originates
from data through information and then to knowledge (Baumard, 1999; Boisot,
1998; Davenport & Prusak, 1998b). Data on its own is meaningless; it only
becomes meaningful when an agent interprets its constituent. Johannesen et al.,
(2002, p.1105) notes that “data can be regarded as bites of potential
information, which on its own does not provide any meaning…” What this
connotes is that data cannot elicit concrete meaning which is useful without
going through the lens of understanding. In other words, data on its own is
meaningless until an interpretation is given to the message that is being
conveyed.
For data to become useful and relevant in understanding of events, the prior
knowledge of an agent is a very important factor. This is because data is
eventually transformed to information as soon as understanding is imputed to
its message. This transformation is only made possible if the data is interpreted
by the receiver (Corner et al., 1997). Data is therefore unable to become
information that is beneficial if interpretation is not given to it. In this same
regards, Davenport and Prusak (1998, p.2a) sees data as “a set of discrete
objective facts about events”. This is exemplified in a transaction that takes
place in a service station, where all that is deciphered, is only limited to how
much fuel is bought by a customer who comes to purchase fuel. The data
received from such a customer does not include when the customer is coming
19
back or the level of satisfaction in terms of service delivery. Ascribing
complete meaning to this kind of transaction therefore, becomes impossible, as
it is inconclusive. An in-depth appraisal of this kind of transaction is needed
for proper meaning to be inferred by an intended end user of this type of data.
Data is discrete because its comprehension is hinged on what other spheres
makes of it. This is buttressed by Miller et al., (2001 p.355) who states that,
data is “a representation of an object”, this object on its own cannot be
attributed with any concrete meaning until an interpretation is given through
human or an automated process which culminates in information. Boisot (1998
p. 12) posited that data has to do with the “discrimination between physical
states… that may not convey information to an agent”. Information is very
important as far as the interpretation of received data is concerned; this is
because an understanding of data enables its conversion so that it can be easily
put into proper use. Hislop (2005, p.16) notes that data are “Raw images,
numbers, words, sounds etc., which result from observation or measurement”.
Data on its own is open to interpretation if it is not understood, owing to the
fact that it is viewed as mere “raw numbers and facts” in its natural state (Alivi
& Leidner 2001, p.109). This position is better explained by Davenport &
Prusak (1998b, p.3) who states that, “Data describes only a part of what
happened; it provides no judgement or interpretation and no sustainable basis
for action”. This is captured more clearly by the example of signals that are
transmitted to the earth from space through the orbit which require expert
translations and interpretations for meaning to be made of such signals. This
example best encapsulates the fact that expert assistance is required to attribute
meaning to data in its raw state, hence the reference to data by Davenport &
Prusak (1998) as discrete.
20
An important point to note when considering data is that its presence is vital for
the evolving of other concepts like information and knowledge. It serves as a
base on which information rests (i.e. precursor), owing to the fact that, data
contains attributes that are in information (Frické, 2008) which eventually leads
to knowledge. Corner et al., (1997, p.71) collaborates this by stating that “Data
are carriers of knowledge and information; a means through which knowledge
and information can be stored and transferred”. Data is that raw constituent that
is necessary for the other concepts to be studied, observed and inferred from. It
is that raw fact that is acted upon to derive information. In the next subsection,
information is reviewed.
2.2.2. Information
Information is regarded as being akin to data (Lueg, 2001) in the sense that, it is
a necessary component in the composition of knowledge. So much so that, as
data is received and interpreted, what ensues is a transformation from data to
information, eventually resulting in knowledge. The similarity between data
and information therefore, makes a distinction between them difficult. This is
due to the fact that, data is a necessary precursor for information, as
information is to knowledge also, what makes the transformation possible, is
the interpretation that the receiver gives to it (Corner, et al., 1997). In data are
found the attributes of information and vice versa. Boist (1998, p.12) sees
information as,
“That subset of data residing in things that activates an agent - it is
filtered from the data by the agent’s perceptual or conceptual apparatus.
Information, in effect, establishes a relationship between things and
agents”.
21
Just like data which cannot be said to be meaningful on its own unless
interpreted by agents and observers who understand it (Olsen et al., 2002),
information also needs some level of understanding to be able to comprehend
the message that is being conveyed. Waters (2000, p.428) opines that, “Data
becomes information when its creator adds meaning”. The meaning that is
ascribed to data is what translates it into becoming information.
Information then emanates from the data that has been succinctly understood
and interpreted by the receiver. This is a transformation process that takes place
as a result of the understanding of the constituents of received data. To Smith
(2001, p.312), “Information is data that have relevance, purpose and context,
like units of measurement”. Its usage and understanding is quite easy owing to
the process of interpretation and refinement that had taken place from the
transformation of data. Lueg (2001, p.151) notes that, “Apparently, information
can be transmitted, stored, processed, and retrieved very efficiently”. This is as
against data, owing to its clearer state.
Information is viewed from various perspectives by writers, e.g. from a user’s
perspective, Bhatt (2001a, p.69) differentiates information from data and
knowledge by postulating that “… information is regarded as an organised set
of data…”. This organisation is made possible by an agent who interprets and
makes meaning out of it so that the message that is contained in data becomes
clear and communicated with ease. Kaye (1995, p.7) identifies this agent as a
“human recipient” in stating that, “…information has meaning only when
perceived and interpreted by the human constituent” stating further that,
“Information is raw material for the mind, which uses it to develop skills,
knowledge and, ultimately wisdom”. Hislop (2005, p.16) agrees with what
Bhatt said about information being organised data but added that it has to be in
a pattern i.e. “Data arranged or organised into a meaningful pattern”.
22
The organising, interpretation and meaningful patterns that data has to undergo
in order to become information as put forward by the above three writers, (i.e.
Kaye, 1995; Hislop, 2005 & Bhatt, 2001) leads to the peripheral convergence
found within the literature on information. This is that, when data has been
received, it has to be interpreted as well as understood. It is then transferred,
stored and used, due to the fact that it is now in a processed and organised state.
This position is also held by other authors (e.g. Rowler, 1998) although cogent,
evokes a debate that opens a gap. This gap is a resultant effect of an interpreted
data making meaning only to the human agent who interprets and understands
it real meaning, this is to the exclusion of others.
It is one thing for information to be meaningful after being interpreted, but
quite another to convey the required meaning for the comprehension of others
who were not involved in the process of organising and interpreting the data to
become information in the first place.
Another issue is the constituent of the information that is being put across, this
is in terms of how rich and explicit it is. Can the information be used to take a
meaningful action? Aguolu (1997, p.25) affirms these same fears in noting that
“…information
generation
does
not
automatically
mean
information
dissemination and utilization because there is a gap …” the gap is in the areas
of generation, dissemination utilization and regeneration (re-use). looking at the
elucidated areas in light of this study, some similitude of Knowledge
Management can be deciphered, but this is left for the section on Knowledge
Management. To clarify the question of how information is used for an action
which can be termed meaningful, as was early asked, this is so that others can
actually use it. The next concept under consideration which is knowledge
becomes imperative in accomplishing the task of answering the research
questions of this study.
23
2.2.3 Knowledge
Knowledge is a very vital resource in an organisation. Of all the factors of
production, labour ranks highest amongst them because it facilitates the other
factors (Spender, 1996). This is made possible by the application of knowledge
by labour in administering the other factors. “Knowledge is systematizing and
structuring of information for one or more purposes” (Johannesen et al., 2002,
p.1110). The importance of knowledge to an organisation cannot be over
emphasised, this is because if it is properly harnessed, will help in aligning the
organisational processes and invariably better the manpower. This is possible if
knowledge is made readily available to all within the organisation in one form
or the other. Davenport & Prusak (1998, p.5) defines knowledge as,
“A fluid mix of framed experience, values, contextual information, and
expert insight that provides a framework for the evaluating and
incorporating new experiences and information. It originates and is
applied in the minds of knower. In organisations, it often becomes
embedded not only in documents or repositories but also in
organisational routines, processes, practices and norms”.
This definition raises pertinent issues that are central to the body of the present
research. Amongst these issues are the communication of organisational
routines, practices, processes and norms that are inherent in the definition
within the organisation. The communication of organisational routines has to
do with transfer of knowledge, which is at the heart of this research. While the
routines so communicated are fragments of the bureaucratic culture of the
Nigerian public service another vital aspect of this study. These are however
handled in detail in the section on knowledge transfer, public service and the
chapter on culture respectively.
24
No single document can be said to contain or capture all the issues elucidated in
the above definition, rather they can be located also in the day-to-day routines
of the work place and held by the workers in form of intangible (tacit)
knowledge. These are great knowledge asserts that interpretation alone may not
covey, thereby making them distinct from information.
In other words, knowledge, like information, has to be deduced distinctively
from information that has been interpreted from data, (i.e. from data to
information to knowledge). To be able to present the sequential flow from data
to information and then knowledge, Boisot (1998, p.12) expounded this
standpoint by stating that,
“Knowledge builds on information that is extracted from data. Whereas
data can be characterised as a property of things, knowledge is a
property of agents pre-disposing them to act in particular
circumstances…Knowledge can be conceptualised as a set of
probability distributions held by an agent and orienting his or her
actions. These either consolidate, or undergo modification with the
arrival of new information”.
There is knowledge when information received is comprehend by the person or
agent using it. These account for behavioural patterns that may change as a
result of more information which can further modify the existing behaviour.
The point is that there cannot be knowledge without the one who holds the
knowledge (knower). The knower may not be physically present to explain the
known but has to package the knowledge in an understandable structure for an
understanding to be attributed to it.
25
Maturana and Varela (1998, p.34) confirms this in stating that, “… all knowing
depends on the structure of the knower”. This same stand is held by Alavi &
Leidner (2001, p.1009) who maintain that, “…knowledge does not exist outside
of an agent [a knower]…” This definition supports the knower to be the holder
of knowledge, but does not specify the structure that should be in place for
others to have access to the said knowledge. This is an aspect that this research
intends to delve into (identification of awareness about knowledge amongst
Nigeria public servants, and their access to it).
Knowledge can also be viewed from the angle of decision-making, where a
person is able to take certain meaningful informed actions based on information
received. This, of course, is in answer to the question posed in the section on
information (i.e. can information be used to take a meaningful action?). If the
information is meaningful and understood then it follows that it can be used to
take meaningful action, owing to the fact that such information is now within
the periphery of knowledge. Bhatt (2001b P.69) sums this up in affirming that,
“…knowledge is perceived as meaningful information”. The perception here
refers to an adequate understanding and grasping of information that is
communicated which culminates in knowledge that is now used to make
decisions of meaningful actions within an organisation. The transformation of
information to knowledge, making it beneficial and useful for use takes place
through the process of understanding as has been previously mentioned.
However, this process for Galup and Hicks (2006 p.19) takes place in the
human mind through cognition,
“We posit that information is converted into knowledge once it is
processed in the minds of individuals and knowledge becomes
information once it is articulated and presented in the form of text,
graphics, words, or other symbolic forms”
26
Comprehension of information therefore is a vital prerequisite for the
conversion process that gives way to the establishment of knowledge.
Information is a resource that requires tangible human inputs to be able to bring
it to bear in an organisation. It cannot be viewed as an isolated concept that is
out there, but requires some level of participation. Smith, (2001 p.312) sums
this up by affirming that, “Knowledge is a human, highly personal asset and
represents the pooled expertise and efforts of networks and alliances”. Going
by this postulation therefore, knowledge is a human activity that, apart from
involving a lot of understanding and intellectual capacity to grasp the
information received, also explains the reasons for the thoughts and actions that
are taken by individuals.
The working definition of the present research is as follows; Knowledge is the
sum total of all the awareness and understanding that an individual or
organisation has acquired and created in course of studying and interacting
with others over a period of time and the experiences learned in the process.
The individual nature of knowledge, which is in the form of the acquisition of
information in order to make informed decision or action, is better appreciated
if a link is made between the three concepts already mentioned. This link will
then represent a form of sequence of transition from one stage to the other. This
is explained in detail in the next sub-section.
27
2.2.3.1 Linking data, information and knowledge
Data, Information and Knowledge have a thin line that separates them. This
line can be deciphered by interpretation and understanding. As Bhatt (2001a,
p.70) states, “Without meaning, knowledge is information or data. It is only
through meaning that information finds life and becomes knowledge”. These
three concepts are inherently linked, this link is looked into to see the plausible
reasons for their being interwoven.
In as much as meaning is important in delineating the three concepts (data,
information and knowledge), it is imperative to state that data translates to
information and then culminates in knowledge. This is represented in the
knowledge hierarchy. This hierarchy starts with data at the base and ends in
knowledge at the apex. A representation of this is depicted in figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1: The Knowledge hierarchy
Galup et al., (2007 p.7).
28
The knowledge hierarchy shows the various stages of each concept, with
knowledge occupying the apex of the hierarchy. Some literatures add wisdom
to the hierarchy; others refer to it as the knowledge pyramid (e.g. Frické, 2009)
or wisdom hierarchy (e.g. Rowley, 2007). But for this research, the knowledge
hierarchy will suffice. This is due to the fact that what this study sets out to
explore, is of particular interest to knowledge. “Knowledge hierarchy depicts
the conventional concept of knowledge transformations, where data is
transformed into information, and information is transformed into knowledge”
(Galup & Hicks 2007, p.7).
The transformation that takes place from one concept to the other makes a
confusion of the various concepts inevitable. Corner et al., (1997, p.71) states
that: “The concept of knowledge, information and data are closely related.
Although distinct, these three abstract concepts are often confused”. The
confusion comes as a result of the interpretation that is attributed to each of
them in terms of the message that is being conveyed and the fact that attributes
of one concept aids the formation of the other.
The change from one state to another makes the three concepts different.
Although they complement each other i.e. each acts as the basis for the other to
be realisable starting from data, “continuum” (Tuokas 2001, p.976). As
convenient as the sequential intertwining of the three concepts may seem, there
is a subtle debate that they are different to a slight extent. Foremost amongst
those in the school of thought that hold this dissenting view is Waters (2000,
p.427) who hold the view that, “Knowledge is neither data nor information,
though it is related to both, and the differences between these terms are often a
matter of degree”. The explanation for the differentials that is noticeable in the
three concepts going by the above definition is not much. There is often an
29
overlap, however, which is filled by what an agent makes of it. Data is raw
facts while information is refined fact and knowledge usable fact (i.e. used for
action).
Data because of its raw form, in most cases does not seem to be confused as
much as information and knowledge. Going by the literature consulted, it is
evident that data cannot stand alone but has to have additions in form of
delineation to its constituents in order to be meaningful. These additions are in
form of adequate meanings being given to conveyed message. Information does
not require so many additions but some form of clarification and explanation.
Knowledge on the other hand requires actual human inputs in order for it to be
inferred from actions.
In linking these three concepts therefore, it is vital to state that information is a
state away from data, and knowledge the human application of information. For
the purpose of this research, there is a need to clarify these concepts from the
onset so that information is not taken totally to mean knowledge, but seen as a
very vital component of knowledge. But suffice it to say that, because of the
very thin line existing between information and knowledge, some literature
(e.g. Aguola, 1997; Johansson et al., 2002 and Mabawonku 2006) in studies
carried out involving information access and usage among public servants, used
the concept of information and knowledge interchangeably.
In particular, Aguola (1997) and Mabawonku’s (2006) studies which were
carried out in Nigeria used measurements that comprised of knowledge
apparatus and mechanism, thereby presenting results that portrayed both
concepts as same. This study does not lose sight of the fact that when
knowledge is mentioned to Nigerian public servants what comes to mind is
information. Because of this, information is presented side by side as
30
knowledge especially in the data collection stage (survey). The reason for this
is that, information is very near in meaning to knowledge. This makes public
servants’ understanding of what knowledge is to be restricted to the mechanism
that is used for knowledge transfer. The public servants draw inference from
such mechanisms which are same as the once used in information
dissemination, hence the resolve of this study to use them side by side,
especially in asking questions in the questionnaire.
In view of the above development, the clarification of these three concepts
(data, information and knowledge) was undertaken early in this research in
order that, knowledge transfer which is the crux of this study can have the
necessary impetus when being appraised. In the light of the foregoing
dimensions, knowledge as a concept can be viewed from different perspectives.
The next sub-section which is on the dimensions of knowledge aims to expand
more on this.
2.2.3.2 Dimensions of knowledge
In this sub section, knowledge will be classified into three broad dimensions,
these are;

The source of knowledge.

The ownership of knowledge.

The typology of knowledge (tacitness and explicitness of knowledge).
31
These dimensions are also referred to as approaches of knowledge by scholars
(e.g. Guzman & Wilson, 2005; Tsoukas, 2001).The writers differ in the use of
terminology (i.e. approach or dimension) in describing them but agree on what
they consist of. Some divergent views can be observed from Alavi and Leidner
(2001) work which refers to the typology of knowledge as dimensions.
However, for the purpose of this research, dimensions will suffice for the first
two and typology for the last.
2.2.3.2 .1 The sources of knowledge
There is no gainsaying that, knowledge exists in an organisation such as the
Nigerian public service. The source of such knowledge is however the main
concern of this sub-section. Knowledge that an organisation possesses can
either be found internally (endogenous) or externally (exogenous) depending on
the type of knowledge (Jasimuddin, 2005; Smith & Bollinger, 2001). There is a
more detail explanation of types of knowledge in the sub-section on typology
of knowledge.
The endogenous knowledge is the knowledge that is generated or created
within the organisation. This form of knowledge is local to the organisation in
the sense that an employer can possess it in form of expertise that is locked in
the head or it can be engrafted in the practices, processes and routines that are
inherent in the organisation. These are retrievable either from documents and
computer programmes or interactions and collaborations that involves the
possessor and would-be knower.
32
Exogenous knowledge on the other hand, is knowledge that comes from outside
the organisation. This conception of knowledge is borne out of the belief that
knowledge is socially constructed and as such cannot be confined to the
periphery of an organisation alone. Advocates of this position like Macadam et
al., (1999) aver that knowledge cannot be the exclusive reserve of any single
organisation but that of other external sources that is inherently linked to the
organisation. This form of knowledge can be from external stakeholders, like
suppliers and customers of an organisation. The knowledge that is received
from this source is very valuable in building up the overall knowledge base of
the organisation (in this case the Nigerian public service).
2.2.3.2 .2 The ownership of knowledge
The issue that becomes apparent in looking at where knowledge resides and
who owns it is, if it is an individual’s exclusive reserve, that of an organisation
or a group (i.e. individual or collective knowledge). To Bollinger and Smith
(2001, p8), knowledge is an asset that is owned by both the individual and the
organisation. They uphold this view by nothing that, “it exists within the
individual employees, and also in a composite sense within the organisation”.
Drunker, (1999) agrees with the view that the knowledge worker is mostly the
owner of knowledge, while the organisation he or she works, retains this
knowledge. This worker determines the knowledge to be used for doing any
given task, as well as its quality.
The above position is corroborated to a very minimal extent by Tsoukas (1996,
p.13), who was of the view that, an organisation’s knowledge base cannot be in
one location. That is, it can’t be held only by the individuals that work in a firm
(employees) nor the organisation. But that knowledge to a very large extent is a
33
product of the group who add up competing bodies of knowledge to achieve
organisational knowledge. In this regards, he states that, “A firm’s knowledge
cannot be surveyed as a whole; it is not self-contained; it is inherently
indeterminate and continually reconfiguring”. This argument when viewed in
the light of that of Bollinger and Smith (2001) above reveals conformity of
opinions about knowledge being the property of the individual or individuals in
an organisation.
Plausible as the convergence views may seem, one aspect still remains to be
covered, this is that knowledge cannot be totally owned perpetually by either an
individual or organisation due to the fact that knowledge changes from time to
time. This change comes about by the configuration that takes place due to the
discovery of other knowledge that may have been in silos or through
improvisation. This improvisation cannot be the product of an individual but
that of other factors like interaction with colleagues, outsiders and routines
.This new configured knowledge is what Tsoukas (2001, p.988) refers to as
“heuristic knowledge”.
The knowledge that an organisation has is continually undergoing changes and
cannot be viewed as static and held by just an individual but a sub-total of
various knowledge that is brought together to constitute the main knowledge
base of the firm. Friedman and Prusak (2008, p.814) also disagree totally with
the aspect of knowledge which is said to be an individual’s exclusive reserve.
They assert that, “knowledge is not an individual thing [rather] it clumps in
groups”. Further emphasising that, when knowledge is being sought for, the
right place to get it from is within groups of people and practices that exist
within networks and communities4. To them therefore, the individuals that are
within these networks and carrying out the practices cannot be said to have
knowledge.
4
This is community of practice, a specialised group within a main group, e.g. within the group
of surgeons, there could be plastic surgeons.
34
This study is, however, of the view that knowledge can be an individual thing
because some form of knowledge can be found in the brain of an individual
which only that individual can claim ownership to. An elaborate discussion of
this comes up in the subsection on typology of knowledge. Furthermore, the
implication of the above position (i.e. Friedman & Prusak, 2008) for this
research, is enormous. In the sense that, practices and networks which exist
within the Nigerian public service are seen as the main constituents for the
formation of organisational knowledge. If this view is calibrated with that of
Tuokas (2001), which aver that heuristic knowledge is formed as improvisation
takes place from regular daily tasks undertaken by public servants, then this
goes a long way to establish the fact that, these same practices and tasks which
are features of organisational culture (bureaucracy) has a role to play in KM
(transfer) in Nigerian public service. This is highlighted in more detail in the
subsection on KM.
Furthermore, apart from knowledge which has been individually or collectively
owned as already asserted, some writers (e.g. Spender, 1996), refers to
collective knowledge as social knowledge. Spender (1996) affirms that, the
source of knowledge is individual and collective, but adds that individual
knowledge is subjective while collective knowledge is objective. This
distinction is also upheld by Nonaka (1994). To Blackler (1995) however,
knowledge is embrained in the cognitive abilities and conceptual skills of the
individual, embodied in actions which are partly explicit, encultured in the
understanding of processes that are shared, embedded in routines and encoded
from signs and symbols. This categorisation puts knowledge under five broad
headings as elucidated thus:
35

Embrained knowledge

Embodied knowledge

Encultured knowledge

Embedded knowledge

Encoded knowledge
Going by this broad categorisation, knowledge is identifiable from five starting
places as already enumerated above. This is inconsistent with what the other
writers (e.g. Spender, 1996; Tsoukas, 1996; Drucker, 1991; Bollinger & Smith,
2001) have asserted, particularly in the aspect of knowledge being individually
or collectively owned. Despite this disparity however, there is an area of
convergence which is that, two out of the five knowledge categorisation
(embrained and embedded knowledge) substantiates the arguments of
knowledge being either individually or collectively owned. The former
(embrained) describes knowledge as a product of the brain which it refers to as,
cognitive abilities, thereby making it individual knowledge. While the latter
(embedded) depicts knowledge as a creation of relationships that emerges from
routines, thereby placing knowledge on the collective divide.
What this culminates into is the buttressing of the argument of this study, which
is that, knowledge is owned by an individual and a group (collectively).
Bringing this down to this thesis, an exposition into the ownership of
knowledge in Nigerian public service will assist in exploring how knowledge is
managed and to a large extent transferred.
36
2.2.3.2.3 The typology of knowledge
Knowledge that an individual possesses can be deciphered through actions
(tacit knowledge) as they interact and also from written print in form of
documents (explicit knowledge). In a nutshell, there two types of knowledge,
tacit and explicit knowledge. The former is subjective and difficult to transmit
while the latter is objective and easy to communicate. The reason why the latter
is easy to communicate is because; it is easily retrievable while the former
owing to the fact that it is locked in the heads of the individual becomes
complex to obtain.
Knowledge can be transformed between these two forms (i.e. tacit and
explicit), owing to the fact that they are complementary. Mooradian (2005,
p.107) substantiates this by affirming that, “Hence, if there is a value in
identifying tacit knowledge, it is in relation to making explicit knowledge
understandable”. These typologies of knowledge (also referred to as types of
knowledge) by witters, (e.g. Tsoukas 1996; Nonaka and Takeuchi 1999;
Polanyi’s 1962; and Spender 1996) are explained further.
2 .2.3.2.3.1 Tacit Knowledge
This form of knowledge is locked up in the heads of the knower. It is
knowledge that takes person interaction to be able to unearth. Explaining and
communicating it, is usually a difficult task (Dawley et al., 2008). It is“…
knowledge that cannot be articulated or verbalised; it is knowledge that resides
in the intuitive realm” (Polanyi, 1966 as cited in Foods, Schum & Rothenberg,
2006, p6) this is paraphrased to mean; “we know more than we can tell” (ibid).
But the question is, how can this type of knowledge be made operational in the
public service owing to its intrinsic nature? The exploration of a means to
achieving this therefore becomes a sine qua-non.
37
Tacit knowledge is articulated more through personal contacts but not in
documentations like manuals and on –the- job training tutorials. It is in most
cases an exclusive reserve of the individual that holds such knowledge.
Davenport & Prusak (1998, p.95) notes that,
“Tacit knowledge transfer generally requires extensive personal
contact. The transfer relationship may be a partnership, mentoring
and apprenticeship but some kind of working relationship is usually
essential. Such relationship is likely to involve transferring various
kinds of knowledge, from explicit to tacit”.
The conglomeration of various knowledge assets in an organisation (in this case
tacit knowledge) to Smith (2001, p.311) is so important that executives have to
pull together these assets in such a way that will be beneficial to the
organisation. He notes further that,
“Valuable human and knowledge resources will be wasted unless
management openly accepts and supports efforts to gather, sort,
transform, record and share knowledge. Priceless knowledge will
continue to be lost unless organizations make better use of their prime
resource – relatively unchallenged, creative people who are eager to
apply their knowledge”.
The fact that tacit knowledge is in the heads of individuals, poses a cogent
reason for employers of labour to find out ways of putting these heads together
in order for them to rub minds together and in the process unlock these huge
repository of knowledge. This is done through forums like seminars and
workshops sessions, where the outcome of such meetings are articulated and
documented for reuse. These meetings when held in informal settings
communicate better passion, emotions, care and commitment all constituents of
38
tapping into tacit knowledge domain. Leonard-Barton and Swap (1999) suggest
that informal settings that entail face to face meetings is preferred in unlocking
tacit knowledge. This is not to mean that formal meetings cannot achieve some
meaningful purpose, since face to face is also possible in a formal setting but
for tacit knowledge, the informal is best suited for it’s unlocking. Storytelling is
yet another means for achieving this same purpose of tapping into tacit
knowledge (Mládková, 2007).
In the public service, one vital form of training that takes place can be a tool
that aids the unlocking of tacit knowledge. This specific training that is referred
to is the in-service training otherwise known as induction (mentoring), where
new staffs are made to understudy an older staff and these older staff serve as
mentors to the mentees (O’Gorman & Fowler, 2006). In the course of this
training, the tacit knowledge of the mentor is being transferred in the process,
while the mentee is also expected to transfer his or her knowledge to the mentor
in form of feedback during this induction and subsequent formal and informal
training (Thompson et al ., 2000 ; Szarka et al., 2004).
Hansen (1999) emphasised the need for face to face approach for unlocking
tacit knowledge, in his affirmation of the strategies that firms should employ in
managing knowledge. Five sub-strategies were put forward; the five substrategies are offshoots of two main strategies (personalization and
codification). From the five sub-strategies, two of these (Knowledge
management and human resource strategy) are of importance to this paper. This
is because whereas the knowledge management (KM) strategy emphasise the
need for person-to-person interaction to develop networks for linking people so
that tacit knowledge can be unlocked and subsequently shared, the human
resource strategy stresses among other things the need to train people through
one-on-one mentoring. It is important to note that these two strategies both
emanate from the personalisation strategy.
39
The implications that the issues raised (e.g. mentoring, feedback, induction,
collaboration, in-service training and informal settings for transferring tacit
knowledge) have for this study is very enormous. In the sense that, most of the
measurable indicators used in asking questions about knowledge transfer
revolves around the issue of training which incorporates mentoring, induction
and feedback. While for the interviews conducted, the question of collaborating
in an informal setting outside the normal office setting featured prominently as
a yardstick for measuring transfer of knowledge and also bureaucratic culture.
This goes a long way in answering the two research questions of this study.
For the fact that tacit knowledge is not the only knowledge that makes up the
entirety of knowledge per se, there is the need to look at the other types of
knowledge. This is viewed from the background that, within the public service,
there exists also explicit knowledge found mostly in documents and other
tangible forms. The next subsection looks at this typology of knowledge.
2.2.3.2.3.2 Explicit knowledge
Explicit knowledge is knowledge that can be verbalised and readily codified,
that is, put in a state that makes understanding and reuse possible (Johannessen
et al., (2002). This kind of knowledge is contained in writings or recorded in
manuals, official documents, reports, assessments and databases (William,
2006). It can be articulated and captured with ease.
The explanation of this type of knowledge within an organisation or to a person
takes little effort. Its transfer is simplified in the sense that, it is documented
and readily available to assess and with no distortions to the knowledge.
Davenport & Prusak (1998, p.95) supports that, “knowledge that is more or less
explicit can be embedded in procedures or represented in documents and
40
databases and transferred with reasonable accuracy”. The reason they say this
type of knowledge enjoys reasonable accuracy is due to the fact that, it can
always be cross checked and referenced due to its tangible nature.
Explicit knowledge that is captured is capable of being disseminated easily, and
as such facilitates knowledge sharing and reuse, two fundamental facets of KM.
The form in which explicit knowledge is stored makes it easily deducible to
users, thereby cutting out rigorous personal contacts that could have delayed its
access and subsequent use. Unlike tacit knowledge that, in most cases, is the
product of just one person which involves one to one contact to be able to
unlock, explicit knowledge is accessed by a good number of users at once
without necessarily contacting somebody in some cases.
This is owing to the fact that, it is kept in a form that can be decoded by as
much people as possible at one time. Put more vividly, “Explicit knowledge
refers to knowledge that can be translated into formal, systematic language, and
as such, it is relatively easy to recognise and transfer” (Luethge & Byosiere
2008, p.67).
In an organisation when new staff comes on board, there is usually a time of
induction and the need to know the modus operandi of the organisation. A
ready tool for such employees is documents to read and consult in the every
day job to be performed. There may, however, be training given on the job in
form of courses both within and outside the organisation. But to the new
employee, a quick reference in form of documentation is usually very helpful;
this is because it will assist in reminding them of whatever is missed or
forgotten. Jasimuddin et al., (2005, p.106) notes in this regards that, “Explicit
knowledge, on the other hand, is easily communicable and easy to store
because such knowledge is codified”. The ease of its communication apart from
41
being attributable to the way it is packaged is also as a result of the clarity and
direction that it affords the users. Bollinger & Smith (2001, p.9) substantiate
this by asserting that, “explicit knowledge is clearly expressed without
ambiguity or vagueness, and codified and stored in a database”.
Knowledge that is explicit is easy to decipher, this is because it has become
purpose specific in the sense that it is put in a form that can be easily
understood for a specific purpose. Therefore, whoever needs to understand its
constituents, does not necessarily need an elaborate explanation. Alavi &
Leidner (2001) and Sambamurthy & Subramani (2005), sum up explicit
knowledge as been codified for specific purposes when they asserted that, it is
the know-what knowledge. The same position is held by Smith (2001), while
Freeze and Kulkarni (2007) made mention of five knowledge capabilities
(expertise, knowledge documents, lessons learned, policies and procedures and
data). These, they note, a firm can build internally, referring to them as
knowledge assets. However amongst these assets, knowledge documents is
regarded as codified knowledge that is highly explicit. They affirm that explicit
knowledge can be in a traditional structured form, which includes research
reports, project reports, technical reports and publications. All these elements of
explicit knowledge are in text based forms. Explicit knowledge to them can
also be in an unstructured form which includes; pictures, videos, drawings,
diagrams, tutorials, audio tapes and presentations.
When viewed from the above perspective, explicit knowledge is a very
important typology of knowledge as far as this study is concerned. This is
because this type of knowledge exists in the Nigerian public service also,
mainly in form of documents such as files, memos official letters, government
gazettes and publications. Mabawonku (2006) reinforces this from a study
carried out by Aiyepuku (1981, 1982) and Tiamiyu (2000) among policy
makers in the Nigerian Public service on information utilisation. Both studies
42
revealed that, among the most consulted information sources (i.e. explicit
knowledge), used by the policy makers in the public service, government
documents ranked high. Suffice it to state that, information in this context
going by the forgoing is explicit knowledge, in the sense that the variables
considered in both studies and that of Mabawonku (2006) amongst Nigerian
public servants are exactly the same as the aforementioned explicit knowledge
sources. This belief enables this study to put information side by side
knowledge in some of the questions asked in the survey carried out among the
Nigerian public servants for clarity and direction.
The need to explain this typology of knowledge, going by the foregoing is
borne out of the fact that, this study asks questions using explicit knowledge
and its sources as a grid in the case of the Nigerian public service. This is done
to ascertain their usage in knowing what happens in the organisation (i.e.
interdepartmental knowledge transfer), and if this knowledge is available and
accessible to the average Nigerian public servant.
The justification to explain this typology of knowledge becomes even more
inevitable, when the main documents used for the day to day running of the
Nigerian public service like the public service rules (2000), form the basis for
measuring an aspect of knowledge transfer, both in the survey and interview
carried out for this study.
Also, these typology of knowledge helps in determining the specific source of
knowledge that public servants consult, as well as their awareness of the type
that is needed to run the public service. This is whether it is tacit or explicit in
nature. An understanding of the typologies also aids in determining the
appropriate mechanism that is employed in knowledge transfer (Hick et al.,
2007). Specifically, if the knowledge type is explicit in nature, the mechanism
43
for transferring it will be one that does not involve too much personal contact
between the sender and the receiver. This is due to its tangible nature (Duffy,
2000; Martensson 2000; Haldin-Herrgard, 2000 and Jakubik, 2007), unlike that
of tacit knowledge. In the next sub-section, organisational knowledge is
discussed.
2.3 Organisational Knowledge
Having gone through the various dimensions of knowledge, one other
important aspect of knowledge that needs to be considered is organisational
knowledge. This is because for the typology of knowledge to be beneficial at
all, they have to interact in a social setting, and this setting is within or outside
the organisation (in this study the Nigerian public service).
Organisational knowledge can be tacit or explicit in nature or both; it is
internally generated within personal domains of intuition and understanding
involving relationships between technologies, techniques and people (Yahya &
Goh, 2002). In explaining what organisational knowledge is, it is pertinent to
pinpoint the role that the group of employees play collectively within the
organisation collectively for this knowledge to evolve. Tsoukas & Vladimirou
(2001, p.973) affirm this by stating that,
“Organisational knowledge is the capability members of an organisation
have developed to draw distinctions in the process of carrying out their
work in particular concrete context, by enacting sets of generalizations
whose application depends on historical evolved collective
understanding”
44
This definition highlights the importance of collective pooling of individual
potentials in building the knowledge that can be termed organisational, which,
in the long run will prove beneficial in solving problems that may arise in
course of performing regular tasks. An example of this can be found in the
experience that an employee of a broadband company exhibits while
responding to queries from customers daily. A customer, who calls to complain
of the malfunctioning of his/her broadband router, is told to switch off the
router taking off the plug from the mains with all its adjoining cables for five
minutes. Later asked to switch it on, this simple undocumented technique if it
succeeds in making the router to function properly will be used again and again
in future, in solving a similar problem. This knowledge, although not contained
in any written manual when initially used, but evolving from experience, is
passed to other colleagues and becomes entrenched in the organisational
practices and these processes will then culminate in organisational knowledge
and adding to the existing stock of knowledge held by the organisation.
To Bollinger & Smith (2001), organisational knowledge is a strategic asset that
exhibits four characteristics (i.e. it is inimitable, valuable, rare and nonsubstitutable). Of these characteristics, the rareness of organisational
knowledge is emphasised. This is because it sums up the know-how, knowwhat, and know-why of the individual employee. Thereby making the
experience of the present and past employees to be pulled together resulting in
organisational knowledge. Moreover, for there to be organisational knowledge,
the knowledge (in form of expertise) that is held by the individual in the
organisation and that of its various units has to be pulled together to form the
whole (Kulkarni & Freeze, 2007).
There is no gainsaying that this study views organisational knowledge as that
sub-set of knowledge that sets the stage for knowledge management (transfer).
This is because the transfer of knowledge takes place in a setting, and for this
45
study, it is the Nigerian public service. Going by what constitutes
organisational knowledge which is a collection of the individual employees’
experiences that has evolved over time to form practices and processes of the
organisation and in light of the foregoing explanations given in preceding
paragraphs, it beholds on this study to note that, organisational knowledge is a
precursor to knowledge transfer. In the sense that, it helps in taking stock of the
collective knowledge (Spender, 1996) that is available in the public service
(Nigeria public service), so that an appropriate transfer mechanism is then
chosen. Many writers (e.g. Alavi, M. & Leidner, 2001; Kulkarni & Freeze
2007), have contributed to organisational knowledge. But one that stands out in
respect of this study is H Tsoukas. This contribution is discussed in the next
subsection.
2.3.1 Contribution of H Tsoukas to Organisational Knowledge
This sub-section aims to present a succinct contribution of Tsoukas to
organisational knowledge. The reason for selecting his work amongst others is
that, apart from being a contemporary scholar on organisational knowledge, his
postulations forms an integral part of this thesis, hence the resolve to present
his work in a separate sub-section.
To him, organisational knowledge has to do with the capability that the
individual within the firm has developed over time (Tsoukas & Mylonopoulos,
2004). This is derived from exposure to past understanding, together with the
ability to draw distinctions from these, within concrete context aiding the
employees in doing their work. This is summed up to mean that organisation
knowledge is the collection of assets that exist in an organisation (Tsoukas,
2001a). In other words, for knowledge to be organisational, generalisations
46
have to be drawn from past experiences and collective understandings by the
individual employee for it to be used in the operational plane to solve problems.
He is a strong advocate of the constructionist view of knowledge which centres
on the fact that, whatever knowledge a firm holds, is created. And the main
carrier of this knowledge is the routines which are entrenched in the
organisation. So the organisational knowledge from the constructionist
perspective cannot be pre-determined but distributed, since no one can
determine it as a whole (Tsoukas, 1996).
For this study, the similitude of routines being entrenched in the Nigerian
public service is highlighted. This is because apart from being a carrier of
knowledge, routines are also an obvious feature of formal organisations like the
Nigerian public service, as well as its organisational (bureaucratic) culture
which employs these routines as avenue for transmitting culture (Lam &
Lambermont-Ford, 2010).
Heuristic knowledge is another predominant knowledge that Tsoukas posits.
This is knowledge that is gained through improvisation, which an employee
adopts in the course of carrying out every day task. This knowledge is
generated in action; it is informal, it resides both in the individuals mind and in
stories that are shared among colleagues of the same field in communities of
practice (Tsoukas, 2001a). As soon as this knowledge is established it becomes
entrenched in the organisation as organisational knowledge.
To Tsoukas & Mylonopoulos (2004), a single individual cannot hold claim to
knowledge entirely, but just a fraction that forms the whole. That is, a part of
the sum total, may come from the individual in form of inputs and expertise but
47
not the total knowledge. Furthermore, he is of the opinion in this regards that,
some form of knowledge that is ignored within an organisation needs to be
realigned to the existing knowledge. This knowledge, known as local
knowledge, has strategic implications owing to its contextual and practical
nature, and the interactions, as well as, line experiences that it has with
customers. But this knowledge is made underprivileged hence the need to
articulate it and package it holistically (ibid).
When the above assertions are critically observed (constructionist, heuristic
knowledge) and to put in perspective, it is discovered that the form of
knowledge and by implication organisational knowledge in the public service
holds some resemblance in terms of nature. An example is the local knowledge
which he asserts that is held by those down the hierarchy (junior staff) which
needs to be brought in, so as to form the (mainstream) sum-total of the
organisational knowledge. He views this knowledge as “located at a
hierarchical and geographical remove from the centre of the organisation”
hence the need for the call of its inclusion in the organisational knowledge.
This can only be made possible by knowledge transfer, the main crux of this
study.
In practical terms, the
division of local knowledge from that of the
organisation as whole can be observed from the claim of Davenport (2000),
who upholds that, formal reporting (of knowledge) takes place more effectively
at the top managerial level than down the hierarchy (i.e. the local peripheral
level). In other words, managers’ knowledge in an organisation gets more
articulated and shared at the management level than that of sub-ordinates,
thereby presupposing a dearth down the hierarchy. What this further implies,
going by Tuokas claim is that, at the low level of the hierarchy within the
organisation, some form of knowledge is left un-articulated, thereby depriving
its addition to the organisational knowledge base.
48
The knowledge that organisations possess, is exhibited by its members in the
form of conclusions that are drawn from past experiences. These are then
subsumed in routines and processes. These routines are used for improvisations
that are further used to solve problems that may arise in future, and related to
past problems (Tsoukas, 2001a).
Positioning the main crux of this study therefore, which amongst other things is
to ascertain if there is KM (transfer) in the Nigerian public service and to
identify what constitutes knowledge that is needed to run the public service, it
is imperative that whatever knowledge, no matter how infinitesimal and
inconsequentially construed it may seem, has to be explored. This is vital
because the practices that are subsumed in KM (for this study knowledge
transfer) cannot count for very much, if the organisational knowledge is not
first and foremost identified. Hence the highlighting of Tuokas postulations that
is in tandem with the objective of this study, one of which is the awareness of
public servants to organisational knowledge. Having done that, the next
subsection is on KM.
2.4
Knowledge Management
Knowledge Management means different things to different people (Bollinger
et al., 2001). One central theme of KM is the assertion that the knowledge
found in an organisation has to be identified and assessable. The reason for this
is for such knowledge to be transferred easily for reuse by others in solving
problems within and outside the organisation.
Knowledge Management (KM) has, as its crux, the rendering of knowledge to
the end user in the organisation as and when it is required. In other words,
knowledge should be in such a state that, when it is sorted for, it can be
49
accessed in order to be used and re used. Scarborough & Swan (2001, p3)
corroborates this by stating that, KM is “… a loosely connected set of ideas,
tools and practices centring on the communication and exploitation of
knowledge in organisations”. The practices that take place in the managing of
knowledge include capture, packaging, transfer and reuse of knowledge which
is available in both tangible and intangible form in an organisation.
In as much as there are practices that make up KM, it is important to note that,
knowledge to Alavi and Leidner (2001), is viewed from five perspectives; state
of mind, which emphasises knowing through experience and study (Schubert et
al., 1998), knowledge as an object, this sees knowledge as a thing that should
be stored and manipulated (McQueen, 1998; Carlsson et al., 1996. Knowledge
as a process, this centre on knowing and acting (Zack, 1998), knowledge as
condition, stresses its importance as giving access (McQueen, 1998) and
knowledge as a capability sees knowledge as having the capability of
influencing future action (Carlsson et al., 1996).
These different perspectives of knowledge lead some writers (e.g. Carlson et
al., 1996; Luen & Al-Hawarden, 2001), to view KM not only as constituting
practices (i.e. from the practice point of view), but also position the knowledge
that is being managed within three broad paradigms. These are knowledge as an
object, knowledge as a process, and knowledge as a capability. In some
literature (e.g. Borghoff & Pareschi, 1998; Gold & Malhotra, 2001; Tiwana,
2001), these paradigms are referred to as IT perspective, socialisation
perspective and information system (IS) perspective respectively.
The object paradigm views knowledge as constituting access to information,
thereby implying that KM is concerned with building and managing knowledge
reserve (Borghoff & Pareschi, 1998). Also, ensuring that, KM focuses on
50
making explicit the knowledge that is available in form of knowledge items,
widely accessible in the organisation (Rezgui, 2007). The process paradigm
holds that KM is primarily about the flow and processes (practices) that go into
the creation, transfer and distribution of knowledge (Gold & Malhotra,
2001;Becerra-Fernandez & Sabherwal, 2001) The capability paradigm views
the understanding and building of core competences and strategic advantages
for the emergence of intellectual capital as the main aim of KM, this can be
made possible by putting in place the right KM strategy (Tiwana, 2001;
Schultze & Leidner, 2001).
Figure 2.2: Theoretical framework (paradigm) of knowledge Management
Process
Flow and practices for creating,
transfering and distributing
knowledge
(Gold & Malhotra, 2001;BecerraFernandez & Sabherwal, 2001)
Object
Acess to
information for the
buliding and
managing of
knowledge reserve
(Borghoff &
Pareschi, 1998)
Capability
KM
Understanding and
building of core
competence.
Strategic advantage
for the emergence
of intellectual
capital
(Tiwana, 2001;
Schultze & Leidner,
2001)
51
These elucidated paradigms form the general discourse on KM (i.e. the
theoretical perspective, underpinnings and framework). However, based on the
fact that this study is investigating the presence of KM (transfer) in the
Nigerian public service, the study is essentially adopting an eclectic framework
(involving the three mentioned paradigms) to appraise whatever knowledge is
available. The reason for this being that, a multifaceted approach is better in
evaluating the available knowledge, particularly as this is an emerging and
contemporary area of KM in the Nigerian public service. And also, the issues
that are examined such as, access to available knowledge, mechanisms of
knowledge transfer, awareness about knowledge needed to run the public
service are better epitomised across the three paradigms, owing to the fact that
just one paradigm alone cannot provide in-depth elucidation.
In view of the foregoing, it is essential to state that another justification for
employing the multifaceted approach in this study is borne out of the fact that,
the questions asked in the survey and interviews used in data collection were
aimed at eliciting responses that are as diverse and open as possible. This was
so that, the underpinning perspective of just one paradigm does not act as the
guiding rule of thumb, as this can pose an inhibiting factor in appraising
objective and robust arguments that are proffered.
Specifically, the adoption of the three paradigms is evident in questions about
transfer of staff from one department to the other and the knowledge that such
staff comes with to the new department being asked to elicit response in the
study. This is an application of both the object and process paradigm. The
capability paradigm is observed in relation to the organisational culture of the
public service, this is because questions about the role of culture to knowledge
management (transfer), features prominently in the questions of the interview
schedule and survey undertaken in this research.
52
In some literature (e.g. Teece, 2003; Bhatt 2002; Leidner & Alavi, 2001), the
four practices that constitute the knowledge management process as mentioned
above (i.e. capture, packaging, transfer and reuse of knowledge) are termed
differently but meaning the same process. For example, while capture is used to
mean creation of knowledge, storing is used to mean packaging of knowledge,
retrieving for transfer of knowledge and reuse for the application of knowledge.
In this section, these terms are used interchangeably, but in the next subsection,
transfer of knowledge is emphasised because this research central concern is
hinged on that aspect of KM this is expatiated in the sub-section on knowledge
transfer.
Knowledge that is available for use can be in various forms. This can be in
documents, held by individuals or subsumed in procedures and rules. A process
of conversion takes place whereby the personal tacit knowledge is converted
into explicit organisational knowledge which is then used by all. The entire
process of this conversion and the resultant knowledge thereof culminates in
KM (Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995).
One vital aspect of KM is that it simplifies processes thereby reducing the
waste of time (Kwan & Balasubramanian, 2003). This factor is important
because for public organisations that provide services like the Nigerian public
service, any time saved in rendering service to one person is crucial in
providing for another. To accomplish his task (i.e. of saving time), Hicks, et al.,
(2007, p.6) defines KM as “…a method for simplifying and improving the
process of sharing, distributing, creating and understanding company
knowledge”. The simplification of processes that result from KM which is
contained in the sharing of knowledge, otherwise known as knowledge transfer,
can lead to the improvement of services in an organisation. This places
knowledge transfer within the KM processes as an inevitable companion for the
achievement of organisational goals.
53
KM is about flattening the organisation to make people share knowledge,
thereby assisting the organisation to gain competitive advantage (Edvardsson,
2008; Messingham et al., 2007 & Gallup, 2007). The way this is achievable is
by first and foremost identifying and leveraging the available collective
knowledge, this is to help the organisation compete (Von Krogh, 1998).
Another aim of identifying the available knowledge is based on the fact that, of
all the factors of production that a firm can lay hold to, knowledge is very
important (Spender,1996), hence the need to manage it properly. This is owing
to the fact that, in the service economy, it determines the success and
competitiveness of organisations (Jakubik, 2007). Gamble & Blackwell (2001,
p.16), state in this regard that; “Managing knowledge requires a different
perspective to managing land or capital. It is concerned with managing how
people reason and how they make their expertise accessible”. Hauschild et al.,
(2007, p4) affirms that, “knowledge-not land, labour, and capital-is now the
lifeblood of a corporation”.
KM, if properly implemented and made an integral part of an organisation, can
help in saving valuable time wasted in seeking
answers to problems. This is
because the required knowledge to solve the said problem is made readily
available by the KM process. CandArch (2005, p.101) corroborates this by
stating that,
“KM can thus be characterised as being a method of organising and
structuring know-how and professional knowledge from individuals
and organisations so that it becomes visible and available for others”
The availability of knowledge to all within the organisation (public service) to
solve problems therefore, becomes the panacea to the waste of valuable time.
One position that is held by authors (e.g. Montana, 2000), is that KM is an asset
54
which should be made available. Rawler (1999, p.418) specifically defined KM
from this perspective by stating that it “…is concerned with the exploitation
and development of the knowledge asserts of an organisation”. These views
are shared by Liss (1999, p.1), in noting that, “Knowledge Management is a
formal, directed process of determining what information a company has that
could benefit others in the company and then devising ways to making is easily
available”. The ways of making it available forms one of the cardinal points of
this research which is knowledge transfer, as well the exploration of public
servants access to available knowledge needed to run the organisation.
KM is a process which, when followed and applied, leads to the success of an
organisation. Call (2005, p.20) affirms that,
“Successful knowledge management gives you access to the
information you need to do your job, better than you did in the past.
Knowledge management does not provide you with the answer to your
problem rather it facilitates the learning of the answer”.
What the above implies is that, KM is not a single resource that is out there for
solving problems in the organisation but embraces a collection of processes that
is brought together in order to solve whatever problem may arise in the
organisation. Saffady (2000, p.4) puts this in a more succinct form by
explaining that, “Knowledge management is concerned with the systematic,
effective management and utilization of an organisation resources”. Hurley &
Green (2005, p.11), in light of the forgoing define KM as, “the process by
which an organization creates, captures, acquires, and uses knowledge to
support and improve the performance of the organisation”. It may not
necessarily be the total answer to the organisation’s problems but definitely a
step towards this. In the sense that it brings the problems to the fore with a view
to finding the relevant knowledge that can solve it. This is through the transfer
of the requisite knowledge.
55
KM involves the joint use of resources (knowledge) that are at the disposal of
all and sundry in the organisation for its dividends to be properly felt. Tsoukas
& Vladimirou (2001, p.973), emphasise that,
“Knowledge management…is the dynamic process of turning an
unreflective practice into a reflective one by elucidating the rules
guiding the activities of the practice, by helping give a particular shape
to collective understanding…”
Understanding the processes that are ingrained in KM is vital for success to be
achieved, going by the above definition. This is done in an atmosphere where
collaboration exists (Syed-Ikhsan & Roland, 2004).
For the purpose of this research, the working definition is proposed thus:
knowledge management is the organisational process and practices that are
designed to acquire, store and transfer the tangible (explicit) and intangible
(tacit) knowledge assets in an organisation for the purpose of re-use. It is a vital
asset and factor of production which can create the necessary improvement that
is required for performance, economies of scale and competitive advantage
based on the exploration of a given organisational culture.
The implication of KM for this study is that knowledge transfer is one of its
vital constituents. And as such, there is no discussion that can be undertaken
about knowledge transfer that will treat KM in isolation. Hence the topic of this
thesis is KM, and explores issues of knowledge transfer. The reason for this is
that, although knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public service is been
investigated, other processes of KM also features in the study owing to the fact
that they are complementary, and that a study of one process entails viewing
the processes from the lenses of the other process, thereby necessitating a spill
56
over. It is in this regard that knowledge transfer will form the main issue to be
discussed in the next section.
2.5
Knowledge transfer
In managing knowledge, there is the need for whatever knowledge that exists
within and outside the organisation to be properly channelled to those who need
it. The process of moving knowledge from one place to the other using various
techniques, be it technology driven or face to face (personal contact) is referred
to as knowledge transfer.
Despite the numerous processes that are involved in KM as already highlighted
in section 2.4, knowledge transfer is one process that ensures that whatever
knowledge has been created collected and stored gets to the user. Furthermore,
knowledge transfer commands so much importance in KM parlance because;
knowledge cannot be of any relevance unless it is transferred so that its benefits
can be utilised by the individual and organisation.
In the transfer of knowledge, sharing can take place within individuals in an
organisation or from one firm to the other. For the purpose of this research
however, the transfer of knowledge within the organisation (Nigerian public
service), forms the core of the study. This is not to say that, knowledge from
other stakeholders of the Nigerian public service is not beneficial but for this
study it is organisational specific (i.e. from staff to staff and from department to
department). In this regards, Argote and Ingram’s (2000, p151) definition
becomes readily appropriate to substantiate this point. “Knowledge transfer in
organisations is the process through which one unit (e.g., group, department, or
division) is affected by the experience of another”.
57
Experiencing the knowledge that is being transferred and the experience of the
staff are issues that are vital as far as knowledge transfer is concerned. For the
Nigerian public service, when knowledge is thought of what is actually referred
to is experience of a staff (Mukoro, 2005). Before a detailed discussion of
knowledge transfer is undertaken, there is the need to put forward some other
terminologies which are akin to transfer as discovered in the reviewed
literature.
2.5.1 Distinguishing between knowledge sharing and exchange
In the literature on knowledge transfer two words are used interchangeably to
refer to the concept of knowledge transfer (Renzl, 2008). These are knowledge
exchange and knowledge sharing (Hedgebeth, 2007). It is important therefore
to give a brief explanation of these words so that this research can be properly
positioned in light of the usage of the chosen terminology.
2.5.1.1 Knowledge exchange
Knowledge exchange has to do with sharing of knowledge mutually, that is, a
two-way traffic from the sender to the receiver and vice vice-versa, it is also
technology (IT) based. The Canadian Health Services Research Foundation
CHSRF (2008, p.1) in defining knowledge exchange says,
“Knowledge exchange is collaborative problem solving between
researchers and decision makers that happens through linkage and
results in mutually learning through the process of planning,
producing, disseminating, and applying existing or new research
[knowledge] in decision-making”
Knowledge exchange is often technology mediated, in the sense that linkage to
the computer and system network is greatly involved in its modus operandi.
58
Davenport & Prusak (1998, p.18) emphasised this in noting that, “The low cost
of computers and networks has created a potential infrastructure for knowledge
exchange and opened up important knowledge management opportunities”.
The information that is conveyed during knowledge exchange can emanate
from either side of the communication process, either from the initiator or the
receiver or vice versa. But the distinguishing factor is that it is interactive (two
ways), this is because it necessarily elicits a response from the receiver and vice
versa. It is just like two way traffic, coming and going in either direction. In
knowledge exchange those involved in the process are usually known to each
other because it is a give and take activity where the giver has to know who the
receiver is. Other examples of knowledge exchange is digital story telling
(Benmayor 2008; Leon 2008; Gubrium, 2009), and computer supported
collaborative works (Georgia et al., 2008).
2.5.1.2. Knowledge sharing
Knowledge sharing refers to the mutual interaction that can take place for
knowledge to move from one point to the other. Yang (2007, p.84) in defining
knowledge sharing says, “knowledge sharing occurs when an individual is
willing to assist as well as to learn from others in the development of new
competencies”. The assistance referred to here, is in the area of collaboration
either within or outside the organisation (Tsoukas & Mylonopoulos, 2003).
Unlike knowledge exchange where the exchangers know what is been
exchanged and by whom, in the case of sharing it is different. The sharers may
not necessarily know the initiators of the knowledge or the process that takes
place. A vivid example is knowledge repositories, where those concerned with
the stored knowledge can go into the database and retrieve, modify and add to
59
the database without the others knowing who did the addition or modification
as the case may be. But rather access the knowledge as modified.
2.5.1.3. The convergence of knowledge transfer, exchange and sharing
The attributes that are noticeable in knowledge exchange can also be
deciphered in knowledge sharing. These are the use of technological apparatus,
mutuality in sharing knowledge and interaction. Although communication may
not necessarily take place between the receiver and sender in sharing, this
cannot be totally ruled out. A typical example can be found in the re-reporting
of stories and narratives that may have been missed during a session of
storytelling (Tsoukas, 2002a; Gaydos, 2005).When these sessions are rereported the receiver can always ask for clarification even if such messages
have been stored in different forms (i.e. during exchange).
The difference between the above explanation (knowledge exchange) in terms
of interaction between the receiver and sender when compared with knowledge
sharing is not too diverse, since some form of interaction takes place. Another
area of convergence between knowledge exchange and transfer is that of the
way explicit knowledge that is found in CD and documents are transferred from
one place (department) to the other. The means for doing this can be IT
mediated like emails or data base where staff can receive a message, and
immediately respond, making transfer and exchange the same.
Just like the case of knowledge sharing which has to incorporate a willingness
on the part of the sharers to share, this is also the case for transfer and exchange
of knowledge, in the sense that, if the necessary environment is created then
this is possible. One of such enabling environment is that of mutual interaction,
60
networking and trust (Argote et al., 1990: Ingram & Baum, 1997; Von Krogh &
Roos1996b; Urch-Druskat & Wolff, 2001).
The use of knowledge exchange to refer to knowledge sharing or knowledge
transfer is noticeable in most literatures (e.g.Hedgebeth, 2007; Yang, 2007;
Hansen et al., 1996; Gamble & Blackwell 2001). This research is employing
the use of all the elucidated terms interchangeably because there is no clear cut
distinction existing in their usage. The main concept that forms the sub –
heading under which the entire discussion is hinged upon, is knowledge
transfer.
2.5.1.4. An overview of knowledge transfer.
The importance of the unhindered flow of knowledge within an organisation
cannot be over emphasised. Most literature refers to this flow as knowledge
transfer (e.g. Argote &Ingram, 2000; Alivi & Leidner, 2001; Shariq, 1999;
Freeze & Kulkarni, 2007). While to others, it is knowledge sharing (e.g.
Edvardsson 2008; Hicks et al., 2006; Bhatt, 2002 & Hansen et al., 1996). If
knowledge is left in the state that it is (i.e. after it has been created), its impact
to an individual or organisation will be very insignificant. Goh (2002, p.24)
affirms that, “if knowledge is just a repository of information in a database or in
someone’s private knowledge domain, then the organisation cannot use it to
learn”.
This is because mistakes and failures that are made and merely documented,
but not communicated to others, make the knowledge of them unknown and
thereby imposable for others to learn from such mistakes in future. Proper
communication (transfer) of whatever successes, failures or mistakes made in
61
the workplace (i.e. lessons learnt) adds up to form a proper experience base for
others to learn from.
When accessing
the literature on knowledge transfer, two broad ways of
looking at the transfer process stands out. These are the personification and
codification strategy (Hansen et al., 1999). The former (personification) holds
that transfer of knowledge occurs in the interaction that takes place through
human to human, like mentoring and collaboration (Kulkarni & Freeze, 2007).
This strategy can be described as belonging to the tacit type of knowledge. The
latter (codification) focuses on transferring codified knowledge which is in the
tangible form without any need of contacting the individual that developed the
systems or documents or that holds the knowledge. The codification strategy
belongs to the explicit type of knowledge.
Suffice it to state that, for the purpose of this study, both strategies are used in
the explanation for knowledge transfer. This is because the tacit and explicit
typology form an important part of the knowledge that exist in the Nigerian
public service and as such, taking just one strategy amounts to leaving out a
substantial part of the study.
The transfer of knowledge entails a great level of cooperation that the
management of an organisation has to foster. This is to enable the creation of an
enabling environment for the exchange of knowledge to be successful. Bhatt
(2002, P.33) is of the view that,
“… in complex situations, where organizational tasks are highly
interdependent and individuals do not possess necessary levels of
expertise to solve interdisciplinary problems, employees are required to
collaborate with others to share their knowledge and expertise. By
agreeing on common presumptions and analytical frameworks,
employees can coordinate diverse sets of activities and solve
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organization-wide complex problems. Many of these kinds of tasks are
confronted by professional firms, where each individual possesses
expertise in a specific area, because of his/her educational background
and work practice. As long as individuals in professional firms
confront tasks that are within their areas of expertise, they can easily
execute these tasks without requiring interactions with others.
However, when the nature of tasks is complex, requiring integration of
expertise from several interdisciplinary areas, individuals need high
levels of interaction with others, besides being able to access
organizational knowledge”.
The above statement presupposes that transfer takes place through interaction
and collaboration. But that transfer of knowledge only takes place when
activities or issues which need to be resolved do not fall under the area of
specialisation of a specialist staff in an organisation. To Bhatt (2000), the kind
of knowledge that is shared and how it is shared are determined by
professionals, that it is not necessarily down to management to decide. The
implication of this is that, the main duty of the management is the setting up of
the stage for the transfer of knowledge within the organisation and not to
determine the type of knowledge or how it should be shared.
The above analogy by Bhatt (2002) does not capture knowledge transfer in
deatil, in the sense that it renders transfer an activity that is contingent in
nature. In that, the transfer of knowledge is made conditional. Although it takes
an expert knowledgeable in an area of endeavour to transfer knowledge, in that
area effectively, others not as knowledgeable could also participate in the
process if they are a part of the organisation, and own a substantial part of this
knowledge (i.e. local and heuristic knowledge). This is despite the fact that they
may be “located at a hierarchical and geographical remove from the centre of
the organization” (Tsoukas & Mylonoloulos 2004, P.S4). Their input can add
up to the organisational knowledge base and repository which is then shared
(Tuokas, 2001a).
63
An example of the knowledge explained by Tsoukas (2001a) is that of a clerical
officer (clerk) who is regarded as a very junior staff within the Nigerian public
service. The Clerk works in various departments during his/her years in service
as a result of frequent posting which the position entails. This transfer exposes
him/her to different bosses and task culminating in the boosting of requisite
knowledge (experience gathered over the years) to solve problems in the
present department he/she works. But because this individual is not a
professional per se, going by Bhatt (2002) assertion, transfer of this type of
local, experienced and textual knowledge (Tsoukas & Mylonopoulus, 2004) is
hindered.
The foregoing serves as a precursor to the affirmation of Davenport & Prusak
(1998, p.95) which states that, “… the relative difficulty of capturing and
transferring knowledge depends on the kind of knowledge involved”. The kind
of knowledge that is being transferred is a determining factor in the entire
transfer processes, not just those involved (professionals) in the transfer as
early asserted. This is also affirmed by Goh (2002) who regarded the transfer of
knowledge as an issue that should take cognisance of the type of knowledge to
be transferred. This is because, if the knowledge is tacit, then personal methods
like mentoring, teamwork and face-to-face conversations can be employed in
transferring it. But for explicit knowledge, technology driven processes,
information systems and IT are best suited for its transfer.
Various authors (e.g. Jasimuddin 2005 & Argote et al., 2000), highlight the
mechanisms that are used to transfer knowledge. This are also referred to as
channels or techniques of knowledge transfer in other literatures (e.g. Alavi &
Leidger 2001). In this study, however, these terms are used interchangeably. As
already mentioned in the preceding paragraph, the mechanism that an
organisation employs in the transfer of knowledge depends on the type of
knowledge that is to be transferred. In transferring tacit knowledge for example,
64
mechanisms such as; mentoring (Fowler & Gorman, 2005) narratives /story
telling (Hannabuss, 2000), brainstorming (Shaw et al., 2003), transfer of staff
(Friedman & Prusak, 2008; Syed-Ikhsan &- Rowland, 2004; Gruenfeld et al.,
2000) and face-face conversations /interactions by personnel (Albino et al.,
1999) are employed. On the other hand, when transferring explicit knowledge
documents, patents, intranets, IT and communication mediated apparatus form
the mechanism that is used (Tsoukas, 2002).
In the course of exploring the presence of knowledge transfer in the Nigerian
public service, this study asked questions (using questionnaires and semistructured interviews) that elicited responses about the available mechanism
employed in knowledge transfer. The reason for this is based on the fact that,
the identification and subsequent selection of an appropriate mechanism by an
organisation is the secret to a successful knowledge transfer process
(Jasimuddin, 2006).
Alavi & Leidger (2001, p.119), highlight the channels of knowledge transfer,
(i.e. the levels that knowledge) would have to permeate in course of being
transferred. They state that,
“Transfer occurs at various levels: transfer of knowledge between
individuals, from individuals to explicit sources, from individuals to
group, between groups, across groups, and from the group to the
organization”.
This kind of extensive layout of knowledge transfer doesn’t involve
professionals alone as asserted by Bhatt (2000), but all staff across the entire
organisation. No matter how infinitesimal the knowledge that is held by an
individual, a unit or department may seem, it adds up to the knowledge base of
the entire team and organisation (Tuokas, 2004). Below is a graphical
representation of the levels of knowledge transfer.
65
Figure 2.3: Levels of knowledge transfer
Individual
Individual
Individual
100
Individual
80
60
Group
Knowledge
Transfer
40
20
East
West
NorthExplicit
Sources
0
1st Qtr 2nd Qtr 3rd Qtr 4th Qtr
Group
Group
dual
Group
Organisation
What this representation depicts is the transfer of knowledge within different
levels, starting from the individual to the group. This is in form of knowledge
that an individual holds (i.e. individual tacit knowledge) that has been acquired
through experience and insight, which is then shared in the organisation. An
example is improvised (heuristic) knowledge that colleagues within the
organisation learn from each other (Tuokas, 2001a).
The second is from the individual to the individual, an example can be found in
the transfer of knowledge from a mentor to a mentee (Bollinger & Smith,
2001). Thirdly, knowledge can also be transferred from the individual to
explicit sources. The explicit sources are documents and database where others
can have access to, for reference, use and re-use (Kumar, 2009).
66
The fourth is the transfer of knowledge between groups in an organisation; for
example, from the administrative to the finance department (Szulanski, 1996),
within the same ministry (e.g. the public service). These departments may
decide to exchange a particular procedure that has proved successful. The last
level of transfer is that of the group (e.g. planning research and statistics
department) to the entire organisation or ministry (Cutler, 1989).
In transferring knowledge in an organisation (e.g. the Nigerian public service),
team spirit (Wathne et al, 1996), collaboration (Bollinger & Smith, 2001) and
co-operation (Goh, 2002 & Syed-Ikhan, 2004) is vital. Futhermore, the mutual
understanding to share knowledge is built around an environment that has these
constituents. In addition, the research questions of this study, which bothers on
ascertaining if knowledge is transferred in the Nigerian public service, is better
answered by carefully reviewing the aforementioned environment.
Furthermore, in examining whether there is knowledge transfer in the Nigerian
public service (an objective of this study), questions asked in both the
interviews and questionnaires, used collaboration and co-operation as a
yardstick for measurement. While at the same time, team spirit and collectivism
was used to explore the features of the Nigerian public service bureaucratic
culture (an objective of this study).
The importance of interaction to knowledge transfer cannot be over
emphasised. This view is held by Nonaka and Tateuchi (1999), they aver that,
knowledge creation and transfer occurs in a continuous and dynamic process of
interaction between tacit and explicit knowledge. They stated further that, the
transfer of knowledge can be depicted in what they referred to as the four
quadrants of the knowledge spiral. They used this to buttress the point that,
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knowledge can be expanded over time, through the process of mutual
interaction. The quadrant sums up to mean that knowledge is in three main
stages; generation, codification and transfer. In the quadrant, they illustrated
how knowledge can take the above forms, resulting from one form to the other.
Although knowledge generation and codification are very important as far as
KM is concerned, suffice it to say that, the transfer process makes more impact
in the sense that it delivers the knowledge that has been generated and codified
to the end point for use and reuse. And to be able to do this in the public
service, Nonaka (1994) is of the view that, the hierarchies that exist in the
organisation has to be dislodged to enable knowledge transfer to be affective. It
cannot be over emphasised that hierarchies exist in the public service, as they
constitute one of the main indicator for organisational (bureaucratic) culture
which this study aver has a role to play in knowledge transfer. This is looked
into in the section on the public service and also the chapter on culture. The
reason for this amongst others is to elucidate one objective of this research,
which is to explore the features of the Nigerian public service bureaucratic
culture, in relation to knowledge management (transfer).
It is expedient to pinpoint that there cannot be claims of knowledge transfer if
the recipient does not understand and grasp the knowledge that has been
transferred. Davenport and Prusak (1998b, p.101) states, “If knowledge has not
been absorbed, it has not been transferred. Merely making knowledge available
is not transfer”. They employed the use of transmission and absorption of
knowledge to depict the actions that takes place in the process of transferring
knowledge. The former is the actual sending of the message to the end user
while the latter is the inculcating of the sent message by the recipient. Some
literature (e.g. Cohen & Levinthal, 1990; Harmaakorpi & Melkas, 2008),
emphasise the acquisition, assimilation, transformation and exploitation of all
transferred knowledge which they refer to as absorptive capacity.
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Gamble and Blackwell (2001) agree with this by noting that, “Even
transmitting the information to someone else is not the same as knowledge
transfer. The receiver must actually pick up the information and learn how to
use it in appropriate ways”. In using the knowledge that has been transferred,
how fast the knowledge is accessed and the richness of the said knowledge is
both equally important. This scenario is better explained by the terms velocity
and viscosity of knowledge transfer (Davenport & Prusak, 2000). While the
former (velocity) refers to the success by which knowledge is accessed and
communicated (i.e. the speed with which knowledge is transferred within the
organisation), the latter (Viscosity) appraises the quality of the knowledge that
is being transferred (i.e. the richness of the transferred knowledge).
Very similar to the quality and success of the transfer process is the issue of the
organisational context in which transfer takes place. Whereas the organisation
that fosters knowledge transfer can be referred to as fertile, that which hinders
transfer is referred to as barren (Szulanski, 2000), corresponding to the
conceptual school of thought in the organisational learning literature.
The working definition of knowledge transfer in this research is this:
Knowledge transfer is the articulation of knowledge assets made up of
documents as well as experiences acquired overtime and the channelling of
these to all in the organisation without any hindrance.
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2.6 The public service
Since the focus of this study is to ascertain if there is KM (transfer) in the
Nigerian public service, it beholds on this study to explore what constitutes the
public service. This is done with a view to setting the stage for the subsequent
chapter (three), which is on culture and also to pinpoint the role that
organisational (bureaucratic) culture plays in the transfer of knowledge in the
Nigerian public service setting.
The public service also known as the civil service or public administration
(Claver et al., 1999; Wiig, 2002 & Tessema et al., 2009) is made up of a
collection of staff (public or civil servants) that is given the responsibility of
implementing and administering government policies. In most government
establishments (e.g. administration), the public servants perform roles that
pertain to recruitment, selection, induction, promotion, dismissal or termination
of appointment (Mann, 2006). In addition, the provision of essential services
such as defence, education, infrastructure and health care. These services are
carried out to serve the public good (Potts, 2009).
It should however be noted that a slight disparity exists in the classification of
staff as either a civil or public servant. This difference is evident in the process
of selection, appointment and termination. Whereas a civil servant goes through
a rigorous process of interview that is undertaken by the Civil Service
Commission 5 (Briggs, 2007; Babura 2003), stipulating job description and
schedule of duties, the public servant on the other hand may not necessarily go
through these processes and their duties may not be as structured as that of the
civil servant.
5
The body set up by government to perform the duty of hiring and firing public servants both at
the federal and state level of government.
70
Those regarded as civil servants include administrators, executive officers,
education officers and clerical officers. While the public servants includes
government employed teachers, water technicians and those in the military,
police, para-military and other related disciplines. The public servants usually
constitute a larger group than the civil servants. This categorisation
notwithstanding, it is imperative to note that, since these set of staff (be it civil
or public servants) are employed by government to perform duties that cut
across the entire public (which are inter-related), this study is employing the
use of both terms (civil and public service), interchangeably. The reason for
this apart from the forgoing is that they are located side by side in the
organisation performing complementary roles and literatures (e.g. Babura
2003) also use these terms interchangeably .
The literature on the public service describes it as a formal, (Tsoukas, 2001b),
hierarchical (Syed-Ikhsan & Rowland, 2004) and bureaucratic (Claver et al.,
1999) organisation. The aforementioned three characteristics of the public
service can be summed up in the acronym “government bureaucracy” as put
forward by (Philip 1990, p4).
In formal organisations such as the Nigerian public service, rules and
regulations that follow laid down precedence and hierarchical authority are well
entrenched. In this type of set up (public service), public servants are expected
to serve the government in an apolitical and nonpartisan manner (CIA World
Fact Book, 2009). What all this culminates into is an organisation with a
bureaucratic organisational culture. This culture is not discussed in detail in this
sub-section, rather in the chapter on culture. The reason for dedicating a subsection within the chapter on culture to bureaucracy is because; it forms an
integral part of this research (i.e. it meets one objective and also answers a
research question), specifically the exploration of its features and its effects on
knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public service.
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The rules that are laid down in the public service determine the duties that are
performed by the public servants. Barouhk and Kleiner (2002, p. 29) note that,
“It is the discovery that people serve themselves only as they serve others”.
This service, going by the main crux of this study can either facilitate or hinder
the transfer of knowledge. This is due to the fact that, in course of carrying out
their day to day task, knowledge is being transferred but only within the
periphery set by these rules that govern them, particularly in making statements
about the service and communicating them to colleagues. This view is upheld
by Okafor (2005, p.67) who states that,
“Public bureaucracy is used to refer to the administrative machinery,
personnel of government at the federal, state and local levels and the
corpus of rules and regulations that govern their behaviour”
What these regulations portends therefore, is a culture of conformity (Feldman,
1985), by the staff to the overall organisational culture which is prevalent in the
public service, thereby making transfer of knowledge to be possible only within
the scope of this type of culture.
In a study carried out in the public sector on KM practices and principles in
the police force, Luen and Al-Hawamdeh (2001) argue that, for KM ( to them
knowledge sharing) to be effective, the organisational culture which they
identified as bedevilled with lack of trust, openness and collaboration, has to
be changed. This advocated change should be in terms of the change of metal
models towards openness and learning that enhances knowledge sharing and
access to critical knowledge. Aligning this finding within the arguments made
in the preceding paragraph, it can be adduced that knowledge transfer is
possible only if cultural concerns are considered.
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Going by the foregoing, it is pertinent to state that, rules and regulations both
characteristics of organisational culture within the Public service, are important
factors to consider as far as knowledge transfer is concerned. This is because;
they form a substantial part of its organisational culture. Hence, the resolve of
this study to explore the role organisational (bureaucratic) culture plays in the
transfer of knowledge within the public service of Nigeria.
2.7 Conclusion
What this chapter has been able to do is to define concepts (data and
information) that are seen to be synonymous with that of knowledge. In doing
this, these concepts were then linked to see how they relate from one concept to
the other. The issue of knowledge was adequately expounded; this is to
delineate its source, ownership and typology. Organisational knowledge was
also elucidated side by side the contributions of a contemporary scholar in the
field.
What constitutes Knowledge Management and the underpinning paradigms
also formed a vital part of this chapter. So also is the transfer of knowledge and
the mechanisms for the transfer which is also known as channels or techniques
of knowledge transfer. There are two working definitions, one for KM and the
other for knowledge transfer. What the public service is in general and in
particular, the Nigerian context, is also highlighted; reviewing its history.
The gap that exists in the literature is evident; a particular example is the case
of individual knowledge. This knowledge is held by an agent (human), who
interprets data into information and then knowledge, thereby making the agent
the sole possessor of the said knowledge. It is good that the agent holds the
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knowledge but how can the organisation access this. Knowledge transfer
becomes the only panacea, which is where the relevance of this paper lies.
Another gap that is evident in what the literature has emphasised, is how
knowledge can be formed and transferred organisationally among groups. But
the question this research ask and subsequently answers is whether culture
plays any significant role in this. The chapter on culture addresses this gap after
reviewing the relevant literature.
Finally, the literature was able to reveal that, the term information is akin to
knowledge because it is frequently used instead of knowledge. While the term
communication, exchange and sharing is the same thing as transfer of
knowledge. Specifically the gap that is identified in the case of Nigeria is the
dearth of literature in the area of KM (transfer). The few studies that are
available undertook studies in information which has similar apparatus such as
knowledge sources and mechanisms but not KM (transfer) per se. This research
is undertaken to fill this gap to keep abreast with modern day terminology and
contemporary trends in the discipline.
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CHAPTER 3
CULTURE
3.1 Introduction
The purpose of dedicating a chapter of this thesis to the issue of culture is to
understand the notion of national culture, organisational culture, and most
specifically Nigerian bureaucratic culture (because the public service has a
peculiar organisational bureaucratic culture) which needs to be properly
pinpointed). As noted in previous chapters, one of the main objectives of this
research is the exploration of the features of the Nigerian public service
bureaucratic culture in relation to knowledge management (transfer). This
chapter helps to position and realise this objective. Another reason is that a
holistic and in-depth study of culture will afford this research the opportunity of
explaining the main research questions, which, is, how organisational
(bureaucratic) culture affects knowledge transfer.
Eight sections are contained in this chapter, the first 3.1, is an introduction of
the entire chapter. This is followed by the general definitions and explanation
of culture in section 3.2. There are discussions on national culture contained in
section 3.3. Organisational culture is discussed in section 3.4 which consist of
two further subsections, one devoted to bureaucratic culture and the other
corporate culture. Section 3.5 follows this; it is about the Nigerian culture, as
well as that of its public service and the Bayelsan6 culture. Section 3.6 takes
care of the link between culture and knowledge transfer. The reason for this
section is based on the fact that knowledge transfer is the main issue in
knowledge management that this research is looking at, and as such there is the
need to accentuate its relationship with culture. In section 3.7, a presentation of
6
The culture of the people of Bayelsa state of Nigeria.
75
Hofstede’s 5 dimensions (theory) of culture is made. This thesis employs it as a
guide in appraising that of the Nigerian public service, in order to locate it
within them and also in explaining that of the Nigeria national culture in
relation to the organisational (bureaucratic) culture, in the Nigerian public
service. The last section 3.8 is a brief summary of the chapter.
3.2. Culture in general
Culture has to do with the way of life of a person or group of people
(McDermott & O’Dell, 2001). This way of life includes dressing, language,
arts, dance, beliefs, norms and values. These influences behaviour, life style
and invariably determine how these can be identified in a person or an
organisation.
Culture can be inferred from an individual or group, this is because it is not
seen, neither is it tangible. Hofstede (1980, p.25), defines culture as, “A
collective programming of the mind which distinguishes one group from the
other”. A vivid example of this distinction is evident in the way employees of
an organisation dress and speak. Specifically, the way lawyers dress when in
court and the distinct language they use to communicate reinforce what culture
is. These aspects of culture, going by the above definition, emanates from the
programming of the mind, which in turn makes the lawyers to stand –out (i.e.
distinguishes them), from others in a different profession. Miroshnik (2002,
p.525) substantiates that,” culture is the way of life of a group of people”.
Trompenaars (1993) views culture as coming from different layers. Stating that
the comprehension of what culture really is can be sought only when these
layers have been fully understood. An example given is that of the layers found
in the “onion”. Each layer unveils an issue; the issues that are subsumed in
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these layers, include values and assumptions, which are the underlying
constituent of culture. As a layer is removed to reveal a segment of the culture,
further layers reveals the other segment.
The behaviour that an individual exhibits when relating to others, can be
inferred from his /her cultural orientation and inclination. Herbig and Dunphy
(1998, p.13) sums this up when they aver that:
“culture is the sum total of a way of life, including such things as
expected behaviour, beliefs, values, language, and living practices
shared by members of a society; it is the pattern of values, traits, or
behaviour shared by the people within a region”.
What the above definition portrays, therefore, is that culture is a medium
through which meanings that were hitherto obscure (i.e. about a person or
people), can be better understood. That is, in light of the way the people behave
and why they behave in that way. In other words, in trying to make meaning of
the behavioural pattern of an individual or people, culture serves as the best
catalyst in achieving it.
Culture has, “an underlying impact on management, and can shape identity,
attitudes and behaviour” (Fuller-Love 2008, p.93). The source of this impact
and influence which culture wades in shaping management can be attributable
to the culture that exists in the region (nation), where the organisation is
situated (Sweeney & Hardaker, 1995).
In view of the forgoing in respect of the Nigerian public service, culture
becomes the main basis for the explanation about the way attitudes and
behaviours (i.e. the way things are done) that has come to stay (evolved) over
77
the years. The multiple processes and procedures used in achieving relatively
little task in the public service (i.e. in form of division of labour) is an example
of culture shaping attitudes. This type of culture is an offshoot of the national
culture of the region where the public servants are domiciled.
3.3 National culture
The understanding of the culture of the people of a country enables an
organisation to adapt its policies, in order to be able to, develop the requisite
skills that will enable it to achieve corporate success (Morden, 1999).
Furthermore, this understanding is necessary because national culture is also an
avenue for an organisation to study the historical precedence of the people.
These positions hold true for multinational organisations that operate in
cultures that are diverse from home cultures (Perlmuttter, 1969). But for the
organisations that are at home such as the public service, understanding of
national culture is important also because it holds the key to attitudes and
behaviours that staff exhibits in doing their job.
In the light of the forgoing, national culture can be referred to as the culture that
exists in a country which constitutes the way of life of its people. For example,
the people of Nigeria believe in offering cola nuts7 (a symbol of goodwill) to a
guest that visits. This practice forms a part of their national culture especially in
the east, south and western regions (Awa et al., 2010). Hofstede (1993, p.89)
defines national culture in this regards “the collective mental programming of
the mind” of the people in any particular nationality. This programming can
also be referred to as its collective national character. Morden (1999, p.19)
emphasises in this regard that, the national character is responsible for shaping
of, “…values, attitude, competences, behaviours, and perceptions of priority of
that nationality”.
7
A soft textured bitter fruit offered to strangers as a symbol of goodwill.
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These are evident in feelings, underlying beliefs, values, history, and
assumptions about the country. They are specifically rooted in experiences,
stories, and behavioural patterns that could be decades or centuries old. Culture
is enduring, difficult to develop or reshape. The reason for this difficulty is due
to the fact that, history which is well established, takes time to reshape, owing
to the fact that, it undergoes a common historical experience and it is shared by
all in the nation or country (Schooler, 1996).
3.4. Organisational culture
This culture originates from a system of shared meanings, which differentiates
one organisation from the other (Schein, 2005). It gives the firm its distinctive
identity. Kwantes et al., (2007, p.98) supports this by noting that, organisational
culture“… generates the organisation’s identity and characterizes it from other
organizations”. To McDermott and O’Dell (2001, p.76), organisational culture
is, “… the shared values, beliefs and practices of the people in the
organisation”. They affirm further that, these (i.e. the aforementioned) can be
observable in both tangible and intangible forms.
The former is contained in the mission and values of an organisation, while the
latter can be seen in the way staff behave and also in the expectation they have
of one another. This expectation is in the form of organisational values and
behavioural norms, which include respect for individuals especially seniors;
quality, autonomy and teamwork. These add up to give the organisation a
distinctive core character (Kwantes et al., 2007). To Ostroff et al., (2003),
values and norms make up organisational culture.
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Organisational culture is the key to explaining the happenings in an
organisation (public service). This is in terms of the behavioural and
environmental traits that underpin the attitudes of the individuals in the
organisation. It pervades all relationships that exist in the organisation, and
influences decisions that are taken.
This culture is developed in the organisation by the individual staff, that comes
from a background (national culture), mixing with others (fellow public
servants) from similar or distinct cultural settings. In the course of working
with others, both staff brings their own orientation to bear on the organisation.
They subsequently form ways of behaving and doing things. Schein (1992)
affirms that organisational culture is the assumptions that are invented,
discovered and developed by a group of people in course of integrating, in
order to adapt and cope with its problems. These assumptions are in form of
values, which are transferred to new members of the group, and also taught as
the right way to behave in relation to solving its problems.
In addition to what has been said, Bhaskaran and Sukumaran (2007) declare
that organisational culture is the foremost and continuing values, attitudes and
behaviours of a group. To them, continuity of the values that has come to stay
is what gives organisational culture a distinguishing feature. In a study on
measuring and achieving quality customer service in the public sector,
Nwankwo and Richardson (1994) aver that the way forward for leadership in
the public sector to achieve high quality service, is to foster a quality service
culture. The actualisation of this culture to Nwankwo and Richardson (1994)
can only be achievable by looking at what people (staff) that are inside the
organisation are doing. This is akin to “the way things are done around here”
which is an aspect of organisational culture.
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“The way things are done around here”, is a very common language that is
used to present the culture that an organisation has (Kay, 1995; Tsoukas, 1996)
An example is the classification of documents in the public service, as open,
secret, confidential or top secret (Syed-Ikhsan & Rowland 2004). This culture
alienates staff from the mainstream of knowledge acquisition, despite the fact
that, they are authorised to see these document but not allowed to due to the
culture of “boss determines it all and wait for your time syndrome” 8 . This
breads disaffection, bad blood and the lack of trust (Dietz & Den Hartog,
2006).
In light of the forgoing, Collins (1997) asserts that those who are part and
parcel of an organisation are those who can better understand the norms and
values that are attributes of the organisation. This culture cannot be found in
documents but are ingrained in the behaviour of its members. Similarly, within
the organisation, departments and units also have sub-cultures (behaviours) that
exist. The documents that are classified as secret, may be that of the
administrative department, and kept by the registry, which is a unit of the
administrative department. But a registry staff can say to a staff in the indexing
unit, (e.g. in the same administrative department) that, he/she cannot have
access to the documents. This is despite the fact that the said staff is authorised
to do so. This scenario again breeds a lack of trust.
In an organisation where there is the lack of trust for one another, what results
is, hoarding of knowledge (Milne 2007). The assumption that knowledge gives
competitive advantage to a firm makes organisations to hoard whatever
knowledge it has. This belief is wrapped up in the “knowledge is power”
dictum. With the advent of knowledge management however, there has been
the clamour for sharing this knowledge, but the mindset of the employees is, if
8
A saying in the Nigerian public service, which implies, this is the time of the boss and he can
do as he pleases. He determines who gets and does what. See analysis of interviews (pg
235,238-239).
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they share their knowledge, where will their relevance with the organisation
then lie.
3.4.1 Corporate Culture
This culture is akin to organisational culture, but more organisational specific
in the sense that, it assists an organisation in achieving its goals and objectives
in the area of corporate success. Rashid et al., (2003, p.711), define corporate
culture as,” The implicit, invisible, intrinsic, and informal consciousness of the
organisation which guides the behaviour of the individuals and which shapes
itself out of behaviour”. One common feature of corporate culture is the way
members of an organisation use peculiar language in communicating, (e.g.
radio operators) and the dressing code for some categories of staff (e.g. the
military) to portray their distinct identity.
Corporate culture has to do with sets of values, beliefs and behavioural patterns
that form the core identity of an organisation and helps to shape the behaviour
of its workers (Deal & Kennedy1982; Desphande & Farley 1999). So for
corporate culture therefore; core identity is a distinguishing factor. When
relating this to the public service, the peculiarity of its culture becomes
imperative. Because there are ministries where you just see its staff and
immediately know that they are public servants from that ministry (i.e. justice
and the judiciary). In discussing about knowledge transfer in this ministry,
consideration has to be given to this culture.
Furthermore, when paraphrased, corporate culture is to the organisation what
personality is to the individual, Claver et al., (1999, p.459), accentuate this by
noting that,
82
“Corporate culture as a set of values, symbols and rituals shared by the
members of a certain firm, describing the way things are done within an
organization when solving internal managerial problems, together with
those related to customers, suppliers and environment…”.
They note further that, corporate culture contributes to the improvement of the
management of a public body (public service). This final statement lays
credence to the importance of corporate culture as a sub-set of organisational
culture which this study is looking at it relationship with knowledge
management (transfer) in the Nigerian public service context. But because
corporate culture is very akin to organisational culture in similitude, this thesis
will stick to the use of organisational (i.e. bureaucratic) culture, as the main
terminology for highlighting the culture that is in the public service. In other
words, when the term organisational culture is used in this thesis, what is been
described is a culture that encompasses both corporate and bureaucratic culture.
The next aspect of organisational culture to be elucidated is the bureaucratic
culture; this is discussed in the next section.
3.4.2 Bureaucratic culture
Bureaucracy is a structure that puts regulations in place to control activity,
usually in large government organizations (e.g. public service). It is represented
by standardised procedure (i.e. rule-following) that dictates the execution of
most or all processes within the body, formal division of powers, hierarchy, and
relationships (Claver et al., 1999; Okafor, 2005). In practice, the interpretation
and execution of policies (of government), can lead to prolonged monotony and
a lot of time being used in carry out task. This is as a result of so many
processes9 that are involved in the handling of issues that are brought to the
public service. This portrays bureaucracy as a negative culture to the citizenry.
9
This involves the solving of issues, by passing the issue from one officers desk to the other in
form of division of labour.
83
Thus, what bureaucratic culture does, within the organisation (public service),
is to transmit the values and cultural meanings, which the organisation has, in
course of interacting with customers (Harvey, 1997).
There are two types of bureaucracy, enabling and coercive bureaucracy (Adler
& Borys, 1996). This typology emanates from the school of thought which sees
formalisation of work as an organisational technology that uses bureaucracy to
enable employees (public servants) to perform their task better. This is in terms
of giving guidance and clarifying responsibilities in an organisation. On the
other hand, bureaucracy is seen as negative in that, it fosters dissatisfaction, demotivates staff and stifles creativity. This typology of knowledge stems from
the three main empirical and sociological models of bureaucracy which include
the canonical principal-agent model, the discretional power model and the
informal transactional model (Breton, 1995). For this study, the canonical
principal model that explains more of the relationship of superiors and subordinates (i.e. principal and agents in large organisation) like the Nigerian
public service, is most appropriate. Also in management and organisational
theory, bureaucracy is a very important approach (Mouzelis, 2009).
In the public service, which is the setting for this study (i.e. ministries and
parastatals), the main organisational culture is, the bureaucratic culture
(Babura, 2003; Claver et al., 1999). However, within this culture, are some
other cultural sub-sets, which typify the public service. These are the culture of
hierarchy (Teo et al., 2009), conformity (Feldman, 1985), control (Ban, 1995),
secrecy (Hansen, 1999; Riege & O’Keeffe`, 2007) and that of process ((Deal &
Kennedy, 1982).
84
There is a chain of command and span of control which exists in the public
service Boddy (2006). This chain exists in form of organisational structure,
showing who occupies what office, his/her rank in the organisation and the
schedule of duties to be performed (Briggs, 2007)10. What this culminates into
is a formal and structured way of carrying out tasks, which sets out rigid
boundaries. These boundaries further lay down control measures in place, to
stipulate strict adherence to the overall organisational structure and the
processes for going up the hierarchy. There is a connection of positions to task
and the classification of skills that is required to fill these positions. In light of
the foregoing, Claver et al., (1999, p.259), asserts that bureaucratic culture is a
general feature of public administration (i.e. the public service). They list seven
features of this culture, which make public administration inefficient thereby
supporting the coercive typology thus;

The management style is authoritarian, and there is a high degree of
control.

There is little communication and the management is usually a univocal,
top down one.

Individuals search for stability, have limited scope for initiative, and
there are oriented towards obeying orders.

The decision-making process is repetitive and centralised.

There is a high degree of conformity.

These beliefs are highly reluctant to change.
These characteristics of bureaucracy, paints a picture of an absolute close–knit
organisation, which requires a proper understanding of the culture, and
adequate regard to constituted authority before an exploration of its possible
effects on KM (transfer) can be sought. This is because the organisational
10
See Figure 1.1 in p. 13 for an organogram depicting the organisational structure of a typical
ministry
85
culture is one that vests the possession of knowledge more on the top echelon
of the hierarchy (management) thereby rendering those at the low levels to be
left out(. The implication that this has, is that, there is reluctance in sharing of
knowledge, on the part of those not in the top hierarchy (Riege& Lindsay,
2006; O’Sullivan, 2007). Even when those in the low hierarchy do possess the
requisite knowledge and initiative to transfer, these have to come from
management and not them. Thereby making the low level workers in the
hierarchy to feel alienated, and lacking a sense of belonging in the organisation.
Despite the above scenario however (i.e. the negative nature of bureaucracy),
Weber (1946) argues that, bureaucracy has positive characteristics (placing him
as the supporter of the enabling typology of bureaucracy), this he listed as
hierarchical structure, task division, formal rules and regulation. But Savas
(1982), points out that these same characteristics makes the public
administration (i.e. service) to be inefficient, inflexible and irresponsible before
the citizens of the country which they are supposed to provide service for, in
the sense that, they slow down the process of service delivery.
Bureaucratic culture gives room to the emergence of sub-cultures in
departments and units within a ministry or organisation. These units begin to
protect its interest, specific goals and language. So for any person, who needs a
service from the ministry, the process will include inputs and approval from
these departments and units as a matter of convention not necessity, as the boss
must be involved (Aluko & Adesopo, 2004). The process can take ages to come
through, because officers have to recommend and send files up and down the
hierarchy. This causes delays, and renders initiative and innovation of staff
outside the management circle worthless. A common decision that can be taken
by a staff is made to go back and forth the hierarchy; this is, just to satisfy the
bureaucratic set up.
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3.5. Nigerian culture
In the Nigerian public service, there is this assumption that, government work
is nobody’s job. This belief is borne out of the fact that, the management are the
owners of the organisation since its failure or success will be attributed to them.
So if anything goes wrong, they will be held responsible. This culture
introduces another sub-set (we and them), with the management been perceived
as them and employees, we. This is particularly more rift in a situation where
workers in a government parastatal, sees their colleagues in the main ministry
as superior (i.e. headquarters versus branch). A good example is the ministry of
health and that of the Hospital management board. The ministry is the head
quarters and the board is the branch, bringing a divide even within staff of the
same ministry but different agencies.
The national culture of Nigeria is one that is not too different from that found in
the African continent. This is evident in its system of government, that has be
characterised by prolonged military rule, just like most African countries (e.g.
Ghana and Burkina Faso). The impart of long period of military rule in Africa
is not felt in the public service alone, but also in the political economies which
has been experiencing “emerging paradoxes in the continent’s developmental
processes” (Nwankwo 2004, p.112). These paradoxes although more noticeable
in commerce and the general wealth of the people of Africa which is declining,
also imparts on the public service as well because it is part and parcel of the
larger economy.
Specifically, in the fifty years of its existence as a sovereign nation, military
rule accounts for twenty years (Nigeria Country profile, 2009). In these years
(i.e. of military rule), there have been a lot of public service reforms (e.g. May
29, 1999), which rendered the public service vulnerable to the direct control of
the military authorities (Ayodele & Bolaji, 2007).
87
In some cases, constitutional provisions were set aside and replaced with
military decrees. A vivid example was during the military administration that
spanned from 1985-1993. During this regime, there was the politicising of the
appointment of permanent secretaries (PS). This was partly done by, replacing
the designation PS with director general (DG). A PS who is the most senior
public servant in a ministry, with a fixed term of office (i.e. till retirement either
by age or years of service, whichever comes first), was now to leave office as
soon as the politicians in whose tenure they served expired.
The above scenario (i.e. of military interference in national life), ushered in a
peculiar culture of authoritarian control, with an attendant mindset of the public
servant tilting towards the direction of carrying out orders hastily in military
fashion. A good example, is the language, “I will deal with you” which is a
common feature when a sub-ordinate is to be disciplined by a senior officer.
Ayodele and Bolaji (2007, p.108) in appraising this intimidating situation
which they aver is a disregard to civil rights note;
“... the import of how to demilitarise an already distorted public service
was crucial to the realisation of the noble roles the service is to play in
the new democratic dispensation” .
This language became acceptable in national life as a result of military
incursion in politics and the resultant frequent use of the word which has crept
into the day to day public service lexicon. The Economist Intelligence Unit
2008 democracy index corroborates the above assertion with its ranking of
Nigeria 124th
out of 169 countries, placing it among the 49 countries
considered authoritarian. This is despite the fact that Nigeria has been in a
stable democracy now and for ten years prior to this research findings.
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Furthermore, the job insecurity that existed in the public service, due to the way
hitherto secured positions (e.g. permanent secretaries) were politicised, came
with the culture of corruption (Tunde & Omobolaji, 2009) . The tendency to a
mass as much wealth as possible, through sharp practices and dubious means,
presumably for a rainy day, became the order of the day. Even when this
insecurity of positions was reversed by the military administration that was in
place between 1993-1998, the culture of corruption still continued. This is
because it had become so endemic in the citizenry and has eaten deep down
into the fabric of the Nigerian public service. Furthermore, for the generality of
Nigerians, the norm was for families to put pressure on their relatives who
occupy high positions of trust in order to behave exactly as their corrupt
predecessors who embezzled public funds (Arowolo, 2010).
The Nigerian national culture, apart from being military laden and corrupt
(Sunday, 2010), consists also of arts, artefacts and strong family ties/values,
which comprises of cultural practices that have evolved from generation to
generation, passed on mainly by storytelling and folklores (Federal Ministry of
Information & National Orientation, 2006). This aspect of the of Nigerian
culture is captured succinctly in Deal and Kennedy’s (1982) elucidation of
culture, which they aver as, that integrated pattern of the human behaviour that
comprises of what they speak, their actions and artefacts. These, they state,
depend on the ability of the individuals in the county to learn and transmit the
aforementioned from one generation to the other.
There are a lot of languages spoken in Nigeria, the most common being the
Pidgin English beloved to have been passed to Nigerians by Portuguese traders
who came to trade in pre-colonial11 times. Other languages are Ibo, Yoruba,
Hausa, Ijaw, Isoko, Edo and Tiv languages. The people believe so much in
cultural heritage, religion and respect for the family. Pre-colonial Nigeria was
11
This is the period before and during colonial rule, 1946-1960.
89
characterised by highly organised, social political, religious and cultural
structures. This was personified in the person that occupied the position, of
either the traditional ruler or royal father. This person, usually a man, has
political and religious authority. In modern times, the situation is not too
different, as the culture of hierarchy and authority that was in the pre-colonial
days still pervades the polity.
The above mindset (i.e. respect for hierarchy and authority), in a democratic
government is one that is hard to reshape, owing to the nature of the Nigerian
culture, which dates back to the colonial era (1933). This, as Hofstede (1991)
puts it, is as a result of the mental programming of the people over a period of
time. The implication that this has for the public service is that, there is a
carryover of this culture to its practices and rules, firmly entrenched it its
organisational culture.
3.5.1 Bayelsan culture
The Bayelsa culture within the Nigerian culture is briefly looked into because it
is the setting for this study. Bayelsa is an acronym of Brass, Yenagoa and
Sagbama, the 3 senatorial districts’12 that make up Bayelsa state, one of the 36
states in Nigeria (Sylva, 2009). Located in the south-south geo polital zone of
Nigeria, it is predominantly made up of the Ijaw people as well as the Nembe,
Epie, Ogbia, Bisene, Isoko and Urhobos. The people live more in the riverine
areas which is more of mangrove swamp and rain forest.
The predominant occupation is fishing and farming. In addition, art, dance,
folklore (i.e. oral literature), storytelling, family values, like neighbourliness
and respect for elders also forms part if the culture. The deities and God are
12
Districts created for political representation at the federal legislative chamber. There is one
senator per senatorial district
90
among the most revered aspect of the Bayelsa culture (Koroye, 2003). Like the
Nigerian culture, hierarchy and power are also inherent in that of Bayelsa. The
head of the family is always the father, even when the father dies, there is an
uncle or relative who plays the father figure. Women are secondary in class to
men, no matter the age. Where this is most evident is in village or town
meetings, the women folk are usually not allowed to attend, but their younger
brothers or children can attend such meetings. In some villages where the
women are allowed to attend, they are not expected to contribute to major
deliberations but only as observers, even when such deliberations concern
them.
The implication of this culture is seen in the public service when very sensitive
positions are left to the men folk rather than women who are qualified. For
example, the accountant general of the state is always a man. This is clearly a
case of national culture spilling over into organisational culture, “the way
things are done)”. In this study, feminist and masculinity are the dimensions of
Hofstede (1991) theory of culture that was tested to ascertain the features of the
Nigerian bureaucratic culture. Its findings proved that it a masculine society,
hence the autocracy with which it is attributed with.
3.6. Linking organisational culture and knowledge transfer
The transfer of knowledge in an organisation can be made possible or impeded
by organisational culture (Massingham & Ang, 2007). What this implies is that,
organisational culture plays a major role in either the success or failure of
knowledge transfer. In light of this role, this sub-section is looking at the link
that exists between organisational culture and knowledge transfer.
91
The differences that could exist within an organisational culture can affect the
transfer of knowledge. Finestone & Snyman (2005) found out in a study that,
the multiplicity of (organisational) cultures in organisations, accounts for
barriers in knowledge sharing. They advocate the proper acknowledgement of
these differences (one of which is trust) to be able to overcome the barrier that
culture poses. In another study carried out by Fowler & Pryke (2003) on the
role of KM and understanding how competitive advantage, as practised in the
broader business community, can be translated to the civil service through
knowledge management. Findings reveal that common understanding of the
ways things are done in the public service such as, the behaviour of staff and
aliening to the language used are prerequisite for knowledge transfer to be
successful. They further emphasised that, because the organisational culture
that exists in the public service is peculiar in tradition, and unique to the
organisation, there is the need to key into it for success of any knowledge
management programme.
There is the school of thought which holds that, organisations in the West and
east are characterised by individualistic and collective organisational culture
(Hofstede, 1980; Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995; Chen, 2001; El Kahal, 2001). To
them, organisations in the West are good in the transfer of explicit knowledge
owing to the fact that, those from the western culture are more likely to read
anything codified. These beliefs are rooted in the individualistic culture that
pervades its organisations. For the organisations in the East however, they are
collective in their cultural inclination. The transfer of (tacit) knowledge for
these organisations therefore, involves more face to face and narratives
mechanism than documentary mechanisms.
An organisational culture that is knowledge friendly to Davenport et al., (1998)
is an important factor for the success of the transfer of knowledge. This is
because such a culture will propel the staff of an organisation to be pro
92
innovative, thereby enabling them to handle issues pertaining to knowledge
with a positive attitude. What this friendly culture also permits is the
elimination of any form of fear in the course of sharing of knowledge. Giving
way for the aligning of the organisational culture in order to be able to fit with
its objectives for knowledge management (i.e. transfer) to be firmly rooted.
The transfer of knowledge in the public service can take place more easily if
the organisational culture permits interaction (Bhatt, 1998). This is due to the
fact that interaction (an aspect of organisational culture) fosters knowledge
transfer. This can be achieved by developing shared realities that is used in
forming strategies for solving problems, which arises in the organisation.
(Levine et al., 2000). The shared realities are necessary outcomes of interaction.
Interaction in the public service can take place during lunch breaks or other
leisure times. Such times are relaxing enough to unlock the tacit knowledge of
staff and create avenues for the transfer of such knowledge. An organisation
(public service) that recognises this fact makes sure that in staff canteens for
example, there is no segregation in seating arrangements that will alienate
senior or management staff from their junior counterparts. This is because
segregation in seating and mixing up in terms of interaction may portend a class
deferential that will make some staff (particularly the junior) to feel reluctant to
share knowledge.
In analysing a theoretical framework for the knowledge transfer in
organisations, Albino et al., (1999, p.55) presents four components that can be
used for the analysis. This they explained can influence the interaction between
actors (staff of the public service), in the course of knowledge transfer;
93

The actors involved in the knowledge transfer process (i.e. Nigerian
public servants).

The context where the interaction takes place (i.e. in the public service).

The content transferred between actors (tacit and explicit knowledge).

The media by which the transfer is carried out (Mechanisms like;
storytelling, narratives and exchange of documents).
The above components presents a picture of what interaction can portend for
the transfer process. In the sense that the organisational culture, and the context
where the transfer takes place, can make the actors to transfer knowledge if
there is trust, prior experience and openness (Wathne et al., 1996). While at the
same time, the willingness to share is only made possible in a collaborative
interaction (Hamel, 1991; Strata, 1989).
The existence of a strong co-operative and collaborative culture is also another
important prerequisite for knowledge transfer between individuals and groups.
Without appropriate mechanisms to encourage co-operation, structured or
technological interventions to facilitate knowledge transfer may not work. This
form of culture has to be discovered by the management and the enabling
environment created. Ladd & Ward (2002) affirm that, when an organization
has a discernable culture, the leadership of that organisation might be able to
influence it in such a way as to increase knowledge transfer efficacy.
The prevalent culture of an organisation plays a very significant role as far as
transfer of knowledge is concerned. Bhatt (2002, p.33) notes that, “the extent
to which each individual interacts with the other depends on the organisational
culture”. This same view is held by Goh, (2002) who believes that culture is an
94
enabler of knowledge transfer, and that because culture is a broad concept with
many dimensions, it is argued that one cultural dimension critical to knowledge
transfer is co-operation and collaboration, thus collaborating same stand.
Concurring to the above position, Von Krogh and Roos (1996) argue that,
transfer can only take place if an understanding of the peculiar language and
culture employed by a particular profession are exploited. This is because
whatever processes is to be inculcated into the organisation, has to take into
cognisance the way things are presently being done in order for any new
innovation to succeed. This position forms the basis for one of the objective of
this study, which is the exploration of the features of the bureaucratic culture in
the Nigerian public service. Also, to examine the relationship that exists
between organisational (bureaucratic) culture and knowledge transfer.
There is no gainsaying that the organisational culture that pervades a firm,
either assist or hinders the transfer of knowledge. Szulanski (1996, p.32) sums
this up by stating that,
“An organisational context [culture] that facilitates the development
of transfers is said to be fertile…a context that hinders the gestation
and evolution of transfers is said to be barren”.
What makes the organisational culture good enough (fertile), to be able to
facilitate the transfer of knowledge, going by the above, is the creation of an
environment of close relationship and easy communication (Arrow 1974),
between the source unit and the recipient unit (Marsden, 1990). When these are
not present in the organisational culture, the reverse becomes the case
(bareness).
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Davenport et al., (1998) substantiates the above in suggesting that, successful
knowledge transfer can be made possible only if there is a friendly
organisational culture. They further aver that, a friendly culture is one where
the organisational culture fits with its objectives for knowledge management.
And the employees of the organisation (public service), does not have fear to
share knowledge. Finally where the workers have a positive attitude towards
knowledge and are innovative. In this study the relationship existing between
boss and sub-ordinate was measured to highlight how this either enhanced or
hampered knowledge transfer.
Ladd and Ward (2002) agrees with the forgoing but declare that, the
organisational (bureaucratic) culture does not support innovation, hence making
it an unfriendly culture. This notwithstanding, this study is of the view that a
study of bureaucracy will be more than adequate to position
knowledge
transfer within the public service and subsequently explore its features. This is
to be able to see how KM (transfer) can fit into its overall organisational
culture.
The transfer of knowledge in the public service is inherently linked to its
organisational culture. Some literature (e.g. Syed-Ikhan, 2004; Fowler & Pryke,
2003) affirms that the culture of classification of documents as secret can
hamper the transfer of knowledge. In that, vital knowledge that can be codified
and shared amongst authorised personnel is left un-accessed. This is at a great
cost, and to the detriment of the organisation (public service) that pays more
attention to ranks, nomenclature and grade level than initiative. This is because;
those who have been cut off by this culture of secrecy may have brought
insights (knowledge) that could prove useful to the organisation.
96
So also is the over reliance on formal structures, hierarchy and bureaucratic
procedures in communicating important information. The resultant effect of the
forgoing is an organisational culture that only encourages vertical transfer (i.e.
transfer from the top echelon of the hierarchy to the bottom). This discourages
the horizontal that is equally as important for a balanced transfer of knowledge.
Teo et al., (2008) notes that, such an organisational culture only enables the
professionals to effectively share knowledge amongst themselves to the
exclusion of the generality of others in the organisation.
For the organisation that encourages vertical knowledge transfer within
divisions or departments alone, an impediment this poses to the knowledge
transfer process is that, each department will act as if they are independent and
feel reluctant to share knowledge with other departments within the same
ministry thereby leaving knowledge in silos (Lord & Ranft, 2000).
Organisational culture persists in an organisation. This comes about by the
collective experiences and beliefs prevalent in the organisation, which has
evolved over time. It is “widely shared and strongly held values” (Chatman &
Jehn 1994, p.524), which are reflected in the “cultural artefacts 13 of the
organisation” (Zammuto & Krakower 1991, p.85) and exhibited by staff. In
organisations like the public service, this culture “can influence how people --perform task and administer resources to achieve them”(Lok & Crawford,
2004).It also “ affects the way in which people [public servants] consciously
and unconsciously think, make decisions and ultimately the way in which they
perceive, feel and act (Hansen & Wernerfelt, 1989; Schein, 1990).
The culture that exists in the organisation determines the level to which
interaction and the transfer of knowledge can take place, Wallach (1983) aver
13
These are physical representations of culture that include traditions (Parker & Bradley, 2000)
97
that there are three types of organisational culture; bureaucratic, supportive and
innovative. For this study the bureaucratic culture is the organisational culture
type that was examined.
Figure 3.1: Sub-cultures within national, organisational and bureaucratic
cultures
Organisational
•Nigerian culture
•Bayelsan Culture
National Culture.
Culture.
• Coporate culture
• Bureaucratic culture
•Hierarchical culture
•Conformity culture
•Control culture
•Secrecy Culture
•Process culture
Bureaucratic
Culture.
The analogy drawn in figure 3.1 is the sub- cultures that make up main cultural
sub-sets. And by implication, the culture that emanates from the regional or
national level is manifested in the values, attitude and behaviours of the staff of
the organisation. This is evident both as corporate culture that is seen in its core
values and bureaucratic culture in form of power play, control of staff, strict
conformity to laid down rules, regulations and processes as well as, secrecy of
documents and procedures.
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3. 7. Hofstede five dimensions of national culture
Hofstede (1991) put forward five dimensions (i.e. theories) of national culture,
which are areas of national culture that can be measured relative to countries
cultures. The reasoning behind these dimensions is based on the fact that,
national culture affects organisational and societal behaviours that are persistent
over time. They influence the way people will act in given situation like
thinking and taking decision (Schein, 1990) and also, it can exert influence
within the organisation (public service) in areas of commitment to
organisational goals, values and norms (Deal & Kennedy, 1982; Peters &
Waterman 1982).The five dimensions of culture as averred by Hofstede (1991)
are:
a) Uncertainty avoidance: This has to do with how future possibilities are
either accepted or defended against. It is the extent to which threats are
seen from uncertain and unknown situations
b) Power distance: The distance in degree in terms of inequality between
the person who is at a higher level and that in the lower level. In other
words it the extent to which an unequal distribution of power is
accepted
c) Individualism: the importance of the individual goal as opposed to that
of the collective. That is whether a society is based on loose cooperation
of individuals, as opposed to integrating people in to cohesive groups
d) Masculinity: The dominance of men’s goals over that of women. That is
how the roles and values played traditionally by men like earnings,
advancement and challenge affect the society
e) Long-term or short-term orientation: This is about the issue of virtue
which views two cultures. The long term culture values perseverance
and the short term cultures values issues of social obligation which
centres on protecting once face, human dignity and honour
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These cultural subsets form a five dimensional model of differences that can
exist in national culture. They capture some aspects of the Nigerian
bureaucratic culture. Going through the five dimensions of national culture, it
can be noted that all may be essential to research undertaking at the individual
level. Hofstede (1991), however, argues that, at the level of organisation, power
distance and uncertainty avoidance are most appropriate for any research
undertaken. The reason for this reasoning is based on the fact that, both
dimensions can determine key aspects of organisational (corporate) behaviour,
which are;

How decisions are distributed

Authority

The establishment of rules and methods

The management of risk

Uncertainty
Highlighting the forgoing in the light of this study therefore, when viewed
against the backdrop of findings by Aluko & Adesopo (2004), from findings on
bureaucracy in Nigeria, it is noted that the Nigerian public service bureaucratic
culture is characterised by a high level of collective tradition as against the
individualistic, the “who is the boss concept”, where everyone want to do
things through the boss. In specific terms Ekpo (1979) notes that the Nigerian
bureaucracy is characterised by a high level of corruption, over staffing and
inefficiency. This is further collaborated by the Udoji 14 report of 1974 that
described the bureaucracy as characterised with the following negatives:
14
The head of civil service review panel that was charged with the responsibility of studying
and making recommendations including an objective or goal oriented management style for
the Nigerian public service
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
Nepotism

Ethnic loyalty

Corruption

Elitism

Inability of superiors to delegate duties
For this study, all the five dimensions of Hofstede’s theory of knowledge were
used to ask questions about public servants perceptions of the role of
organisational (bureaucratic) culture on knowledge transfer, a major research
question in this study, as well as an objective. The questions asked were also
aimed at eliciting response from public servants about the features of the
Nigerian public service bureaucratic culture in order to test Hofstede’s theory in
respect of Nigeria. This is owing to the fact that, the five dimensions were
scored against countries (i.e. either as high or low), and Nigeria had its score
under West Africa.
Emphasis was on power distance and individuality/ collectively which are the
most appropriate dimensions to the type or organisational culture that is
prevalent in the Nigerian public service (i.e. bureaucracy). Also, the fifth
dimension (i.e. long and short term orientation) had some attention because
being the most recent dimension, few studies have tested it in countries or
organisations, this study tested it in the case of the Nigerian public service.
The testing of this theory (i.e. dimension of culture) served as a grid in
analysing elicited responses of public servants on the particular type of
bureaucracy that is in the Nigerian public service. The test of this theory also
assisted in highlighting and elucidating the particular features of its
bureaucratic culture, thereby fulfilling one of the objectives of this study.
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3.8. Conclusion
In summary, what this chapter has been able to achieve is to present general
definitions of culture, and also national culture. The influence that national
culture has on the formation of organisational culture was also put forward. So
also was corporate culture explained in light of the fact that it is an attribute of
organisational culture.
The main organisational culture that is found in the public service is
bureaucracy; this was also explained, as well as, presenting its typology. This is
with a view to finding out the role it plays in the transfer of knowledge, which
goes a long way in answering one of the research questions of this thesis. It is
discovered that is plays both negative and positive roles in this regards. The
Nigerian public service, as well as, Bayelsa culture was all looked into.
There was also the linking of organisational culture with knowledge transfer. In
doing this, issues of collaboration and co-operation in the transfer process came
up for discussion in the literature. This was in the aspect of a culture that
facilitates transfer of knowledge in the public service. The five dimensions of
National culture were explained, this is in order to highlight them owing to the
fact that, they were used in analysing responses given by public servants on
culture, and also in examining the features of the Nigerian bureaucratic culture,
as well as testing the theory.
The reason for undertaking the task of dedicating a chapter to culture is because
the exploration of the bureaucratic culture forms an important part of this
thesis, so also does it constitute one of the main objectives of this study.
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CHAPTER 4
METHODOLOGY
4.1 Introduction
Research methodology is concerned with the understanding a researcher has
about social reality, the interpretation given to phenomenon, as well as the
essential apparatus put in place, for designing appropriate research methods
comprising of techniques, employed in getting to the issues to be addressed
within a research. Rebeck et al., (2001, p.301) sums up methodology “…as a
set of procedures that can be followed for achieving an objective”. The
objective in this sense is that of exploring observed phenomenon and getting to
the root of possible causes and effects.
This research was undertaking to explore the presence of KM (transfer) in the
Nigerian Public Service. This exploration was specifically aimed at finding out
the effects of organisational (bureaucratic) culture on knowledge transfer. Apart
from ascertaining if KM (transfer) was present in the public service, this study
equally discovered and recommended better ways to achieve KM in the
organisation. To achieve this objective, two main research questions with their
accompanying sub- research questions were put forward to help explore the
topic. The main research questions were:

Is knowledge transferred in the Nigerian public service?

How does organisational (bureaucratic) culture affect Knowledge
transfer?
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In order to answer the research questions that were put forward, this chapter
looked at schools of thought that the various methods of research spur from. At
the same time, the method employed which is the mixed method, (i.e. a
triangulation of qualitative and quantitative methods as guided by Creswell et
al., (2007) and those not used were briefly highlighted, giving justifications for
the selection of mixed method (i.e. triangulation of qualitative and quantitative)
as the appropriate methodology for this study.
The chapter consist of twelve sections. Section 1 commences with an
introduction, followed by a brief explanation of what constitutes social research
in section 2. The subsequent section is on the paradigms that underpin research
methodology; this is followed by pathways that methodology takes in the form
of approaches of research contained in section 4. Section 5 devotes to giving a
justification for selecting the case study approach adopted in this study, as
guided by Rowley (2002).
The next issue addressed in the subsequent section 6 is that of the instruments
of data collection and the one selected for this study, followed by the sampling
techniques employed in both the interviews conducted and in the survey which
is in section 7. In section 8 the analysis of data is presented, while justification
for the mixed methodology is in section 9. The rationale for the selection of the
site for the research formed the discussions in section 10. In section 11, ethical
and legal issues are discussed. The chapter ends with a conclusion in section
12.
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4.2 A cursory look at social research
Social research has to do with the interaction that takes place between theory
and data. This comes about when an attempt to create and validate theories
through data collection and analysis is undertaken. This is done to describe and
explain phenomenon of either a case or across cases involving an individual or
groups. The aim is to study social patterns within social life with the aim of
proffering explanation to either why or how the phenomenon is the way they
are so that a verifiable solution can be sought in the long run to the observed
phenomenon.
A lot of schools of thought exist within social science to explain the standpoints
of social research. Some of these are positivism, interpretive and criticality
(May, 1997; Creswell, 2003; Baley, 2007). These schools of thought explain
the foundation for any chosen methodology that a researcher decides to employ
in doing social research, be it qualitative, quantitative or mixed method. A
detailed explanation is given in the next section.
4.3 Paradigms and schools of thought in research
In doing research, a researcher approaches research with certain beliefs and
assumptions on how social reality is construed and understood. These beliefs
are grounded in worldviews known as paradigms. They provide the basis
(guide) for the investigation undertaken, irrespective of the method employed.
Research paradigm is defined by Guba and Lincoln (1994, p.105) as the “basic
belief system or worldview that guides the investigation”. This definition is
collaborated by Dezin (1989, p.245) in stating that; paradigm is “a set of beliefs
that guide action”. Actions in this context are procedures for arriving at results
which unravel phenomenon.
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Creswell (1998) puts forward an agenda for research paradigms. In this agenda,
social reality is categorised into five paradigms: ontology issue (this is the
nature of reality that the researcher investigates), epistemology issue (the
relationship that holds between the reality being researched and the researcher)
rhetorical issue (the use of specific terms and personal literary narrative by the
researcher) axiological issue (the values that the researcher aggregates to the
research process) methodological issue (the conceptualisation of the research
process in terms of techniques to be used in investigating the reality).
These paradigms cut across both the deductive and inductive perspective of the
way social reality is construed. They also underline the interpretation of social
reality either from the subjective or objective point of view, be it in the
qualitative, quantitative or the mixed methodology. Although Creswell (1998)
tended to portray the paradigms more from a qualitative standpoint, the
quantitative method uses the aforementioned paradigms also in viewing social
reality. In the sense that, outputs from qualitative research can be quantified
(Prasad & Prasad, 2002), thereby making the methodological pursuit of the
quantitative method to fall within Creswell’s paradigms which are supposedly
qualitatively inclined.
In light of the paradigms elucidated so far, the reality that is being investigated
comes about as a result of human dealings with the concept of KM i.e. transfers
(ontology). This has to do with the understanding of the public service work
setting, which is the Nigerian public service (epistemology). Within the
(cultural) terminology [i.e. bureaucracy], (rhetoric) in which perceptions of
situations about KM (axiology) are used to understand the social world better,
this is in terms of generating knowledge through personally experiences
(methodology).
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Having looked at the paradigms that underpin research generally, it is vital to
state that these paradigms have origins in some schools of thought in social
research. It will be beneficial to look at some of these in order to paint a rich
picture of the methodology used in undertaking this research. Some authors like
May (1997) refers to them as, schools of thought, others (e.g. Bailey, 2007;
Richard and McEnvoy, 2006) identify these as paradigm. But for the purpose of
this research, schools of thought will suffice.
4.3.1 Positivism
This school of thought holds that knowledge about anything must be observable
and backed with empirical evidence. Observation of the world is the first step
in doing research for the positivist (Davies, 2002). Formulation of theory using
deduction to arrive at hypothesis, which is then, tested from an existing derived
theory forms the modus operandi of the positivist.
Moreover, data collected is used to test the hypothesis, this school of thought is
held by scientists to provide the legitimate methodology for conducting
scientific enquiry. The central belief is that data is collected about the social
world for generalising human behaviour through theories. In this regards,
Bryman (2004, p.11) sums up positivism as “an epistemological position that
advocates the application of the natural sciences to the study of social reality
and beyond”. It deals with testing of the correlations between variables, (King,
1999). The tendency of positivism therefore, is to operate by the laws that
govern the co relation of cause and effect, which is discernable by scientific
approach (Krauss, 2005).
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This school of thought underpins quantitative method of doing research,
(Johnson et al., 2006). Quantitative methods employ numerical descriptions of
trends, attitudes and opinions of a particular population by the study of a
sample of that population. Researchers then generalise claims of the said
population from sample results (Creswell 2003; Richards and McEnvoy 2006).
The instruments of research that fall under this paradigm are questionnaires,
structured interview and statistical analysis of official data.
In this research, owing to the fact that one of the instruments of research used
for data collection was questionnaire, the positivist paradigm became a sine qua
non. This paradigm underpins why in a quantitative method for example,
hypothesis is proposed to draw inferences about a phenomenon e.g. (knowledge
transfer) from the sample (public servants from the seven selected ministries in
Bayelsa state) to a stated population (Nigerian public servants) and then tested.
These instruments are delved into more detail in section 4.6.
4.3.2 Interpretism
It is the school of thought which holds that the facts speak for themselves, it
does not refer to the theory that guides its data collection process, like
positivism does, rather it deals with the facts as they are out there, these can be
interpreted irrespective of how people interpret them. Its concern is in multiple
realities that are subjective in nature (Bailey, 2007). Unlike positivism that
deals with single reality that is objective, interpretive school of thought affords
the social scientist the opportunity to grapple with the subjective meaning of
social actions (Bryman, 2004). To the researcher, questions about what people
do, how they do these things and what the things done mean to the participant,
as well as, others around them, forms the basis of this school of thought.
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In this study, most of the terminology used in the Nigerian public service (such
as, public service rules, cadre, scheme of service, minuting) were employed,
(through analysing documents) for inclusion in both the interview schedule
(Erben, 1998) and survey questions. This was done in order to properly guide
respondents in answering questions asked. Furthermore, the aim of deducing
meaning from these documents’ lexicon was to decipher if constituents of KM
(transfer) can be inferred from them, doing this within their (public service)
domain.
4.3.3 Criticality
In this school of thought, the researcher is not totally independent of the
research, as the values held by the researcher tend to mediate in the eventual
findings, in that, his or her values are carried through the research. Put in other
words, if a positivist researcher goes to the fields to find out the cause of an
accident, objectivity e.g. (what causes the accident) is what the researcher goes
for, but for the researcher in the critical school of thought, values are also
articulated as part of the research. In the case of the accident, these values
would include the victims (particulars).
This school of thought does not capture the reasoning of this research in the
sense that, what was researched into as at the time of going for the field
research was still unknown. To go into the research with a mindset of
presupposing what to expect and find (i.e. that social reality is based solely on a
person’s values) which this school tends to suggest, was not ideal for this study.
109
4.4 Methodological approaches of research
Since the aim of this chapter is to put in place a framework in terms of
methodology that assist this study in answering its research questions and make
the work of unravelling KM (transfer) in the Nigeria public service clear, there
is the need to engage in a debate to put forward some approaches of research
that exist. The approaches that support this thesis and the others that do not
will suffice also, this is to present a balanced argument. Finally reasons for the
justification of the selected approach are given. This is done to be able to better
appreciate where these methodologies span from, in terms of their basis of
assumptions.
These traditions or approaches are relevant in both the world of science and
social science. This is because, while scientific knowledge is taken to be
proven knowledge, with theories emanating from meticulous experience
acquired from observation and experiments, the theories of the social science
challenge our understanding of the social world, with the gathering of data
forming an essential part of its practice (Tim, 1999).
4.4.1. Phenomenology
Phenomenology is a study that has to do with the exploration of the structures
of the consciousness of human experiences (Polkinghorne, 1989). The outward
appearance and inward consciousness based on memory, image and meaning,
(phenomenological data analysis) proceeds through the methodology of
reduction, the analysis of specific statements and themes, and a search for all
possible meanings (Creswell, 1998).
110
Phenomenology deals with interpretation in practice i.e., it aims at getting to
the things themselves via the creation of written descriptions of personal
experience as the source of all claims to knowledge (Conklin, 2007). So for the
phenomenologist therefore, the experiences of the phenomenon have to be
explained to several individuals by reducing this experience to a central
essence, this is done by eliminating repetitive statements (Moustakas, 1994).
The phenomenological approach amply describes what the interview sections
did in this research. The various sections asked questions that were explanative
in nature aiming to elicit response that better explain the phenomenon and
further in the analysis of data collected was reduced and themes formed,
discussion undertaken and meanings adduced from statements, thereby
employing this phenomenological approach.
4.4.2 Ethnography
Ethnography is research which focuses on meaning through close field
observation of socio-cultural phenomena.
The ethnographer focuses on a
community which may not be geographic alone but also consisting of work,
leisure, and other communities. The process is intended to reveal common
cultural understandings relating to the phenomena under the study. The
interviewer interviews different representatives of the chosen community over
and over again to be able to ascertain the common cultural understanding of the
phenomena to be studied. Its main aim is the description of a group or culture
(Fetterman, 1989; Bogdan and Taylor, 1975).
Ethnography usually begins with the selection of a culture, evaluating of the
literature relating to the culture, and identification of different interest, which is
perceived as significant by members of the culture. The researcher then goes
111
about gaining access, which in turn paves the way for the researcher to
penetrate into the culture. The researchers’ stay in this culture is usually not too
long. The stay in this culture is for gaining more and more respondents, who
will prove good informants, using them to gain yet more, thereby creating a
chain in the process, and gathering of data in the form of observational
transcripts and interview recordings. Hamersley et al., (1995 p.1), in laying
credence to the process of ethnography states that,
“We see the term ethnography as referring primarily to a particular
method or sets of methods. In its most characteristic form it involves
the ethnographer participating, overtly or covertly, in people's lives
for an extended period of time, watching what happens; listening to
what is said, asking questions—in fact, collecting whatever data is
available to throw light on the issues that are the focus of the
research”
Data analysis and theory development sums up an ethnographic research.
Though theories may emerge from cultural immersion and theory articulation
by members of the culture, the researcher also aims to avoid theoretical
preconceptions; this is done by the validation of findings by means of
inductively viewing the theories and the researcher going back to members of
that culture for their reaction. In summing up ethnography, Johnson (2000 p.
111) defines it as “a descriptive account of social life and culture in a particular
social system based on detailed observations of what people actually do”. One
major critique of this method however, is that it is too subjective.
The research instrument of observation better appreciates this approach. The
time spent trying to go back and forth within the culture just to be involved
culturally was not part of this research agenda as questions were asked rather
than observations per se. The approach did not properly position the issues
addressed in this study, which was explorative in nature and not observatory.
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4.4.3 Case study
This approach of research simply put is “a bounded system which requires a
researcher to focus on the details of a case and to analyse its context” (Royer et
al., 2006). The case here can be as a specific entity under study .It could be “a
person, a group, an organisation, a relationship, an event, a process, a problem
or any other specific entity” (ibid). The concept of case study being a bounded
system can be observed from the point of not being able to easily determine
where a particular case ends and where its context begins.
Case studies can be in two forms i.e. positivist and interpretative.
Stake,
(2000), pinpoints a distinction between intrinsic and instrumental case study
stating that research involving the former caters for “a better understanding of a
particular case”, while the latter provides insight into particular issues or many
issue with a view to developing generalisations. A case that contains several
instrumental case studies therefore is termed collective case study.
This is collaborated by Hartley (2004) in the description of case study as the
study of one or more organisations, groups and individuals operating within or
around the organisation that is of particular department’s employees, customers
and clients. Hartley (2004) does not view the case study as a method of
research rather it is seen as a strategy which consist of a detailed investigation
of data collected over a period of time about phenomenon, within a context,
with the aim of providing an analysis of the processes that exist in that context,
in order to make known the theoretical issues that is being studied. Rowley
(2002) varied a little from Hartley by taking case study as both a method and
strategy. For Royer and Langley (2006 p.74) the focus of the case is “the
specific entity under study [i.e.] a person, group, an organisation, a relationship,
an event, a process, a problem or any other specific entity”.
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The case study approach is the main approach that this thesis employes in
undertaking this research. The reason for this is because, going by Hartley’s
definition of what a case is, a study into the Nigerian (Bayelsa) public service
as an organisation, amply fits into the picture . Apart from this, the questions
that were asked in this study are the how and why questions which best fits into
the case study approach, Rowley (2002, p.16) explains in this regards that “…
case studies are useful in providing answers to ‘How’ and ‘Why’ questions, and
in this role can be used for exploratory, descriptive or explanatory research”.
Yin (1984) adds that the case study approach also ask the “what” questions
also.
Three factors are put forward by Rowley (2002) to determine the best
methodology to use in doing research under this approach:

The type of questions to be answered

The extent of control over behavioural events

The degree of focus on contemporary as opposed to historical events
The questions mentioned fall under this research (Who, what and where
questions). The issues of this research (Knowledge management, i.e. Transfer)
are contemporary issues. Yin (1994) totally agrees with the definitions of
Rowley (2002).
Some writers e.g. (Creswell, 1998) are of the view that the case study approach
is better used by the qualitative method. Seeing that this research is using a
mixed method therefore, the question of applicability of this approach arises.
Yin, (2003) and Eisenhardt, (1989) are of the view that case study can be used
in the quantitative method to build and text theories. This stand sums up the
resolve of this study to use the case study approach as its choice methodology.
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4.4.4 Grounded Theory
The aim of grounded theory is to “generate or discover theory” (Creswell,
1998). Its workability centres around the study of phenomenon from the
standpoint of theory that is generated from data, these theories are derived
systematically and analysed in the course of the research process (Bryman
2001).
A central theme of the grounded theory is that the process of theory formulation
evolves from the interaction that takes place between the data collection and
data analysis stages. The study of grounded theory begins with the creation of
an abstract investigation of plans about phenomenon. It proceeds to the
formulation of theory that will explains actions, then data collection, which is
in form of interview and multiple visits to the site of the investigation,
culminating into the frequent comparing of categories that arises.
In grounded theory approach, the forming of theories that are context specific is
an essential issue (Straus & Corbin, 1990). These theories are grounded in data
collected from the field; this is in the actions and social interactions of people.
In this research, during the data analysis, themes were generated from data, and
categories created, as well drawing of conclusion. Although this does not
represent grounded theory approach as a whole, owing to the fact that theories
were not grounded in the data collected, but the generation of themes and
generation of categories from data represent a substantial part of grounded
theory approach. Subsequently, this tilts the study towards the grounded theory
approach in this regards.
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4.4.5 Biography
This is the study of an individual as narrated by a researcher, it is in form of the
experiences that is told to the researcher or found from document or achieves
(Denzin, 1989). In this type of research, the life history of a person or persons
are written in chronological order starting from where the person was born, to
the schools attended, marriage and employment etc. This kind of research is
undertaken to explain the life of individuals within cultural settings. Erben
(1998 p.4) states in this regards that, biographic research amongst other
purposes,
“…provide greater insight than hitherto into the nature and meaning of
individuals’ lives or groups of lives. Given that individual lives are
part of a cultural network”.
The enquiry of this research does not entail the study of any individual person,
but phenomenon, which is observable in behaviours and conduct, and as such,
this approach becomes unsuitable for doing this research.
4.5 The choice of methodological approach
The case study approach is the most appropriate for the accomplishment of the
task of this research because of the type of questions (i.e. the how and why
questions that it is best suited to answer. This set of questions fits the thesis
better, as they inquire into the how, what and the why questions that looks into
the exploration of in-depth experiences, explanation of why things happen in
their natural setting, as well as the description of the actors that are involved in
these happenings.
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In view of the foregoing, Eisenhardt (1991) suggests that case study approach is
useful in accomplishing a number of aims which includes the provision of
description, generating and testing of theory, accounted for the resolve of this
study to choose this approach. This resolve was bone out of the steps taking
from the start to the end of the study, which was in concord with that put
forward by Eisenhardt (1991). The study commenced with the describing of the
public servants (actors) experiences regarding knowledge transfer, its
relationship with bureaucratic culture in the case organisation, testing of
Hofstede theory on culture and ends with putting forward of a matrix
articulating findings through the extension of existing theories.
The phenomenological approaches was also incorporated in this study because
of the mixed method (triangulation) employed in accomplishing its objectives.
Specifically,
the
process
of
reduction
which
is
synonymous
with
phenomenology was employed. The search for possible meanings from
statements which are cardinal points in phenomenology also formed the main
facets of this study’s analysis.
4.6 Methods of data collection and analysis
The process of data collection is concerned with the actions that a researcher
takes to gather relevant data in other to be able to proffer answers to research
questions. There are three types of research methods; qualitative, quantitative
and mixed method (Creswell, 2003; Bryman, 2004 and Krauss 2005). These are
discussed in the next sub sections and a justification given for the choice of
mixed method employed in this study.
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4.6.1 The qualitative method
Qualitative research can be termed research carried out using observable
apparatus in its natural state. Creswell, (1998 p.15) in defining this form of
research notes that,
“Qualitative research is multi method in focus, involving an
interpretative, naturalistic approach to its subject matter… [It] is an
inquiry process of understanding based on distinct methodological
traditions of inquiry that explore a social or human problem. The
researcher builds a complex, holistic picture, analyses words, reports
detailed views of informants, and conducts the study in a natural
setting”.
Instruments of data collection under the qualitative methods are focus group
interviews, documents, and observation. For this thesis, the instruments of
qualitative research that are employed include:
1) Semi structured interviews
2) Documents
4.6.1.1 Semi structured interview
This instrument is used to have an understanding of the processes that exist in
the Nigerian public service and see if traces of KM (transfer) can be deduced
from them, as well as explore if there is knowledge transfer in particular. It is
also used to examine the effect of bureaucratic culture on knowledge transfer.
The specific approach employed is the “collaborative narrative approach”
(Nwankwo, 2009). This approach involves locating knowledge about
knowledge transfer within the “life world” of public servants. The result of
these interviews, elicited attitude of public servants towards knowledge
management (transfer) which helps in building a bigger picture of what is in
the literature, based on the data gathered.
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The questions in the interviews 15 started from general to specific, logically
flowing into each other but allowing room for respondents to run off with their
responses (fluid question). Although the questions were in a standardised
format, the researcher sought both clarification and elaboration on the answers
given (May, 1997).
The interview technique was a great way of having an in-depth understanding
of the observed phenomena first hand. It gave an understanding of “what is said
and why it is said”. This formed the bulwark for the data gathered through the
subsequent quantitative method (questionnaire technique). It helped to probe
further into responses (knowing the why of the response). It gave a better
picture of what was happening, as insights were gained from body language
and gleaned information from the environment since the interview was in the
work environment. The response rate was high, as respondents were met face to
face and responses were obtained at once, unlike the questionnaire where some
of the staff did not hand it in at the end of the exercise, or even respond at all.
A further advantage of the interviews is that it gave a prepared explanation of
the purpose of the study more convincingly. The semi-structured interviews
schedule produced standardised explanations to the problems that were being
investigated, this prevented
misunderstandings, and maintained control over
the order and sequence in which the questions were answered. The interviews
afforded the researcher the opportunity to see and talk to the people and note
down set of real responses made at the time. These interviews with public
servants revealed a lot about the way explicit knowledge is kept (i.e. mostly in
files) and shared between departments and colleagues, as well as delineating
available knowledge transfer mechanisms in the Nigerian public service.
15
See appendix iii for interview schedule.
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One hurdle of the interview technique is that the responses proved difficult to
code and analyse particularly those that were unstructured and open ended.
These had varied responses and variables that needed careful coding. Apart
from this, during the interviews, engaging the respondents’ interest and
attention to create and sustain rapport, in some cases, proved difficult to
achieve.
4.6.1.2 Documents
This study delved into the Nigerian public service achieves and observed how
and where these files, books and documents were being kept. Noting also,
terminology used, as well as, access to them by staff. This documentary
analysis (Hartley 2004) was undertaken to complement the other instruments
used in this study, and also to formulate context specific questions within the
questionnaires, so as to invoke interest. Specifically, the use of some words
found in these documents, that contain procedures and norms of the public
service, which constitute organisational (bureaucratic) culture, was helpful in
giving insight into the role of bureaucracy on knowledge transfer the very core
of this study.
The reason for going into analysis of documents (i.e. studying terminology), is
bone out of the resolve that, the public service as a bureaucracy has a huge
collection of recorded documents. And, as such, any research carried with a
view to revealing vivid workings of the public service has to study these
documents, because “ document exchange is a highly effective and efficient
mechanism for sharing codified knowledge” (Jasimuddin, 2008). May (1997)
lists documents to include historical documents, not only laws, declarations and
statutes, but also secondary sources such as people’s accounts of incidents or
periods in which they were involved. For the Nigerian public service, the
documents that were looked into are, the public service rules, financial
120
instructions, rolling plan, and scheme of service, gazettes, circulars as well as,
subject files.
Like the interview, the aim of the examination of documents was to give a more
vivid picture of how knowledge of the public service which has been stored in
the explicit form over time is accessible to those authorised. It also helped in
the comparing of findings from available literature on KM (transfer) and bring
to the fore the sub-dimension that the present study is looking at, which is how
an understanding and awareness of KM (transfer) practices in the Nigerian
public service can be ascertained in light of how organisational culture effects
knowledge transfer.
4.6.2 The quantitative method
The quantitative method of research uses standardised measures and statistical
techniques in measuring data that is collected. The thinking within quantitative
research is that of cause and effects, reduction to variables that are specific,
hypothesis and the test of theories using predetermined instruments that results
in statistical data (Creswell, 2003). It measures variables with some precision
using numerical scales (e.g. nominal, interval and ordinal). Some of the
instruments of data collection in this method include survey, questionnaire. For
the purpose of this research a questionnaire was used.
4.6.2.1 Questionnaires
There are three types of Questionnaires, face-to-face, the mail or selfcompletion questionnaire and the telephone survey (May, 1997). Of this three
mentioned, the most cost effective to adopt, is the mail or self completion
questionnaire, owing to the fact that the efforts required to distribute it is not so
cumbersome. For this research, the face to face was used because most of the
121
ministries in this study, where data was gathered from, were all within the same
vicinity (Bayelsa state of Nigeria), as well as the fact that a personal visit to the
public servant was necessary to show seriousness on the part of the researcher.
The strength of the quantitative method (questionnaire technique) lies in its
method of administration. In this research involving public servants where faceto-face, personal administration technique was used; it involved administering
the self-explanatory questionnaire to the staff personally. An advantages of this
method is that it makes room for help where needed (in a non-directive way),
check finished questionnaire for completeness.
The questions asked in the questionnaire 16 , were aimed at eliciting public
servants awareness of KM (transfer) if there is knowledge management in the
public service and whether bureaucratic culture affects knowledge transfer. The
questions were developed from the indicators, which were arrived at by
inferring from the broad concepts found in the literatures on KM (transfer) in
the public service, especially the role organisation (bureaucratic) culture plays
in knowledge transfer. This involved translating these concepts into something
observable and measurable by means of operationalisation (Antonius, 2002; De
Vaus, 2002 & Bryman, 2004).This same measure known as “descending the
ladder of abstraction” or “dimensionalisation” is also used at arriving at
indicators of knowledge transfer and bureaucratic culture used in testing the
hypothesis of this study. Figure 4.1 and 4.2 below show a detailed picture of the
dimensionalisation undertaken.
16
See appendix iv for sample questionnaire
122
Figure 4.1: Dimensionalising the concept of knowledge mangement(transfer)
Dept to Dept
Duration in Dept/Unit
Unit to Unit
Frequency of Movement
Formal
Seminar workshop
Training
(Appleyard, 1996)
(Shaw el al., 2003)
(Thompson et al.,
2000;Szarka, et al.,
2004)
Informal
(Yang, 2004)
Interaction / collaboration with
colleagues (Strata, 1989;Hamel,
1991;Albino et al., 1999; Goh,2002)
Mentorship
Induction /fedback at the start of job
(Fowler & Gorman,
2005)
(Morland & Myaskovsky,
2000;Mathew & Kavitha,2008))
Personnel mobility
Creation
(Nonaka, 1995a)
Storage / retrieval
Knowledge
Management
(Scarborough &
Swan, 2001;
Hedgebeth, 2007)
(Grueenfield et al,
2000;Friedman
&Prusak, 2008)
Observation
(Nonaka, 1991)
Transfer
(Argote & Ingram,
2000a)
Technology (IT)
(Tuokas, 2002)
Intranet, Email,
Video Conference
(Galbraith, 1990)
Official
Application
(Alavi & Leidner,
2001)
Concept
Dimensions
Documents
(Jasimuddin,
2008;Mathew &
Kavitha, 2008)
Further dimensions
DiDimrnsion
(Mathew & Kavitha,
2008)
Unofficial
(Aiyepeku, 1981;
Tamiyu, 2000)
Further subdimension
Digital story telling/Computer
supported collaborative works
(Benmayor 2008; Leon 2008;Georgia
et al., 2008; Gubrium, 2009;
Minutes of meetings, files,memos,
letters, circulars, gazzetes, Govt
publications (Mathew & Kavitha, 2008)
Letters, Newspapers unions,
encyclopedia and directories
123
Indicator
Figure 4.2: Dimensionalising the concept of Organisational (bureaucratic) culture
Organisational
(Bureaucratic)Culture
Concept
Values
Dimension
SubDimensio
n
Indicators
(Mordaen, 1999;Miroshnik,
2002;Ostroff et al, 2003;
Bhaskaran & Sukumaran, 2007)
Beliefs
Expected behaviour
(Hofstede, 1980;McDemott
& O'Dell, 2001)
(Herbig &Dunphy,1998
Fuller-love, 2008;
Hierarchy
Conformity
(Clever et al., 1999;
Okafor, 2005; Teo et
al., 2009)
(Feldman,1985;
Aluko & Adesopo,
2004)
Boss subordinate/
inequality
Information
channel
(Aluko & Adesopo,
2004)
(Arrow, 1974;SyedIkhsan et al., 2004)
Language
Living practices
( Trompenaars, 1993;
Fowler & Pryke, 2003)
(Collins, 1997; Herbig &
Dunphy, 1998; McDemott &
Dell, 2001)
Control
Process
Secrecy
(Ban, 1995;
Hannabuss, 2000)
( Deal & Kennedy,
1982;Sun, 2010)
(Hansen, 1998 ; Syed-Ikhsan et
al., 2004;Dietz & Den,
2006;Riege & O'Keeffe, 2007)
Openness in airing
opinion/ respect
for authority
(Rhodes et
al.,2008;Sun, 2010)
Storage of minutes
Share knowledge with
others
(Argote & Ingram,
2000a)
Rules
(Mukoro, 2005;
Arowolo, 2010)
Obeying without
complaining
(Sun, 2010
124
The aim of using the questionnaire to collect data in this study is to maximise
the extent to which people in comparable situations answer questions in similar
ways. Secondly, is to maximise reliability 17 and validity 18 . In achieving
reliability, some questions were asked twice in different formats through the
process of question discrimination (De Vaus, 2002).
The questions in the questionnaire were structured to produce ordinal and
nominal levels of measurement. It is important to bear in mind the levels of
measurement and the choice of measurement affects the type of data analysis
that is performed. Cross tabulation, frequency distribution and pie/bar charts
are used to present survey results, while chi square is the statistical techniques
that are employed to test the hypothesis in this study.
Four aspects of the questionnaire that were thought about, as the study is an
explorative research are:
1. Measures of the dependent variables: in this study, public servants’
conceptual understanding and awareness of knowledge transfer
2.
Measures of the independent variables: in this study, the effects of
bureaucratic cultural on knowledge management (transfer)
3. Measures of control variables: in this study are the work environment
and training
4. Background measures: in this study are cadre, seniority and grade level
For there to be a convincing research, there is need for the awareness of other
plausible ‘causes’ of the event to be explained and to controlled by collecting
the control variable as well as the variables that is of interest. The questions
contained in the questionnaires were closed or forced-choice question, with
17
18
It is the ability of the question to achieve consistent response from the same person
This is the ability of a question to measure what it is suppose to measure
125
alternative answers provided also, respondents choose one of the answers
provided.
As force-choice questions could elicit false opinion, either by giving
insufficient range of alternatives from which to choose from, and by prompting
people with ‘acceptable’ and informed answers, the questions were developed
with the aim of increasing motivation to answer. The questionnaire was long,
but not too cumbersome; they were easier to code and did not discriminate
against the less talkative and less articulate respondents. The choice of
questions was arrived at after careful consideration of the sample group (public
servants across cadres), the question content (knowledge transfer and
bureaucratic culture), and method of administration (face to face group in the
office place).
The questionnaire titled ‘A survey on knowledge management in the Nigeria
public service’ consisted of five sections. Section A focused on demographic
information which includes name of organisation, designation, grade level,
category, sex, age group and educational status. Section B contained three
variables relating to awareness about knowledge in the public service, section C
was made up of 16 variables relating to transfer of knowledge, Section D had
one item which had to do with organisational culture and Section E contained
fourteen variables to relate organisational culture and knowledge transfer.
The three point Likert scale of available but not accessible (1point), available
and accessible (2points) and not available (3points) was used in one of the
items, as well as, frequently (1point), occasionally (2points), never (3points).
For the five point likert scale, strongly agree (1point), agree (2 points), neither
agree or nor disagree (3points), strongly disagree (4points) and disagree
(5points) was used in some of the items. The neither agree nor disagree was
used as a neutral count for those who did not want to take sides in the study.
126
This was not used as a deciding count, as it did not add to either the validation
or refuting of findings. Also unlike the 3 points scale and 5 points which either
agreed or disagreed with the variables used in the questionnaires, the 3 point
scale which used frequently, occasionally and never, was employed to further
asses the frequency of use by respondents’. This was done in order to meet one
of the objectives of this research which is to explore the available mechanisms
of knowledge transfer. In going about this, these variables had to be measured
using this grid to be able to determine the extent to which each mechanism is
used (frequency) so as to establish which of them is mostly used and vice versa.
4.6.3 The mixed method
The combining of both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection
in a single study is referred to as the mixed method. According to Creswell
(2007 p.6), “Mixed method research involves both collecting and analysing
qualitative and quantitative data”. The outcomes are used to validate and test
for reliability of each other’s finding. They also complement each other in that
insights that were not arrived at when using one of the methods can be achieved
with the use of the other. This validates the research finding by making it more
credible and acceptable.
For this research, the mixed method was employed in undertaking the study. It
should be noted that the period of collecting this data in Nigeria July – October
2009 is the rainy season. The reason for planning the data collection to coinside with this season was because, Bayelsa being a new state (created 1st
October 1996), has a lot of ongoing developmental projects, and as such
public servants in the service ministries are usually not in the office but in the
project site. Therefore, getting a good representation of the sample size would
have been difficult, if this research was not carried out in this season when the
projects must stop due to the torrential rains and staff readily available in the
office.
127
4.6.3.1 Triangulation
Triangulation is the resultant mixing together of different methods of data
collection undertaking either side by side or at different period of times to study
phenomenon. Raturi and Jack (2006, p.346) note, “The fundamental tenant of
triangulation is the application of several method-appropriate strategies for
assessing the phenomenon”. Seven main strategies abound in triangulation, but
the one being employed by this study is the sequential explorative strategy
(Creswell, 2002). This strategy entails the collection and analysis of data in two
phases, the first phase being the qualitative phase (i.e. semi-structured
interview), followed by the second phase which is the quantitative phase (i.e.
survey). In this strategy, the results of both phases are integrated during the
interpretation and discussion of results. For this study, the findings from both
methods were displayed in a matrix triangulating its findings, and using one to
validate the other.
4.7 Sampling technique
This section presents the techniques that were employed in arriving at the
sample size used for the interview and survey as well as the processes before
the actual selection. Each is presented in different sub-sections.
4.7.1. Interviews
A total of 32 public servants that cut across the three different cadres which
make up the public service (i.e. junior [GL 1-6], senior [GL 7-14], Management
[GL 14 – above]) as well as Permanent Secretaries, heads of parastatals/extra
ministerial departments and the Head of the civil service (i.e. the most senior
public servant), were purposively selected (Miles & Huberman, 1994;
Mabawonku, 2006) to make up the sample for the interviews. The interviewed
respondents (public servants) cut across 7 ministries namely;
128

Ministry of Education

Ministry of Justice

Ministry of Health

Governor’s office

Ministry of Information and strategy

Ministry of Works and Infrastructure

Ministry of Gender and Social Development.
In choosing the 32 public servants, willingness to participate was an overriding
consideration. Specifically, simple random sampling technique (Mabawonku,
2006) was adopted to select public servants and participating departments that
took part in the interviews. This entailed picking names from a list in a deep
blind box randomly. This process gave room for equal opportunity to
departments of being included in the sample. The same procedure was repeated
in selecting persons, who formed the sample size.
The researcher received an introductory letter
19
from the School of
Management and Business Aberystwyth University which was handed in
advance to the controlling authorities of the Bayelsa state public service
Nigeria. This letter stated the aim of the research, date, and solicited the
assistance of the authorities and interviewees in the successful implementation
of the study. All these details were necessary for the research to have deserved
credibility owing to the bureaucratic inclination observed in the Nigerian public
service as regards reliance on documentary evidence, before a research of this
magnitude could be undertaking.
19
See appendix V11
129
4.7.2. Survey
Seven out of a total of seventeen ministries in Bayelsa state public service
cutting across demography were randomly selected for proper representation in
this research. Also, in view of the fact that the Nigerian public service is
homogenous, which implies that, the same laws, procedures and public service
rules apply in both the federal, state and local governments. The findings
derived from the collated data using Bayelsa state public service constitute a
good reflection of the Nigerian public service.
The public servants in the selected seven ministries were stratified and
clustered into junior staff, senior staff and directorate/ management category. A
sample size of 1400 public servants were randomly and purposively selected
(Mabawonku, 2006; Gray 2007) spanning across junior staff on grade level 1-6,
senior staff on grade level 7 – 14 and management/ directorate on grade level
15-17 respectively.
The stratified random sampling method of proportional allocation was adopted
to select respondents from the seven ministries (Gray, 2007 & Briggs, 2007).
120 questionnaires was administered on the
Ministry of Information and
Communication, 181 on Health, 259 on Governor’s Office, 124 on Education,
114 on Gender and Social Development, 483 on Justice and 119 on Works and
Infrastructure. A total of 1400 questionnaires were administered to the seven
ministries cutting across three categories of junior, senior and directorate/
management public servants. Also, out of these 1400 questionnaires, 600
questionnaires were administered on junior staff, 600 on Senior and 200 on
directorate and management cadre. A total of 1200 questionnaires were
retrieved, representing 86% success rate. Below (table 1), is a summary
presentation showing ministry, staff strength and selected sample.
130
Table 4.1: Summary of staff strength and selected sample by ministry
s/n
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Ministry
Information and communication
Health
Governor’s Office
Education
Gender and social Development
Justice
Works and Infrastructure
Total
Staff strength
210
318
455
217
200
846
209
2455
Sample selected
210/2455 x 1400 =120
318/2455 x 1400 =181
455/2455 x 1400 =159
217/2455 x 1400 =124
200/2455 x 1400 =114
846/2455 x 1400 = 483
209/2455 x 1400 =119
1400
Source: (Staff strength). State statistical Agency, Yenagoa.
Table 4.2: Summary of questionnaires administered and retrieved by
category
s/n
Category
1
2
3
Junior staff (1 – 6)
Senior staff (7- 14)
Directorate/Management
(15 -17)
Total
Questionnaires
administered
600
600
200
Questionnaires
retrieved
535
537
138
Percentage
Success
89.2%
87.8%
69%
1400
1200
85.7%
131
4.8 The analysis of data
The analysis of data, involved the employing of methods, and networks, in
sorting, arranging and presenting of data. This is then used in answering
research question and meeting the objective of a study. Dey (1993 p.30) notes
that, “Analysis involves the process of breaking data into smaller units to reveal
their characteristics elements and structure”. These structures are used in
explaining the phenomenon being studied.
4.8.1 Survey data
The data collected from the survey were sorted, scrutinised, edited and analysed
using frequencies, percentages, Pearson correlation and Chi square with the aid
of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), version 17.0. In addition,
scatter plots, pie and bar charts were used to emphasise the descriptive statistics
and results obtained.
The frequency and percentage display the number of occurrences side by side
its corresponding percentage, as well as relating this to the variables used in
this research. Chi – square test was used to test the first and second hypothesis,
while Pearson correlation was used to further test the second hypothesis in
respect of the relation between the dependent and independent variables of this
study.
The use of scatter plot after that of Person’s correlation was to further highlight
the negative and positive relationship that held between the dependent and
independent variables, as well as giving illustrations. This was done, in order to
lay emphasis on the role of the other control and background variables used in
this research, so as to enable the study draw conclusions.
132
4.8.2 Interview data
For the analyses of interviews data, the three main steps of data analysis as
enunciated by Miles and Huberman (1994) were employed. These are Data
reduction, data display and Conclusion drawing / verification.
4.8.2.1 Data reduction
This step in the analysis involved the abstraction, and then transcribing of the
raw data from the tapes and field notes. The outcome (transcribed data) was
then taken through selection, focusing, simplifying and coding .These processes
were undertaken to “sharpen, sort, focus, discard and organise”( Miles and
Huberman 1994, p.11) the primary data in such a way that the concluding
outcome can be easily arrived at, and also verified.
As part of data reduction, the contents of transcripts were read. Key issues were
identified and subsequently coded, while themes were then extracted from them.
These extracted themes were then interpreted to give a greater understanding of
the main issues, which formed the basis for addressing and answering the
research questions (Desouza, 2003). The reduction process also incorporated
the comparing of field notes which contained the researcher’s interpretation of
events with interview transcripts, interview schedule, and documents.
In undertaking the task of coding the data, Huberman’s (1994) postulation that,
coding is analysis and that codes are tags or labels used in assigning units of
meaning to inferential or descriptive information, compiled during a study, was
taken into cognisance. For this research, two types of coding were employed;
Initial coding and pattern coding20 .
20
See appendix v & vi in pg 313 -320
133
Initial coding: In using this type of coding, straight forward categories and
labelling were employed, so as not to destroy the “meaning of the data through
intensive coding” (Eisenhardt.1998, p.534). Also, some meaningful phrases
were also employed by assigning them as codes (Miles & Huberman, 1994,
p58). For example permanent secretary had the phrase “perm sec” as a code.
Because coding is an ongoing process in research (Gray, 2007), the coding of
interview data was not left to the end of the data collection. As soon as an
interview was conducted, transcription was undertaken and coding followed
almost immediately.
Pattern coding: The use of this coding method involved the grouping of
summaries into smaller sets of themes and categories (Gray 2007: Miles &
Huberman, 1994). The codes that were generated during the initial coding stage
of analysis were re-examined, based on the issues that were being mentioned
repeatedly by respondent, these were then grouped into categories. Using the
derived issues from the initial coding to deduce key themes that was common
and found to be recurring, key words or phrases indicating the inferred themes
or patterns were picked. This processes assisted in identifying the themes that
related to each of the research questions. It also helped in reducing the mass of
data into smaller analytical units by visually showing the network that
interconnects the components of the entire data coded.
4.8.2.2 Data display
This second step in the process of data analysis had to do with the way the
already coded data were packaged and displayed, so as to prepare them for the
eventual drawing of conclusions. The display is in an organised and compact
form like, charts, matrix, graphs and networks, so that any action that is needed
to taken, and access is made easy.
134
For this research, the codes are displayed more in networks, tables and matrix.
Conclusions were drawn from the themes and categories that were generated, in
course of the initial coding stage. These networks and matrix were helpful in
pointing the themes from the codes to fit in the direction of the research
findings.
4.8.2.3 Conclusion drawing and verification
This final stage of data analysis is concerned with drawing of conclusion. It
was done by looking at the patterns and regularities discovered and explaining
these in light of the flows and propositions already established. In the words of
Miles & Huberman, (1994 p. 11),
“Conclusion drawing, in our view, is only half of a gemini
configuration. Conclusions are also verified as the analyst proceeds.
Verification may be as brief as a fleeting second thought crossing
the analyst’s mind during writing, with a short excursion back to
the field notes, or it may be thorough and elaborate, with lengthy
argumentation and review among colleagues to develop “inter
subjective consensus”.
This stage of data analysis process was undertaken, bearing in mind the above
submission and the fact that, the themes discussed in course of the analysis,
performed the duty of answering the research questions, thereby realising the
objectives set out for this research.
4.8.2.3 Hofstede’s analysis
A substantial part of the data collected specifically for organisational
(bureaucratic) culture, were analysed using Hofstede’s tools of analysis
(Hofstede, 1993). The result of the analysis was then used in testing his theory.
His five dimensions of culture in which he ranked regions (i.e.in the case of
135
Nigeria, West Africa), as either high or low, was used in analysing the specific
rank that the Nigerian bureaucratic culture is classified into, in form of scoring
by percentages. This was done by exploring the features of the Nigerian public
service bureaucracy, by scoring aspects of this culture deduced from
questionnaire responses, against Hofstede’s score. Both scores were compared,
in light of the theory (dimensions), in so doing, exploring features of the
Nigerian public service bureaucratic culture on the one hand, and delineating its
effects on knowledge transfer on the other. The results from this ranking from
the survey was triangulated with findings from the interviews and displayed in
a matrix table21.
4.8.3 Documentary data
For documents, context (documentary) analysis (Grbich, 2007) was used
mainly to calibrate words found within the public service lexicon in the
formulation of questions that were used in both the interview schedule and
questionnaire. The same process was also employed in examining extraction of
themes in the analysis stage. The documentary analysis assisted the themes that
were developed in drawing inferences and meaning from the use of certain
language found in public service documents and parlance, by breaking down
concepts into their constituent parts and using these in finding connection
which forms the basis for further emerging descriptions with the larger data
(Gray 2007, p.32). Also, this analysis was done bearing in mind the four criteria
to be considered in assessing the quality of documents used for research
purposes, as put forward by Scott (1990), which are, authenticity, credibility,
representativeness and meaning.
21
See chapter five.
136
4.9 Justification for the choice of mixed methodology
This research combines both methods (qualitative and quantitative) so that the
result of one can be used to refine, shape, clarify (Oppenheim, 1992) and even
confirm the other (mixture). This creates a more robust picture of the
phenomenon that is being examined. Quantitative methods help to understand
the ‘what’ question, while qualitative methods help to understand the ‘why’
question (Yin, 1994). Their combination gives a bigger picture and an in-depth
understanding) of the presence of KM (transfer) and also delineate the role that
organisational (bureaucratic) culture plays in knowledge transfer within the
Nigerian public service.
Combining both methods when viewed from the angle of quantitative methods,
allows for generalisation to be made based on the use of a representative
sample (Bayelsa state public service), that is taken from a population (i.e. the
Nigerian public service) and interpreting its findings as more or less objective.
Furthermore, qualitative methods is rich in-depth appreciation of situations and
phenomenon, this accounts for its use in this study, as well as its use in
refining and shaping the questions asked in the questionnaire so as to make way
for a clearer understanding of the questionnaire.
Since most of the questions asked in the questionnaire were close-ended
questions whose responses could not be elaborated upon, there was the need to
mix up findings from the interviews with open – ended questions that allow
respondents to respond and to do so with greater naturalness unlike what was
obtained in the questionnaires. This introduces a blend of exhaustive narrative
elaboration (Czarniawska, 2006) with that of precise responses.
137
The choice of combining these methods was borne out of suitability. No single
method is totally exhaustive in doing research. It depends on what is being
discovered and the type of question to which an answer is sought, Oppenheim
(1992, p.12) notes that,
“Indeed many research enquiries have employed quantitative and
qualitative methods at different stages, using the result of the one to
inform and refine the other, and so producing conclusions that are
both precise and representative”
Apart from this, mixing the methods strengthens the research findings by the
use of multiple sources to collect and analyse data which involves individuals
(public servants). Figure 4.3 below shows a matrix of the research methodology
employed in this study.
138
Figure 4.3: Research Methodology for study
Research Methodology
Qualitative (interpretive)
Quantitative (positivist)
Rationale
Rationale
Research questions deal with how, why and what
The research questions needs exploration
The research topic is studied in its natural setting
Significant time needed for field data collection
Case Study
Biography
Statistically representing data (i.e. phenomenon)
To draw inferences from a representative sample
Generalising the population by sample results
Ethnography
Grounded theory
Phenomenology
Rationale
The research questions centre on the why, how and what of a
phenomenon
The question focuses on contemporary phenomenon
Rationale
Description of personal experience
Rendering experience to central essence
Data collection method
Document
Interview
Questionnaire
Data analysis method
Qualitative:
Hofstede
Quantitative:
Data reduction
Data display (coding)
 Initial coding
 Pattern
Extraction of themes
Drawing of conclusions
Scoring
High/ low %
Data sorting / coding
Scrutinising /editing into frequencies, %
Hypothesis testing using Chi square & Person- correlation
139
4.10
Rationale for selection of research site
Nigeria is a country that operates the federal system of government, with thirtysix states and a federal capital territory. Each of these states’ public service and
that of the federal government are governed by the same public service rules,
including the local government councils. These rules are contained in a single
document which spells out all the regulations that control the conduct of the
public servants. They also stipulate rules for progression from one cadre to the
other and transfer of service to any of the tiers of government. In a case where a
public servant want to transfer his or her services from one state of the
federation to the other (i.e. interstate transfer), this is made possible by the
provisions contained in the public service rules.
The homogeneity in the unified structure of procedures and rules in the
Nigerian public service nomenclature, makes any study carried out from
whatever tier of government (be it federal, state or local government), to
qualify as being representative of the public service (Mabawonku, 2006). The
only caveat is that, the sample size to be employed has to consider demography
for it to be truly representative. In this regards (i.e. of the homogeneous nature
of the Nigerian public), the Bayelsa public service was selected as the site for
conducting this research, with adequate consideration given to the various
cadres, gender and positions within the public service in arriving at the sample
size. Furthermore, this research considered the verse nature of the Nigeria and
the possibility of drawing data from the whole country as very time consuming
and cost intensive, thereby settling for that of Bayelsa state.
140
4.11 Ethical issues
In researching, two concepts are very important to note and these are
anonymity and confidentiality. While the former has to do with a researcher not
identifying a respondent in a study, the latter means that a researcher can match
names with responses but must ensure that no one else will have access to them
(De Vaus, 2002).
The researcher explained the nature of this research to the respondents during
the interviews and the survey. This was done to clarify and re-assure
respondents of their total confidentiality. This was in regards to their identity
and data collected which the researcher assured them would be handled with
the strictest care. The researcher also made sure that, respondents’ consents
were sought before the recording of the interviews took place. Respondents
were also asked if their positions and not name could be referred to in the study,
most of them agreed that this could be done for illustration purposes. Heads of
ministries equally agreed that ministries could also be named for illustrative
purposes.
4.12 Conclusion
This chapter has been able to take a look at the issues that make up social
research. This was done by going through the schools of thought which
underpin social research. Also highlighted were the paradigms of research and
where they span from, particularly as it relates to this study.
Various approaches of research tradition also featured in this chapter. The aim
of highlighting these approaches was to be able to explain their stand points, so
as to pinpoint the underlying basis of the chosen approach for this study. The
choice of the selected approach and the reason for this option was also given.
141
There was an in-depth explanation of the various methods of research and
justification for the choice of the mixed method (triangulation) in which this
research is based. The rationale for the choice of the Bayelsa state public
service as a setting for this study was also put forward.
Also contained in this chapter is the sampling techniques used. This included
the method employed in selecting the respondents and ministries that took part
in this study. It also includes the method used in administering the instruments,
in addition to the type of questions contained in the questionnaire and interview
schedule. The ethical concerns with regard to data collection and how it is
handled was also discussed, ending this chapter.
142
CHAPTER 5
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
5.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the analysis and interpretation of data from the field
survey (questionnaire), as well as the semi-structured interviews carried out to
investigate the presence of knowledge management (transfer) in the Nigerian
public service on the one hand, and role that organisational culture
(bureaucracy) plays in terms of its effects on knowledge transfer, on the other
hand. The chapter is divided into three main sections. The first section contains
the presentation of analysis of results from the questionnaires. This is followed
by the second section, which is on the test of hypothesis. Section 3 is devoted to
the analysis of results from the semi-structured interviews, as well as,
encapsulating and triangulating finding across the instruments of data collection
employed, and presenting these in a matrix table. The triangulation of findings
undertaken was to ensure the validity and reliability of results obtained. The
outcomes in this matrix are discussed in chapter six, which is on discussion of
the findings. This chapter ends with a summary.
This study is a longitudinal study 22(De Vaus, 2002; Antonius, 2002 & Bryman,
2004: Grbich, 2009) that conducted 32 semi-structured interviews and the
administration of 1500 questionnaires on public servants that took part in the
filling of the questionnaires across 7 ministries in the Bayelsa state public
service of Nigeria. One thousand two hundred (1200) questionnaires were
retrieved (i.e. representing 86% success rate); this enabled the study to
examine:
22
Data was collected from the public service from the same sample population at two points of
time.
143

The existence of knowledge management practice (transfer) in the
Nigerian Public Service

The features of the Nigerian public service’s bureaucratic culture in
relation to transfer

The
available mechanisms used by public servants in knowledge
transfer both between colleagues and departments

The effect of bureaucratic culture on knowledge transfer

The access to relevant knowledge by public servants

The relationship between regular task performed by public servants and
knowledge transfer

The constituent and awareness about knowledge that is needed to run
the public service.
The questionnaire which was divided into five sections, were divided thus for
the purpose of adequately addressing the variables identified by this study as
having effect on knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public service.
The questionnaire was developed to seek data on knowledge management
(transfer) and bureaucratic culture in the Nigerian public service. It considered
features such as, the available mechanisms of knowledge transfer, knowledge
transfer between individuals and between departments. While the features of
organisational culture (bureaucracy) considered are inequality, recourse to
hierarchy, control, process, conformity to rules and regulations as well as
expected behaviour. In considering these features, the role of bureaucracy to
knowledge transfer, was also looked into. In line with the features of KM and
culture, the knowledge that is needed to run the public service was also
considered, as well as, how available and accessible this was to public servants,
was equally examined.
144
5.2. Analysis and interpretation of survey questionnaires
The main data derived from the survey is analysed in this section. This starts
with the characteristics of sampled public servants and ministries, the source,
awareness and access to knowledge. This is followed by available mechanisms
for knowledge transfer, from individual to individual and from department to
department. In addition to this, the Nigerian public service bureaucratic culture
was also explored as well as the effects of organisational culture (bureaucracy)
on knowledge transfer.
5.2.1. Sampled public servants and ministries characteristics
From the data displayed in Table 5.1, 7 ministries participated in this survey.
These are Information and Strategy, Gender and Social Development,
Education, Works and Infrastructure, Health, Justice and finally, the
Governor’s office.
Table 5.1: Characteristics of sampled public servants by gender, cadre and
Ministries23
Items under consideration
Participating Ministry
Information and Strategy
Gender and Social Development
Education
Works and Infrastructure
Health
Justice
Governor’s Office
Total
Category/cadre of participating staff
Senior
Junior
Management/Directorate
Total
Category /gender of participating staff
Female
Male
Total
23
Frequency
Percentage
108
109
132
100
156
363
232
1200
9.0
9.1
11.0
8.3
13.0
30.3
19.3
100%
535
527
138
1200
44.6
43.9
11.5
100%
841
359
1200
70.1
29.9
100%
The tables displayed in this study are from the field survey except stated otherwise
145
From these sampled ministries, 108 public servants participated in filling the
questionnaires in the Ministry of Information and Strategy representing 9% of
the total valid sample; while 109 public servants from the Ministry of Gender
and Social Development representing 9.1% filled the questionnaires. I32 public
servants representing 11% filled the questionnaires in the Ministry of
Education. In the Ministry of Health, 156 staff representing 13% and 363
public servants from the Ministry of Justice representing 30.3% filled the
questionnaires respectively. Public servants from the governor’s office that
participated in the filling of the questionnaires were 232 representing 19.3% of
the total sample.
The category of public servants that participated in this survey cuts across the
three cadres that make up the Nigerian public service, which are, junior, senior
and management/directorate. In terms of the representation of sampled public
servants that participated in filling the questionnaires from the various cadres,
535 public servants representing 44.6% of the total valid sample were from the
senior cadre, while 527 public servants representing 43.9% were from the
junior cadre, the management/directorate cadre had 138 public servants
representing 11.5%.
In terms of the gender of the public servants that participated in the filling of
the questionnaires across the seven ministries, 841 public servants representing
70.1% were females while 359 public servants representing 29.9% were males.
These were spread across the 7 ministries that took part in the filling of the
questionnaires as well as from the 3 cadres that make up the Nigerian public
service.
146
5.2.2. The awareness, source and access to available knowledge
From the questionnaire, the study was able to consider public servants’
awareness about the type of knowledge that is needed to run the public service.
In addition, the sources those public servants acquire their knowledge from as
well as, their access to knowledge was also identified.
The analysis of the aforementioned (i.e. awareness, source and access to
knowledge) by public servants, is carried out using the dichotomisation (Borm
et al., 2006 and Fieldman, 2005) of the responses elicited from the public
servants that participated in filling the questionnaires. The reason for this is to
be able to present the frequency of responses more succinctly, by subsuming
them into two broad frequencies (i.e. agree & disagree) out of the 5 point likert
scale used in asking the questions24.
The responses elicited for the 5th item on the scale (neither agree nor disagree)
did not count because it does not assist in either the justification or refuting of
the findings as it stands as a neutral score. This same score is equally not
presented in the tables.
24
The 5 point Likert scale can be found in the main questionnaire in appendix iv
147
5.2.2.1 Awareness of knowledge
A cross tabulation was carried out to ascertain the awareness of public servants
about what constitutes the type of knowledge that is needed to run the public
service, one of the objectives of this research. This was done using ministry by
ministry as a grid, Table 5.2 depicts the findings.
Table 5.2: Awareness of knowledge needed to run the public service by
ministry
Items under consideration
Yes
No
Total
Count 97
% within place of work 89.8%
% of total 8.1%
11
10.2%
.9%
108
100%
9.0%
96
88.1%
8.0%
107
81.1%
8.9%
13
11.9%
1.1%
25
18.9%
2.1%
109
100.0%
9.1%
132
100.0%
11.0%
72
72.0%
6.0%
139
89.1%
11.6%
28
28.0%
2.3%
17
10.9%
1.4%
100
100.0%
8.3%
156
100.0%
13.0%
302
83.2%
25.2%
190
81.9%
15.8%
83.6%
61
16.8%
5.1%
42
18.1%
3.5%
16.4%
363
100.0%
30.3%
232
100.0%
19.3%
100%
Awareness about knowledge
needed to run the public service
Participating ministry
Information and Strategy
Gender and Social Dev.
Education
Works and Infrastructure
Health
Justice
Governor’s Office
Total
148
It was observed in the Ministry of Information and Strategy that 97 public
servants representing 89.8% of the sampled public servants that took part in the
filling of the questionnaires in this study were aware of the knowledge that is
needed to run the public service while 11 representing 10.2% of the total were
not aware. For the Ministry of Gender and Social development, 96 public
servants representing 88.1% of the sampled public servants indicated their
awareness of knowledge, 13 representing11.9% of the sampled public servants
were, however, not aware of the required knowledge. In the case of the
Ministry of Education a majority of the public servants(107) accounting for
81.1% of the whole said they were aware of the knowledge in question, 18.9%
(i.e. 25 public servants)of the total differed as they said they didn’t know about
the knowledge needed to run the public service.
Furthermore, in the Ministry of Works and Infrastructure, 72.0% of public
servants stated that they were fully aware of the knowledge that is needed in
running the public service. The same cannot be said of the 28.0% of public
servants which differed in their assertion of non-awareness of the said
knowledge. In the Ministry of Health, an overwhelming majority of 89.1% of
the total indicated that they were aware of the knowledge, while the trend was
different for 10.9% of the total who did not hold the same conviction about this
knowledge. In the Ministry of Justice, 83.2% of the sampled public servants
affirmed that they knew about the knowledge to run the public service. The
same cannot be said of 16.8% of the whole that were not aware of this
knowledge. The Governor’s Office had 81.9% of public servants’ of the
sampled public servants who stated unequivocally that they were aware of the
knowledge needed to run the public service, while 18.1% did not have the same
awareness.
149
Table 5.3: Awareness of knowledge needed to run the public service by
cadre
Category/cadre of participating
staff
Yes
No
Total
Count 443
% within category 88.8%
% of total 36.9%
92
17.2%
7.7%
535
100.0%
44.6%
Senior Staff
442
83.9%
36.8%
85
16.1%
7.1%
527
100.0%
43.9%
Management/Directorate
118
85.5%
9.8%
1003
83.6%
20
14.5%
1.7%
197
16.4%
138
100.0%
11.5%
1200
100.0%
Junior Staff
Total
The analysis of awareness was also done using category and cadre. In this
regards, 443 junior public servants representing 88.8% of the sampled staff who
participated in filling the questionnaires said they had awareness of the
knowledge in question, while 92 representing 17.2% of the total had no
awareness of this knowledge. In the senior cadre 83.9% were aware while on
the other hand 16.1% are not aware of the knowledge needed. In the
management cadre, 118 representing 85.5% of the total stated that they are
aware of the knowledge that is needed to run the public service while 14.5%,
however, said they are not aware of this knowledge. In summing this up, public
servants who said yes are: Junior 36.9%, senior 36.8% and management
9.8%.For those who said no: Junior 7.7%, senior 7.1% and management 1.7%.
150
Table 5.4: Summary of awareness about knowledge
Items under consideration
No.
Of Percentage
P/S25
Awareness about knowledge needed
to run the public service
Yes
1003
83.6%
No
197
16.4%
Total
1200
100.0
In summary, a total of 1003 public servants representing 83.6% servants said
they had an awareness of the knowledge that is needed to run the public
service, whereas 197 representing 16.4% were not aware of the knowledge
needed to run the public service. This submission fulfils one of the objectives
of this research which is to identify the awareness of public servants to the
knowledge that is needed to run the public service. It therefore shows that a
vast majority of public servants are aware of the knowledge that is needed to
run the Nigerian public service.
As a possible follow up to the above question, public servants were asked to
give examples of the specific knowledge that they use in their work. That is
after indicating whether they were aware of the knowledge that is needed to run
the public service. From the responses elicited, routine administrative
knowledge about writing of minutes in files and passing same to other officers,
knowledge of the public service rules, regulations, procedures and the expected
norms/ values of a public servant stood out amongst the examples of
knowledge that is used for working in the Nigerian public service. Although
some other public servants’ responses indicates that they used specialist
knowledge such as knowledge about medicines, legal knowledge and
mechanical knowledge in doing some specialised work, these were however a
very tiny minority.
25
Public servants
151
5.2.2.2 The source of knowledge
A list of 13 sources of knowledge was tabulated for public servants to indicate
the source they consult to get knowledge. This was done to know the type of
knowledge in the public service (tacit or explicit), as well as the source that
public servants consult in getting knowledge Table 5.5 reveals the findings.
Table 5.5: Sources consulted to get knowledge
Source
Agree
Interpersonal discussions with colleagues
Disagree
Count
1042
% of total 86.9%
Work related telephone conversations
with colleagues
158
13.1%
208
992
17.3% 82.7%
Government department & agencies
418
35%
782
65%
Radio and television
0
0%
366
30.5%
260
21.6%
210
17.5%
208
17.3%
732
61%
418
34.9%
208
17.3%
208
17.3%
1175
98%
834
69.5%
940
78.3%
990
82.5%
834
69.6
468
39%
782
65.1%
992
82.7%
992
82.7
156
13%
1044
87%
Newspapers, newsletters & magazines
Professional & trade organisations
Workshops, seminars & conference papers
Research and consultancy reports
Govt publications(e.g. gazettes, memos & files)
Reference materials(e.g. encyclopaedia & directories)
Internet & e-mails
Electronic databases
Family & friends
152
To be noted is the fact that these identified sources of knowledge are also
mechanisms through which knowledge can also be transferred. This was done
to fulfil one objective of this research which is to identify the available
mechanisms of knowledge transfer. In interpersonal discussions with
colleagues, an overwhelming majority of 86.9% indicated in the affirmative
while only 13.1% disagreed. In the case of work related telephone
conversations with colleagues only 17.3% consulted this source to get
knowledge, but a majority of 82.7% disagreed.
Those who agreed that they got knowledge from government departments and
agencies are 35% as against 65% who disagreed. No public servant agreed that
he or she consults radio and television for knowledge. Newspapers, newsletters
and magazines are consulted by only 30.5 % as against 69.5% that do not
consult these sources. 21.6% of public servants agree that they consult
professional and trade organisations to get knowledge, 78.3% on the other hand
disagreed.
For workshop, seminar and conference papers which was expected to record a
large number, owing to the fact that they are training paraphernalia; it is
surprising to record that just 17.5% agree with 82.5% disagreeing. Public
servants that agree that they consult government publications was 61% with
those who disagree forming 39%, reference material like encyclopaedia and
directories are consulted by 34.9% of public servants as against 65.1% that do
not. The internet and emails are consulted by just 17.3%. 82.7% do not consult
them. Those who agree that they consult electronic databases are 17.3% as
against 82.7% that disagreed. The public servants that agreed to consulting
family and friends were 13%, 87% disagreed.
153
To summarise, out of the 13 sources of knowledge elucidated for public
servants to indicate which they consult to get knowledge about the public
service, it is only that of interpersonal discussion with colleagues (i.e. 86. 9%)
and Government publications like gazettes, memos and files (61%) that
recorded a high percentages of public servants. The reason for this is not very
obvious. The duties that are carried out in the Nigerian public service, is one
that involves division of labour, where one person performs a task that does
not necessarily ends on his or her desk but proceeds to the other persons desk,
thereby warranting personal contact most times.
An example of task performed by one public servant overlapping on that of his
colleague is the minutes on files from one officer to the other. In the case of the
high number of public servants who indicated that they get knowledge more
from files and memos, the reason is due to the fact that, most business of the
Nigerian public service is still being conducted in hard copy files, this being the
main database available to consult. The other sources are nearly nonexistent as
they recorded low response rates. This finding goes a long way in answering
one of the sub-research questions, (i.e. the available mechanism with which
knowledge is transferred in the Nigerian public service).
154
5.2.2.3 Availability and accessibility of knowledge
From the bar chart in figure 5.1, an illustration is made to depict public servants
access to available knowledge. And also to highlight the knowledge that are not
available also. This is done in answer to the question, “which of the following
is available and accessible to you in your organisation?”
Figure 5.1 : Bar chart of public servants, access to available knowledge
Available but not accessible
Available and accessible
Not available
100
80
60
40
20
0
Responses were received from the 8 sources given, 3 of these sources were for
tacit knowledge that relates to experiences of retired, transferred and incoming
staff. The remaining 5 questions were for explicit knowledge sources that
highlighted availability and access to minutes of meetings, circulars, memos,
public service rules and official letters/ files.
155
From the data, it can be adduced that public servants stated that knowledge is
available across most of the sources and also as accessible. It is the accessibility
of these knowledge sources to public servants that depicts actual knowledge
transfer. On the average, these knowledge sources are available and accessible
to public servants especially in regards to the minutes of meetings and general
circulars. Averagely about 58% of public servants agree that knowledge is
available and accessible while 38% say knowledge is available but not
accessible and an average of 4% notes that knowledge is not available. The
implication of this finding is that, knowledge which is both available and
accessible is deemed to have been transferred.
This, therefore, establishes the fact that knowledge transfer takes place in the
Nigeria public service. It also answers one sub research question of this study:
To what extent is relevant knowledge accessible to public servants? Going by
the above data, knowledge is available to a reasonable extent. This outcome
also meets an objective of this research which set out to explore the extent to
which public servants have access to knowledge.
5.3 Knowledge transfer and available mechanisms
This section reports the analysis of the perception of the respondents’ on the
sharing of knowledge between colleagues and departments in the organisation,
as well as pinpointing the available mechanisms used for knowledge transfer.
156
5.3.1 Knowledge transfer between colleagues
Table 5.6 and 5.7 presents the analysis of public servants responses on
knowledge transfer amongst colleagues by cadre and ministry, while Table 5.8
is a summary of findings from both tables.
Table 5.6: Knowledge transfer among colleagues by cadre
Sharing knowledge
with colleagues
Cadre
Yes
Junior staff
Senior staff
Directorate/management
Total
Count
No
Total
498
37
535
% within
category
93.1%
6.9%
100.0%
% of Total
41.5%
3.1%
44.6%
499
28
527
94.7%
5.3%
100.0%
41.6%
2.3%
43.9%
133
5
138
96.4%
3.6%
100.0%
11.1%
.4%
11.5%
1130
70
1200
94.2%
5.8%
100.0%
94.2%
5.8%
100.0%
From the responses of public servants who responded either in the affirmative
or negative to knowledge transfer with colleagues, 93.1% said yes among the
junior staff as against 6.9% who answered in the negative. From the senior
cadre, 94.7% answered yes while 5.3% ticked no. In the management cadre an
overwhelming 96.4% answered yes and 3.6% said no. From these results
gathered from the various cadres, it can be concluded that, there is knowledge
transfer among colleagues in the Nigeria public service.
157
Table 5.7: Cross tabulation of knowledge transfer among colleagues by
ministry
Sharing of knowledge
with colleagues
Ministry
Yes
Information & Strategy Count
% of
Health
Governor’s Office
Education
Gender and Social Dev.
Justice
Works and
Infrastructure
% of
No
Total
102
6
108
8.5%
.5%
9%
150
6
156
12.5%
.5%
13%
221
11
232
18.4%
.9%
19.3
126
6
132
10.5%
.5%
11%
103
6
109
8.5%
.5%
9%
336
27
363
28%
2.3%
30.3%
92
8
100
7.7%
.7%
8.4%
94.2%
5.8%
100.0%
Total
As depicted in Table 5.6 (i.e. in pg 157), as to the majority of public servants
within the cadres agreeing that there is knowledge transfer among colleagues ,
so also is the result in Table 5.7 which is a tabulation of the results gathered
from the 7 ministries that took part in the answering of the question. The results
amongst the ministries agree that, there is knowledge transfer among colleagues
in the Nigerian public service.
158
Table 5.8: Summary of percentages and frequency distribution of
knowledge transfer with colleagues
Responses
Frequency
Total %
Yes
1130
94.2
No
70
5.8
Total
1200
100.0
In Table 5.8, a summary of the overall count and percentage of public servants
is captured thus, 94.2% agreed that experience and knowledge are shared with
colleagues, this implies that an over-whelming majority share knowledge with
colleagues, on the other hand, an infinitesimal proportion representing 5.8% of
the total do not agree that knowledge is shared with their colleagues.
The above result contained in tables 5.6 - 5.8 is a direct answer to the main
research questions of this study; “is there knowledge management (transfer) in
the Nigerian public service? In that, the results clearly points to the affirmative
(yes) by the overwhelming number of public servants who answered (yes) to
this question.
159
Figure 5.2: Pie chart of knowledge transfer between colleagues
Less experienced staff are mentored by more experienced
staff
00
135
259
strongly agree
agree
strongly disagree
disagree
neither agree nor disagree
806
As a follow up to Tables 5.6 and 5.7, three questions were asked in the
questionnaire to further elicit responses on how knowledge is transferred
between colleagues in order to delineate the mechanism of the transfer. One of
the questions involved how knowledge is transferred from new
26
(i.e. less
experienced), to old (more experienced) staff. The elicited response is analysed
using pie charts to display results. This new staffs in question includes those
either integrated 27 into the main stream of the public service or converted, and
those posted from one department to the other. From the pie chart in Figure 5.2,
an overwhelming majority of 88.7% agree that new staff get the knowledge
needed to do their job from older staff through mentoring. In other words,
mentoring as a mechanism for knowledge transfer is effective, as it enables
transfer of knowledge between colleagues to take place.
26
New staff are newly employed public servants or those transferred from other ministries
This is the process of changing the nomenclature of staff from a particular duty previously
performed to another duty that may be different from duties previously performed.
27
160
Figure 5.3: Pie chart of knowledge transfer between colleagues
Less experienced staff undergo induction on start of
work
7
136
67
strongly agree
agree
154
strongly disagree
disagree
836
neither agree nor
disagree
Very divergent to the results of Figure 5.2 is the findings displayed in Figure
5.3 is a question asked to know whether new staff undergo induction at the
start of work or not. This question was asked to know if induction takes place
in the Nigerian public service and if it does, to discover if it is an effective
mechanism for knowledge transfer between colleagues. Public servants who
agree that induction takes place when new staff starts work make up a just 6.2%
as against 82.5% who disagree. This implies that knowledge transfer through
the mechanism of induction does not take place; this is to a very large extent, as
the difference in response amply indicates this.
The responses elicited from this question goes a long way in fulfilling one of
the objectives of this research which is to suggest how knowledge transfer can
be better implemented. Induction as a mechanism of knowledge transfer is seen
as not performing this role effectively in this regards and as such,
recommendation on how this can be ameliorated was made in this regards, this
is contained in the section on recommendation.
161
Figure 5.4: Pie chart of knowledge transfer between colleagues
Less experienced staff feedback to the more experienced
during induction
0
68
75
strongly agree
339
agree
strongly disageee
disagree
neither agree nor disagree
718
Findings in Figure 5.4 collaborates the results of the preceding Figure 5.3. Not
only does Figure 5.4 present findings to discredit the assertion that public
servants undergo induction on the start of work, the claim that feedback to old
staff during induction by new staff takes place is further rejected by majority of
public servants. This majority formed 88.1% of the total public servants. In
essence, the transfer of knowledge from junior to senior in form of feedback
does not take place.
The problem of no feedback as can be observed from the few induction
sessions
that
take
place
is
attributable
to
the
culture
in
the
Nigerian public service. For instance, the interaction that takes place here is
between a superior and sub-ordinate, which in the Nigerian public service is not
usually a common thing because of the observable divide inherent in the
system.
162
Another cogent reason for this dismal response is that, unlike other modes of
training, this type involves a boss and sub-ordinate (inductor and inductee).
And for an organisation that fosters class differential in the form of hierarchical
dichotomy, an inductee is bound to see the inductor as someone that should not
be challenged or questioned on any issue concerning the job, owing to the fact
that he/she is knowledgeably vast in experience of the job (i.e. wealth of
experience acquired over the years). In addition to the forgoing, public servants
also believe strongly that, they obey instructions by virtue of being subordinates and not question the instruction, this they refer to as “obey before
complain”.
The poor response recorded in the feedback from induction is quite different
from that of feedback from seminars as shown in Table 5.9 below. This
disparity is due to the fact that, during seminars, the participants are diverse
(drawn from different departments and cadre), making knowledge transfer
more possible among peers and others in the organisation as against induction
sessions where the interaction is solely between the boss and the new staff who
is a sub-ordinate.
163
Table 5.9: Summary of public servants, responses on knowledge transfer
between colleagues
Item under
consideration
Less experienced
staff are mentored
by experienced
staff
Less experienced
staff undergo
induction on start of
work
Less experienced
staff feedback to
the experienced
staff during
induction
Neither
Strongly
Agree nor Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree disagree Disagree
259
806
0
135
0
(21.6)
(67.1) (0)
(11.3)
(0)
Total
1200
100%
7
67
136
836
154
1200
(0.6)
(5.6)
(11.3)
(69.7)
(12.8)
100%
0
75
68
718
339
1200
(0)
(6.3)
(5.6)
(59.9)
(28.2)
100%
In Table 5.9, the findings from Figure 5.2 – 5.4 are summarised for further
emphasis and clarity. This result clearly indicates that induction and feedback
during induction are not very effective mechanisms of knowledge transfer in
the Nigerian public service. The reason for this is that, they are cultural laden,
in the sense that, junior staff find it hard to question superiors even in purely
official matters, seeing them as superior in all regards. This finding goes a long
way in meeting two objectives of this research. One is that it shows that a
feature of the Nigerian public service bureaucratic culture involves the junior senior dichotomy (hierarchy). The second is that this dichotomy plays a major
role in knowledge transfer, by making the juniors to be reluctant to share
knowledge.
164
5.3.2 Knowledge transfer between departments
This subsection analyses the responses that were elicited from public servants
about the way they transfer knowledge between departments in their respective
ministries. Although these same techniques are used in sharing knowledge
among colleagues within the same department, transferring knowledge
departmentally also involves using these techniques.
Table 5.10: Frequency distribution of knowledge transfer between departments
Neither
Agree
Item under
Strongly
Strongly
nor
consideration
Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree
Informal forums exit
447
496
46
137
74
for staff interaction & (37.3) (41.8)
(3.8)
(11.4)
(6.2)
collaboration on
issues of work
Airing of views is
153
560
136
125
226
allowed during staff
(12.8) (46.7) (11.3)
(10.4)
(18.8)
meetings for sharing
of experiences
Training programmes
429
475
36
68
192
are organised to help (35.6) (39.6)
(3)
(5.7)
(16)
know about the job
There is a session of
feedback during
seminars/workshops
Time is provided
for story telling/
informal gatherings
outside the office
205
Total
1200
100%
1200
100%
1200
100%
(17)
597
(49.8)
99
(8.3)
197
(16.4)
102
(8.5)
1200
100%
251
(21)
375
(31.2)
138
(11.5)
122
(10.2)
314
(26.1)
1200
100%
1200
As can be seen from 5.10, public servants who either strongly agreed or agreed
to interacting about issues of work in an informal setting are 447 and 496
respectively making a total of 943 as against 74 who disagreed and 137 that
strongly disagreed. This is a total of 211 , comparing this figure with those who
165
agreed when dichotomised28 reveals an agreement of 98.5% as against 17.5%
of public servants that did not agree to interacting about issues of work in an
informal forum. An example of this forum is the gathering of staff of the
electrical section of a Service Ministry like the Ministry of Works that
converge in a section of the canteen to discuss with other colleagues what was
done in the field when they return back from field work. It should be noted that
the public servants that ticked neither agree nor disagree in the questionnaire do
not form a count because it does not affect the outcome of the issues that are
being analysed. When asked if they are allowed to air their views during staff
meetings, 713 public servants representing 59% agreed while 352 representing
29% disagreed.
Asked about the presence of training programmes organised for the public
servants to gain more insight into the job they do, 904 public servants agreed
and 260 disagreed, giving a ratio of 75% and 22% respectively. The public
servants who agree that feedback during seminars and workshops take place
make up a total of 802 representing 67% as against 299 public servants
representing 36% that disagree. For the provision of time that is set aside for
informal gathering 626 (52%) public servant agree that there is such time
provided , but 436 (36%) are of a different opinion of disagreement.
The variables considered in Table 5.10 depict avenues where staff from various
departments meet up to transfer knowledge. Informal forums in this context can
be canteens, slack time for breaks, leaving parties organised within the office or
outside. While during training and seminar sections, feedback and question
time also provide avenue for staff of particular departments to share knowledge
with those from other departments. The high count recorded from public
servants who agreed across the elicited responses goes a long way in answering
the first research question for this study, which seeks to ascertain the presence
28
The merging of frequency of response into two distinct categories of either yes or no.
166
of knowledge transfer in the Nigerian Public service. It also establishes the fact
that Training, workshop and seminars are also among the mechanisms used for
knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public service. This claim is an answer to a
sub research question which is on identifying the available mechanisms with
which knowledge is transferred in the Nigerian public service.
Figure 5.5: Bar chart of knowledge transfer between departments
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Frequently
Occasionally
Never
To further buttress the channels that public servants employ in knowledge
transfer, 9 variables were put forward to indicate how public servants get to
know about what happens in the organisation. In this case, unlike the others, the
frequency of use is measured in a grid as against agreement and non agreement.
The reason for this is due to the fact that, some of the variables are mechanism
of knowledge transfer and as such, their measurement needs to go beyond mere
167
justification of the presence of knowledge transfer in the organisation to actual
frequency of usage or non usage in the public service as a whole. This is so as
to ascertain which of the mechanisms are more available, an objective of this
study and answer the sub research question which is to ascertain how
knowledge is transferred both between individuals and departments in the
Nigerian public service, as well as exploring the available mechanisms used in
knowledge transfer.
From the bar chart as shown in figure 5.5, it can be observed that public
servants know more about what happens in their organisation as a whole more
through words of mouth, and communications through letters. Minutes of
meetings, email, government publications and speculations are other avenues
that are rarely explored to get knowledge about the organisation by public
servants.
The implication of this finding for knowledge transfer therefore is that, access
to knowledge through vital transfer mechanisms like minutes of meeting,
memos, government
publications and letters are very minimal. A further
implication of this to the research is that it highlights the available mechanisms
used for knowledge transfer, especially those that are mostly used, and also,
shows the mechanisms through which relevant knowledge is made accessible to
the Nigerian public servants. This fulfils one objective of this research, as well
as, answering a sub research question.
168
5 .3.3
Available mechanisms of knowledge transfer
The main mechanisms that are available for knowledge transfer in the Nigerian
public service as adduced in the findings of this study are;

Mentoring

Training and workshop

Collaboration

Minutes of meeting

Minutes on files

Staff meetings

Induction

Feedback sessions

Transfer of staff

Brainstorming
The degree of use for these available mechanisms in the Nigerian public service
vary, in the sense that, while a large percentage of public servants agreed that
mentoring takes place, as can be seen in Table 5.9 and in Figure 5.2, the same
cannot be said for induction and its attendant feedback session, (see figure 5.2,
5.3 and table 5.10). Despite these discrepancies in the effective use of
mentoring as against induction and feedback, the fact still remains that they (i.e.
induction and feedback) are still there in the Nigerian public service, but only
minimally employed. Take brainstorming for instance, it comes up in very few
instances (ministries) within the Nigerian public service, but also effectively
used.
169
5.4 Exploring the Nigerian public service bureaucratic culture
In this section, the features of bureaucratic culture are explored in line with the
responses elicited from public servants in the case of the Nigerian public
service. Hofstede’s (1991) five dimensions of national culture, in which he
inferred that national culture, as can be inferred from verbal statements,
behaviours, values and attitudes, effect work environments by scoring each
dimension as either high or low is highlighted. These dimensions which are
tools for analysing sub-cultures like hierarchy, power that are offshoots of
bureaucracy, involves scoring a national culture against each dimension of
culture. This is done in order to explore the manifestation of each dimension as
posited by Hofstede, against the elicited responses from public servants, in
order to be able to infer if the position put forward by theses dimensions, also
hold in the case of the Nigerian public service. By so doing, testing the veracity
of Hofstede’s claims (dimensions of national culture), and by implication, his
theory.
Hofstede ranked national cultures by attributing a score to each dimension. This
is, as either high or low based on the cultural characteristics which are
exhibited by the said country. His model is used to rank the organisational
(bureaucratic) culture of the Nigerian public service in light of its schema.
Specifically the display of some characteristics within the identified dimensions
of these national culture by a country places that country as either high or low
within the dimensions. This culminates in some evident behavioural milieu
from that country or organisation. The aim of using these dimensions for
analysis, apart from ranking the national culture of Nigeria, is also to explore
the features of the Nigerian public service bureaucratic culture, an objective
this research was set out to achieve. This was done using these dimensions as a
grid, thereby testing the theory also. A table of responses from public servants
from questions asked using Hofstede’s (1991) theory is first analysed in Table
5.11, while actual scoring is done in Table 5.12.
170
Table 5.11: Features of the Nigerian public service bureaucratic culture and its effects on knowledge transfer
The tradition in the public service makes sharing of knowledge difficult.[UA]
Agree
N
%
800
66.7
Disagree
N
%
228
19
N
1028
%
85.7
Sharing of knowledge is enhanced by the way things are done in the organisation [UA]
500
41.7
700
58.3
1200
100
Communication is from the top management down to sub-ordinates[vertical, PD]
754
62.9
446
37.1
1200
100
Inequality is high making transfer of knowledge suffer set back[PD]
814
67.9
386
32.1
1200
100
Inequality is a normal way of life that facilitates knowledge transfer [PD]
142
11.9
1002
83.5
1144
95.4
The public servant puts himself before the team [ID]
313
26
887
74
1200
100
Individual performance is preferred to collective performance [ID]
463
38.6
737
61.4
1200
100
1115
92.9
42
3.5
1157
96.4
Warm personal relationships, service and care for the weak are woman’s role [MA]
774
62
285
27.7
1061
85.7
Nigerian public service supports collective team spirit than that of individuality[ID]
715
59.6
313
26.1
1030
85.7
0
0
530
47.5
530
47
The practices in the public service stipulate how staff must behave [UA]
987
82.3
213
17.7
1200
100
It is socially obligatory for public servants to abide by laid down rules [LT]
613
51.1
587
48.9
1200
100
Items under consideration
Tough values such as assertiveness and success are more associated as men’s role [MA]
Leadership positions are reserved for women[MA]
Total
PD = Power Distance; ID =Individualism; MA = Masculinity; UA; Uncertainty Avoidance; LT = Long term Orientation
171
In analysing the features of the Nigerian public service bureaucratic culture, 13
variables emanating from cultural sub-sets within the main dimensions of
culture 29 were used to elicit responses. This was done to either ascertain or
dismiss assertions about what constitutes the features of the Nigerian public
service bureaucratic culture on the one hand, and its effects on knowledge
transfer on the other hand.
In answer to the first question on whether the modus-operandi in the public
service makes knowledge transfer difficult, majority of respondents were
unanimous in answering in the affirmative, with 66.7% agreeing and 19%
disagreeing. Because this variable goes a long way in answering the 2nd
research question of this study, question two was asked in a slightly different
way by employing the discrimination of question30 technique. In the responses
gathered, the answer was very similar to the preceding question asked. 41%
agreed that the way things were done in the public service enhances knowledge
transfer while 58.3 disagree. On communication, which is said to be mostly
vertical (i.e. top – down), 62.9% agreed to this assertion, while 37% disagreed.
When asked if there is inequality in the public service and if it is responsible for
setbacks in knowledge transfer, a majority of 67.9% as against 32.1% agreed
that there is inequality and that this hindered knowledge transfer.
In employing another discrimination of question technique, question 5 was
asked bearing in mind inequality, a feature of bureaucracy and one dimension
of culture (PD). In view of this, respondents were asked whether inequality that
is regarded a normal way of life in the public service, enhanced knowledge
transfer, only 11.9% agreed, while a resounding 83.5% disagreed. This
response is in consonance with the previous response. Also asked is the issue of
Hofsted’s five dimensions of culture is used as a grid in highlighting the features of the
Nigerian public service bureaucratic(organisational) culture
30
A technique used in asking a question in reverse order, to test for accuracy of response put
forward by De Vaus (2002)
29
172
individuality and collectively in the public service, specifically, public servants
were asked if the individual comes first or the team, in answer to this, 26%
percent said the individual while 74% said the team. The issue of individual
performance helping the organisation better than collective performance also
came up for respondents to ascertain. This is done to establish if collective team
spirit as a dimension of culture (ID) is entrenched in the public service or not.
In this regard, 38.6% agreed that individual performance is preferred more in
the Nigerian public service as it helps more than collective performance, but
61.4 % disagreed.
The role of men is said to comprise of tough values such as, assertiveness,
competitiveness and success within some cultures as contained in the
dimension of culture (MA).This was put forward for public servants to
ascertain. The reason for this is borne out of the fact that, a culture with high
masculinity in the workplace is autocratic. In all, an overwhelming 92.9%
agreed that these were men’s values in the organisation, but 3.5% disagreed
that this is not the case in the Nigerian public service. While for the role of
women which is believed to include personal relationships and care, as against
that of the male in the organisation, 85.7% of public servants agreed that this
was true, the remaining 26.1% differed in their response by disagreeing. On the
assertion that leadership positions are reserved for women in the public service,
a question asked to either buttress or refute the presence of masculinity in the
Nigerian public service, no respondent agreed to this claim, while 47.5%
dismissed the assertion. The manner of behaviour expected of public servants
stipulated by the culture, in form of tradition, came up for scrutiny. As such,
82.3% of the respondents agreed that the practices (culture) stipulates how they
should behave, 17.7% disagreed.
173
Furthermore, the public servants who agreed that they abide strictly to lay down
rules as a matter of organisational culture were 613 out of the 1200 public
servants who took part in the survey representing 51% as against 587 public
servants representing 48.9% who disagreed. This result confirms the presence
of the 5th dimension of culture (long / short terms orientation) as a feature of the
Nigerian public service bureaucratic culture.
This analysis brings to the fore the issues of hierarchy, power, expected
behaviour, inequality, masculinity, power distance, individuality, collectively
and uncertainty avoidance as features of the Nigerian public service
bureaucratic culture which were measured. One issue of particular importance,
is the number of public servants who indicated not applicable to the question of
leadership positions that are reserved for women in the public service. This
question was asked to ascertain the extent of masculinity so as to know if there
was autocracy. An overwhelming 53.5% indicated not applicable, an option
that recorded very infinitesimal percentages for other variables. The not
applicable score is not used for analysis because it does not count, but for this
variable masculinity (MA) it had to be noted because of its very unusual
outcome in this particular instance. The reason for this is not far from being that
the feminine dimension of culture is one that is not as salient as that of
masculinity, in the sense that, the Nigerian culture puts the feminine gender in a
very subservient position, thereby making them accept this status quo as a
matter emanating from very parochial conjugal rights.
Furthermore, as can be seen from the results, the prevalence of power distance
in the Nigerian public service accounts for the presence of hierarchy, vertical
communication, and control. So also is the high uncertainty avoidance which
breeds rigidity that culminates in rules that are obligatory to obey and also
masculinity that makes the workplace autocratic in nature.
174
Table 5.12: Analysis of features of Nigerian public service bureaucratic culture, using Hofstede’s five dimensions (theory) of culture
Dimensions
Power distance
Hofstede’s Findings
Hierarchy in workplace reflecting the
existence of inequality between higherups and lower down.(social strata).Subordinates expect to be told what to do,
as communication is through the chain
of command when high in PD.
Collective/Individual People act either as individuals or as
members of a team. Performance is
measured individually or collectively.
There is team spirit at work, regarding
achievement as either a co-operative
performance or that of an individual.
Masculinity/feminist Managers are decisive and assertive.
There is autocratic management when
high in masculinity, the reverse when
low
Uncertainty
Clear written or unwritten rules on how
avoidance
people should behave imposed by
tradition, when high in UA.
Long/ short term
Behaving in certain acceptable ways
orientation
just to maintain the norm of an
organisation, fulfilling social obligation
when high. Doing the reverse when low.
Hofstede’s
score (WA)
77%
Survey
score
68%
Survey Findings
20%
74%
Greater emphasis on the system (bureaucracy/ division
of labour) rather than the individual. There is team spirit
and a sense of belonging at work due to the overlap of
task and role performed.
46%
92%
There is supremacy of the leadership and the presence
of an autocratic management where staff do what they
are told.
54%
51%
16%
82%
Rules and regulations are a permanent feature and
adherence is not a matter of choice. They are in regular
practices, routines and written instructions.
Staff behave in peculiar manner in order to sustain the
culture in the public service, as a matter of social
obligation.
High power distance (inequality). Sub-ordinates only
carry out instructions. There is focus on the role of boss
as he/she must be consulted. There is vertical
communication which involves sub-ordinates following
the Chain of command and span of control.
175
The above analysis uses scores (i.e. in %) adduced by Hofstede (1991) for West
Africa, (i.e. the sub-region Nigeria falls under), to mirror significant areas of
conveyance and divergence as far as the features of the Nigerian public service
bureaucratic culture is concerned. The depicting of the findings of this study in
relation to Hofstede’s analysis of the aforementioned dimensions of culture,
specifically stipulates the envisaged manifestation that is empirically verifiable,
when an organisation score high or low in any of the given dimensions of
culture. For example, an organisation that scores high in power distance is most
likely to experience a very high degree of hierarchy, where inequality between
the higher ups (superiors) and lower downs (sub-ordinates) is prevalent. In this
dimension, sub-ordinates are expected to be told what to do. This scenario was
reminiscent of the findings both in the survey and also in the interviews carried
out in this study. The other dimensions equally reveal their ability to interpret
and analyse other sub-sets of culture and further go a long way in buttressing
this schema in light of the Nigerian public service bureaucratic culture.
All the dimensions as propound by Hofstede, were noticeable as accounting for
the features of the Nigerian public service bureaucratic culture, as they scored
mostly high, as well as their corresponding manifestations. The only areas of
divergence from the results of findings, is in the aspect of individuality and
collectively, as well as that of long and short term orientations, as can be seen
in Table 5.12.
While Hofstede averred that West Africa was low in collectivism, saying that
the culture is close -nit and individualistic, the findings proved this otherwise. It
rather revealed that, the Nigerian bureaucratic culture was one in which the
nature of duties performed drew public servants together, thereby making them
to work in teams. He also noted that the Nigerian culture did not contain a
situation where people behave in certain ways just to justify social norms. This
also was proved wrong, as public servants noted that, behaviours were put up
just for the sake of fulfilling social obligation. In the final analysis, Hofstede’s
176
five dimensions of culture can be said to have adequately helped in highlighting
the features of the Nigerian public service bureaucratic culture in general.
5.5 Effect of bureaucratic culture on knowledge transfer
From Table 5.12 it can be deduced that some features of bureaucratic culture
affects knowledge transfer, these include rules, regulations and expected
behaviour that characterise the Nigerian public service. Its effect is noticeable
in making the sharing of knowledge difficult. For example inequality which is
another feature of bureaucracy makes knowledge transfer to suffer setback
going by the responses gathered from public servants.
From Table 5.11, the effect of bureaucratic culture on knowledge transfer is
negative. This is from the aspect of the traditions inherent in the system. Public
servants’ noted that this did not help in the transfer of knowledge. They
specifically indicated that, communication was mostly up down, and that the
management of the organisation involved autocracy, which stipulates a strict
code of behaviour, due to the high rate of masculinity.
The positive effect that bureaucratic culture has on knowledge transfer is that it
breeds team collective spirit. A majority of respondents of the survey (74%)
agree that this collective attitude is brought about by the culture in the public
service. This culture makes the task undertaken by public servants to be
interwoven so as to make one task overlap on the other, thereby making the
collective relationship to be a natural occurrence.
177
Table 5.13: Effects of bureaucratic culture on knowledge transfer by
cadre
Consulting the
boss whenever
knowledge is
sought
Yes
Junior staff
Senior staff
Directorate/manageme
nt
Count
No
520
15
535
% Within category
97.2%
2.8% 100.0%
% of Total
43.3%
1.3%
44.6%
507
20
527
96.2%
3.8% 100.0%
42.3%
1.7%
43.9%
96
42
138
69.6%
8.0%
Total
Total
1123
30.4% 100.0%
3.5%
11.5%
77
1200
93.6%
6.4% 100.0%
93.6%
6.4% 100.0%
178
Table 5.14: Effects of bureaucratic culture on knowledge transfer by
ministry
Consulting the
boss whenever
knowledge is
sought
Yes
Information
Count
% Within place. of .work
% of Total
Health
Governor’s Office
Education
Gender and Social
Development
Justice
Works and
Infrastructure
Count
TOTAL
No
Total
104
4
108
96.3%
3.7%
100.0%
8.7%
0.3%
9.0%
152
4
156
97.4%
2.6%
100.0%
12.7%
0.3%
13.0%
224
8
232
96.6%
3.4%
100.0%
18.7%
0.7%
19.3%
123
9
2
93.2%
6.8%
100.0%
10.3%
0.8%
11.0%
105
4
109
96.3%
3.7%
100.0%
8.8%
0.3%
9.1%
327
36
363
90.1%
9.9%
100.0%
27.3%
3.0%
30.3%
88
12
100
88.0%
12.0%
100.0%
7.3%
1.0%
8.3%
1123
77
1200
% Within place.of.work
93.6%
6.4%
100.0%
% of Total
93.6%
6.4%
100.0%
179
Table 5.15: Summary of bureaucratic culture effects on knowledge
transfer
Responses Frequency
Percent
Yes
1123
93.6
No
77
6.4
Total
1200
100.0
In Tables 5.13 and 5.14, what is displayed are results showing the frequency
distribution in percentages of responses elicited from public servants on
whether they have to pass though a superior officer (boss) whenever they seek
knowledge. The answer to this question which reveals the effects of
bureaucratic culture on knowledge transfer indicates that 93.6% said “yes”,
they must pass though a boss whenever knowledge is sought, while 6.4% said
“no” they don’t need to. A summary of this result is presented in Table 5.15.
In viewing this results critically, the above data reveals that across the 7
ministries’ that took part in this survey, every one of them had a higher
percentage in the “yes” colum as against the “no”. Even more interesting is the
results from the cross tabulation of the various cadres in the public service as
contained in Table 5.13, which equally reveals a high percentage of bosses in
the senior and management cadre agreeing to this same assertion. The point
being made is that, seeking to go through a boss whenever knowledge or
information is sought is not usually a matter of official procedure or law, but
just a cultural requirement (i.e. hierarchy) that makes recourse to a boss
mandatory.
180
As a follow up to pinpoint the effects of bureaucratic culture on knowledge
transfer, public servants were further asked the channels they use to transfer
knowledge in the organisation. Four options were given for them to choose
from; informing boss, sharing with colleagues, keeping to self and others. In the
final analysis, a greater percentage (61.5%) indicated informing boss, which in
other words is appealing to authority (hierarchy) which means a senior officer’s
consent has to be sought for knowledge to be transferred. 32.6% said they share
knowledge voluntarily, 4.1% of public servants keep knowledge to themselves
and just 1.8% indicated others.
One other question asked about formal staff meetings, whether they are held or
not, response was high on the “yes” colum (70.2%), indicating that they are
held. As a follow up to this, public servants were then asked to indicate how
often these meeting held, with options of monthly, quarterly, biannually,
annually, none and others, with a provision for respondents to write in the
others colon, just in case the options provided do not capture their intended
response. Majority of the respondents indicated none and others (i.e. 40.1% and
46% respectively). In the others colum within the questionare, the responses
elicited mostly was that these meetings were not regularly held. Some
respondents indicated that they were held only during emergency. The reason
for asking this question, particularly the frequency of the meetings, was to
measure the effectiveness of official staff meetings as a mechanism of
knowledge transfer on the one hand, and if this has an effect on knowledge
transfer on the other hand. With the findings which reveal that meetings are not
regularly held, it can be observed that it does have a negative effect, in the
sense that, it is not very effective in knowledge transfer.
Public servants (i.e. 79%) also indicated that these meetings were not at all
interactive, from five options that were provided for them to choose from,
beginning with very interactive to none. The reason put forward for staff
meetings not been interactive cannot be too distant from the stratification
181
inherent in the public service, which puts sub-ordinates at the receiving end
during staff meetings, where the boss is always in charge. Instructions that are
to be adhered to are merely passed on for implementation with very little inputs
from sub-ordinates present in such staff meetings. Very similar to staff meeting,
was another question on where the minutes of staff meetings are kept, bosses
office and others ranked highest in the response elicited (i.e. 54.3% and 41.1%
respectively). The option given to write others indicates that minutes were
mostly kept in locked cabinets either in the secret registry or head of
departments’ office, usually in the administrative department. This response,
lays credence to the issue about minutes of meeting again not being a very
effective mechanism in the transfer of knowledge, due primarily to public
servants limited access to it, going by these findings.
When asked if they had an option of where to share knowledge, (i.e. in the
normal office setting or an informal setting that is detached from the office),
majority of public servants (93%) preferred to transfer knowledge in the
informal environment. The reason they gave for this option were diverse but a
common feature in the various responses elicited, has to do with the lack of
freedom from bosses, interference within the office and also the matter of
control on what to be said in front of the boss. This of course is another cultural
concern which affects knowledge transfer.
Table 5.16: Analysis of boss sub-ordinate working relationship
Items under consideration
Working relationship between boss and subordinate. (Scale 1 being the lowest, 5 highest)
1
2
3
4
5
Total
Values
Worst
Bad
Fair
Good
Excellent
Count
%
60
720
58
242
120
1200
5
60
4.8
20.2
10
100
182
As a follow up to the preceding question on where public servants prefer to
share knowledge, respondents were asked to rank the relationship that exist
between boss and sub-ordinates, given a scale of 1-5 to indicate their rating ,1
being the worst, and 5 the best working relationship that could possibly
exist(see Table 5.6). A majority (60%) indicated that the relationship existing
between boss and sub-ordinate was bad, while 20.2% said the relationship was
good.
The corresponding values (i.e. worst, bad, fair, good and excellent) that are
imputed besides the numbers (1-5), were used to help give a better description
of what each scale represents. This is in order to be able to measure cordial or
nonexistent working relationship that exist between bosses and sub-ordinates,
thereby mirroring the effects of this relationship which is an indicator of
bureaucratic culture on knowledge transfer. Suffice it to say that, by this
outcome, the relationship is negative and as such, it can be stated that,
knowledge transfer suffers setback owing to this bad relationship. An ideal
relationship that could enhance knowledge transfer would have been a
relationship between fair and excellent.
183
Figure 5.6: Effects of boss sub-ordinate relationship on knowledge transfer
Boss sub-ordinate relationship facilitates knowledge transfer
00
30.8
No
Yes
69.2
When asked further if the working relationship that exist between boss and subordinates helps in knowledge transfer, a large number of public servants
representing 69.2% of the total respondents sampled said the relationship does
not help (see Figure 5.6, pie chart). The response to this question goes a long
way in answering the second research question of this study. As it points to the
fact that, boss sub- ordinate relationship which is a precursor of hierarchy in the
public service and also an integral part of bureaucratic culture affects
knowledge transfer negatively. This is on the backdrop of the scores from the
elicited responses.
184
Table 5.17: Working relationship of boss and sub-ordinate helps
knowledge transfer
Items under consideration
Values
1 being the lowest and 5 highest the extent to
which it helps
1
Worst
2
Bad
3
Fair
4
Good
5
Excellent
Total
Count
%
78
270
361
77
44
830
9.4
32.5
43.5
9.3
5.3
100
The results from Table 19 show that the working relationship between bosses
and sub-ordinates helps knowledge transfer only fairly (43.5%). This result was
got from the respondents who answered “yes” to the question of how working
relationship between sub-ordinates and bosses helps knowledge transfer.
Another 32.5% said the relationship does not help at all, indicating that the
relationship was bad. For there to be an acceptable working relationship that
can enhance knowledge transfer in the public service, No “4 or 5” should have
been the ideal repose expected, but these reveal very low responses. At the
level of response 4 and 5, collaboration and integration two vital constituents
that enhances knowledge transfer should have being established through cordial
working relationship between bosses and sub-ordinates.
Public servants also responded to the question of how they get to know about
outcomes of management decision taken that concerns them. A large number of
respondents stated that they become aware of such decision through their
bosses which in most cases is their head of department. Others said they
become aware through memos and minutes that pass via them to other senior
officers, but because they are privy to the passing of these minutes, they see
them (i.e. the minutes) and then grab the knowledge therein.
185
Figure 5.7: Analysis of role played by regular task to knowledge transfer
Regular task performed enhance knowledge transfer
00
Yes
No
47.6
52.4
Public servants were asked if the regular task and activities they perform help
in knowledge transfer. As shown in the above pie chart 5.7, the responses
clearly show a near tie between those who answered “yes” and those who said
no, the difference between them being merely 5.2%. The explanation for the
high affirmative answer come from the next question following this question
which sought to know “how” these tasks performed by public servants
enhanced knowledge transfer. A high number of respondents noted that the task
makes a lot of staff to be involved in the processes that constitutes the task
itself. They gave specific example of the minutes conveyed in personal 31 and
subject32 files, where an action on a matter does not end on a single officer’s
desk, but moves from one desk to the other. By this process, all public servants
involved in the passing of these files share knowledge by so doing, because
they read it and also make input.
31
These are files that contain personal issues of public servants like transfer, posting, discipline
promotion, increment in salary, written warnings, study leave and approvals
32
These files contain other matters like contracts, sundry payments and issues of external
bodies
186
5.6
Text of hypothesis
This section is reporting the two null hypotheses with their respective alternate
hypothesis proposed for this study. It also presents the statistical tools used in
conducting the test of both hypothesises which is Chi -square and Person
correlation. These hypotheses are stated below:
(H0) 1: There is no significant relationship between the mechanisms used in
sharing knowledge and knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public service
(H1) 1: There is a significant relationship between the mechanisms used in
sharing knowledge and knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public service
(H0) 2: There is no significant relationship between bureaucratic culture and
knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public service
(H1) 2: There is a significant relationship between bureaucratic culture and
knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public service
In preparing the analysed data for the test of hypothesis, percentages,
frequencies (actual counts) and scatter plots showing the elicited responses of
public servants were used in highlighting the variables of the study. These were
then displayed in Tables (5.18-5.31) from where the chi- square test and
correlation coefficient (the two statistical tests) were then undertaken in this
study. This was done to test the significance or otherwise of the presence of
knowledge transfer, and also, the relationship between bureaucratic culture and
knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public service.
187
Specifically, hypothesis 1 and 2 were tested using Chi- square (χ2) test of
significance, this is at 0.0133 and 0.05 level of significance. For hypothesis 2,
apart from the Chi- square test which was used in testing it, Pearson’s
correlation was also used. In undertaking the task of testing the two hypotheses
for this study, the decision rule for both Chi square and Pearson’s correlation is
taken into cognisance, these are:
1. Decision Rule: For Chi – Square test, reject null hypothesis and accept
alternative hypothesis if P-value is less than (<) level of significance
(0.05). Also, reject null hypothesis if Chi- Square calculated is greater
than (>) Chi- Square tabulated at (r-1) (c-1) degree of freedom.
2. Decision Rule: For Pearson Correlation, there is significant positive
correlation if correlation value ranges from 0.5 to 1.0 and a negative
correlation if correlation value tends towards -0.1. (Williams et al.,
2000).
5.6.1 Hypothesis 1:
(Ho) There is no significant relationship between the mechanism used in
sharing knowledge and knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public service.
(H1) There is a significant relationship between mechanisms used in sharing
knowledge and knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public service.
33
The 0.01 and 0.05 level of significance was chosen by the SPSS 17.0 software. The
explanation for this is to avoid a type 1 error. This situation arises when the null hypothesis is
rejected when there is no actual relationship between the two variables being tested. The 0.01
and 0.05 levels of significance gives the research more confidence , which is that, the results of
the test is 99% and 95% correct respectively, thereby making it evident that it has not rejected
the null hypothesis in error.
188
In testing hypothesis 1, the yes responses elicited from public servants on
whether they share knowledge with their colleagues is used. The findings are
first displayed in percentages and later presented using chi-square test.
Table 5.18: Knowledge transfer amongst colleagues (by cadre)
Sharing
knowledge with
colleagues
Cadre
Yes
Junior staff
Senior staff
Directorate/management
Total
Count
No
Total
498
37
535
% within
category
93.1%
6.9%
100.0%
% of Total
41.5%
3.1%
44.6%
499
28
527
94.7%
5.3%
100.0%
41.6%
2.3%
43.9%
133
5
138
96.4%
3.6%
100.0%
11.1%
.4%
11.5%
1130
70
1200
94.2%
5.8%
100.0%
94.2%
5.8%
100.0%
Table 5.18 indicates that 94.2% of sampled public servants by category are of
the opinion that there is knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public service as
against 5.8% that stated otherwise.
189
Table 5.19: Chi-square test of knowledge transfer by cadre
Value
df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
150.232a
2
.000
Likelihood Ratio
95.381
2
.000
Linear-by-Linear
84.585
1
.000
Pearson Chi-Square
Association
N of Valid Cases
1200
a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5.
The position held by public servants as contained in Table 5.18, is substantiated
by the SPSS analysis based on cadre in Table 5.19 which is a Chi- square test.
This test shows that, the P-value (0.000) < 0.05 (significance level) and the
Chi-Square calculated (150.232) > Chi-Square tabulated (5.99). The
implication of this is that, the significance of P.000 < 0.005 indicates that the
probability of knowledge transfer not happening in the Nigerian public service
is just 5%. In this regards, the null hypothesis is rejected (i.e. there is no
knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public service) and the alternative
hypothesis which states that there is knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public
service is accepted.
190
Table 5.20 : Knowledge transfer by Ministries
Share knowledge
with colleagues
Ministry
Yes
Information & Strategy
No
Total
Count 102
6
108
% of
Total
8.5%
.5%
9%
150
6
156
12.5%
.5%
13%
221
11
232
18.4%
.9%
19.3
126
6
132
10.5%
0.5%
11%
103
6
109
8.5%
0.5%
9%
336
27
363
28%
2.3%
30.3%
92
8
100
7.7%
0.7%
8.4%
94.2%
5.8%
100.0%
Health
Governor’s Office
Education
Gender and Social Dev.
Justice
Works and Infrastructure
% of
Total
The result as shown in Table 5.18 is further presented in Table 5.20 under the
classification of ministries. This result which puts the yes response as 94.2% is
another confirmation that there is knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public
service.
Table 5.21: Chi-square tests of knowledge transfer by ministries
Value
Pearson Chi-Square
Likelihood Ratio
Linear-by-Linear Association
N of Valid Cases
22.588
22.778
17.590
1200
a
df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
6
6
1
.001
.001
.000
191
The result of the Chi-Square tests above based on ministries shows a p- value =
0.001 < 0.05 and a Chi-Square calculated value of 22.588 > Chi-Square
tabulated value 12.59 confirming the conclusion above that
knowledge is
transferred in the Nigerian public service. This result rejects the null hypothesis
and accepts the alternative hypothesis which states that there is knowledge
transfer in the Nigerian public service.
Table 5.22: Percentage and frequency distribution of knowledge transfer
Frequency
Percent
YES
1130
94.2
NO
70
5.8
Total
1200
100.0
The above Table 5.22 summarises table 5.18 and 5.20 by showing that 94.2%
of sampled public servants agree that there is knowledge transfer in the
Nigerian public service, while 5.8% felt otherwise. This implies that an overwhelming majority of the public servants are of the opinion that knowledge is
transferred. This further substantiates the chi –square test results of Table 5.21
which is a rejection of the null hypothesis and an acceptance of the alternate
hypothesis.
192
Table 5.23: Mechanisms of knowledge transfer
Knowledge
transfer
mechanisms
Informal forums
exist for staff
interaction &
collaboration on
issues of work
The airing of
views is
encouraged during
staff meetings so
that experiences
can be shared
Training
programmes are
organised to assist
in receiving
required
knowledge for the
job
There is a session
of feedback during
seminars
/workshops for
interaction to take
place
Time is provided
for storytelling/
informal gathering
outside the office
Strongly
Agree
447
37.3%
Agree
496
41.3%
Neither
Agree
nor
Disagree
46
3.8%
153
12.8%
560
46.7%
136
11.3%
125
10.4%
226
18.8%
1200
100.0
429
35.8%
475
39.6%
36
3.0%
68
5.7%
192
16.0%
1200
100.0
205
17.1%
597
49.8%
99
8.3%
197
16.4%
102
8.5%
1200
100.0
251
20.9%
375
31.3%
138
11.5%
122
10.2%
314
26.2%
1200
100.0
Strongly
Disagree
137
11.4%
Disagree
74
6.2%
Total
1200
100.0
In Table 5.23, responses elicited from public servants on how knowledge is
transferred in terms of the specific mechanisms employed for this transfer is
presented. The first mechanism has to do with knowledge transfer within
informal periphery, like discussions about the aftermath of field work already
undertaking by colleagues, and the sharing of experiences learnt from the field.
This kind of discussion takes place outside the confines of the conventional
office setting. The second mechanism which is staff meetings and whether staff
are allowed to discuss freely on issues that concern them and the organisation,
193
through this process, they participate in decision making, and knowledge also
shared (Nemanich & Vera, 2009).
The third is during training programmes organised for knowledge transfer to
public servants, so that they can have the requisite knowledge to perform their
duties. The fourth mechanism is the interaction that takes place in feedback
sessions during seminars and workshops that are organised to keep staff
informed of the latest information about the job they do. The last mechanism is
the interaction that takes place at functions organised outside the office, this is
either done by the office or public servants themselves with the approval of
management. This takes place outside the office premises and not concerning
official matters in particular, for example, youth coppers leaving party.
In laying further credence to the presence of knowledge transfer in the Nigerian
public service, (which is a confirmation of the alternate hypothesis) the
responses elicited from public servants on how knowledge is transferred
through the 5 mechanisms (variables) already pinpointed in the preceding
paragraph were tested, using the Chi-square test. The results are presented in
Table 5.24.
Table 5.24: Chi-square test on mechanisms of knowledge transfer
Value
df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square
672.953a
16
.000
Likelihood Ratio
693.399
16
.000
Linear-by-Linear
86.315
1
.000
Association
N of Valid Cases
6000
194
The above chi- square test shows that the P-value (0.000) < 0.05 and the ChiSquare calculated value (672.953) > Chi-Square tabulated (26.30) value. Based
on the decision rule 1, this result confirms the rejection of the null hypothesis
and the accepting of the alternative hypothesis which states that, there is
knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public service.
5.6.2 Hypothesis 2:
(Ho). There is no significant relationship between bureaucratic culture and
knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public service.
(H1) There is a significant relationship between bureaucratic culture and
knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public service.
195
Table 5.25: Knowledge transfer between experienced34 and less
experienced35 staff
Knowledge transfer
between boss and
sub-ordinate
Less experienced staff
are mentored by
experienced staff
Strongly
Agree
Agree
259
806
(21.6%)
Neither
Agree
nor
Strongly
Disagree Disagree Disagree Total
0
135
0
1200
(67.2%) (.0%)
(11.3%)
(0%)
100.0
Less experienced staff 7
undergo induction at (0.6%)
start of work
67
136
836
154
1200
(5.6%)
(11.3%)
(69.7%)
(12.8%)
100.0
Less experienced staff 0
feedback to
(0%)
experienced staff
during induction
75
68
718
339
1200
(6.3%)
(5.7%)
(59.8%)
(28.3%)
100.0
The above Table 5.25 displays the relationship between bureaucratic culture in
the aspect of seniority in rank and knowledge transfer. In addition, it shows two
channels (Alavi & Leidger, 2001) through which knowledge is transferred from
experienced to less experienced public servants. These channels are mentoring
(Fowler & Gorman, 2005) and face to face interaction (Albino et al., 1999)
which is induction (involving feedback).
Suffice it to state that, these two channels of knowledge transfer, are also
training techniques, that employees use in sharing knowledge (Szarka, et al.,
2004), in formal organisations like the public service with bureaucratic culture
(Tsoukas, 2001b). Moreover, since induction and mentoring are training
techniques that involve the guiding of less experienced staff (subordinates) by
more experienced staff (boss) this introduces the sub-cultures of hierarchy,
control, conformity (Ban, 1995; Feldman, 1985 Deal & Kennedy, 1982), into
the training process which by implication is knowledge transfer.
34
This is taken to be old and in most cases a more senior public servant(boss) with vast
experience about the organisation
35
This is a newly employed staff and in most cases newly posted junior staff from another
department (sub-ordinate)
196
Furthermore, by the introduction of the above sub-cultures of bureaucracy
within the two knowledge transfer techniques which are variables for the test of
the second hypothesis for this research, justification for looking at them as
segments of bureaucratic culture becomes appropriate. The last variable
(feedback from sub-ordinate), has justification for its inclusion as a segment of
bureaucratic culture from authors (e.g. Syed-Ikhan, 2004), who aver that,
communication in formal organisation (like the Nigerian public service), is
vertical (top bottom), as such, feedback from sub-ordinates to the boss in
matters that they have experience is an exercise in futility, culminating in
feedback being taken as a cultural issue by this study.
Table 5.26: Chi-square test of knowledge transfer between experienced36
and less experienced37 staff
Asymp. Sig. (2Value
df
sided)
Pearson Chi-Square
2617.977a
8
.000
Likelihood Ratio
2889.683
8
.000
Linear-by-Linear
1482.295
1
.000
Association
N of Valid Cases
3600
a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5.
Hypothesis 2 is tested using chi-square test. From Table 5.26 above, the Chisquare calculated value is 2617.977 > than the Chi-square tabulated which is
15.51. Also the p-value is 0.000 < 0.05 (significant level). Based on decision
rule 1, the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis which states
36
This is taken to be old and in most cases a more senior public servant(boss)
This is a newly employed staff and in most cases newly posted staff from another department
(sub-ordinate)
37
197
that there is a relationship between bureaucratic culture and knowledge transfer
in the Nigerian public service is accepted.
The conclusion of the chi-square test undertaken was put to further
investigation to explore further the relationship between bureaucratic culture
and knowledge transfer, whether this is positive or negative. This was done in
order to clearly show which aspect of the bureaucratic culture effects
knowledge transfer. The investigation was done employing Pearson’s
correlation across 7 aspects of bureaucratic culture represented by variables X1
X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7. These seven segments of organisational (bureaucratic)
culture are fallout from the dimensionalisation of bureaucracy that gave rise to
dimensions, sub-dimensions and indicators that were arrived at and used in
asking operationalised cultural questions in the questionnaire 38 . The definite
sub-cultures that resulted from the process are put in brackets.
X1 = Informing the boss before transferring knowledge to others (hierarchy)
X2= Sharing knowledge voluntarily (control)
X3 =Keeping knowledge to oneself (secrecy)
X4 = Less experienced staff are mentored by experienced staff
(Hierarchy/conformity)
X5=Less experienced staff undergo induction on start of work
(Hierarchy/conformity)
X6 = Less experienced staff feedback to the experienced staff during induction
(Process)
X7 = Consulting the boss whenever knowledge is sought (Expected
behaviours/control)
38
See figure 4.1 and 4.2 of chapter 4 in pg 123 -124
198
Employing the Pearson’s correlation test, entails presenting the relationship of
these bureaucratic culture segments (x1, x2, and x3), and that of knowledge
transfer. In doing this, the “yes” responses of sampled public servants
acknowledging that they transfer knowledge was correlated with the responses
elicited across three aspects of bureaucratic culture involving knowledge
transfer between less experienced and experienced public servants. A flow
chart correlating these responses (variables) is displayed in Figure 5.8.
Figure 5.8: Relationship between bureaucratic culture and knowledge
transfer
Power (X2).
Sharing knowledge
voluntarily
Heirarchy (X1).
Informing boss
before transferring
knowledge to
others
Secrecy(X3).
Keeping
knowledge to
oneself
Knowledge
transfer
199
Table 5.27: Relationship between bureaucratic culture and knowledge
transfer by ministries
MINISTRY
KNOWLEDGE
TRANSFER
Sharing knowledge with
colleagues
Yes
No
102
6
BUREAUCRATIC
CULTURE
Channels of knowledge
transfer (aspects of culture)
X1
X2
X3
22
80
6
150
6
135
15
6
221
11
190
31
11
Works &
Infrastructure
Health
126
6
60
66
6
103
6
50
53
6
Justice
336
27
221
115
6
Governor’s
Office
Total
92
8
60
32
8
1130
70
738
392
49
Information &
Strategy
Gender &
Social
Development
Education
X1= Informing the boss before transferring knowledge to others
X2= Sharing knowledge voluntarily
X3=Keeping knowledge to oneself
Table 5.28: Informing the boss before transferring knowledge to others
(X1)
Knowledge.transfer Bureaucratic.culture
Correlations
Knowledge.transfer
Pearson Correlation
.761*
1
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Bureaucratic.culture
.047
7
Pearson Correlation
.761
Sig. (2-tailed)
.047
N
7
7
*
1
7
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
200
To buttress any relationship that possibly exist between bureaucratic culture
and knowledge transfer in the public service, Pearson correlation was used in
correlating knowledge transfer responses with that of bureaucratic culture in the
aspect of informing the boss (hierarchy). From Table 5.28, the Pearson
correlation coefficient (0.761) has a positive value, confirming that bureaucratic
culture as it pertains to informing the boss before knowledge is transferred to
others in the Nigerian public service, has a positive relationship with
knowledge transfer.
Figure 5.9: Informing the boss before transferring knowledge to others
201
The scatter plot in Figure 5.9 is used to further illustrate as well as substantiate
the findings (in Table 5.28) on the relationship between bureaucratic culture
and knowledge transfer. This scatter plot reveals a positive correlation, by the
upward rise of the slope, confirming that bureaucratic culture has a positive
relationship on knowledge transfer in the Nigeria public service.
Table 5.29: Sharing knowledge voluntarily (X2)
Knowledge.transfer Bureaucratic.culture
Correlations
Knowledge.transfer
Pearson Correlation
.884**
1
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Bureaucratic.culture
.008
7
Pearson Correlation
.884
Sig. (2-tailed)
.008
N
7
7
**
1
7
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Public Servants that responded “yes” to sharing of knowledge voluntarily, with
colleagues, being an aspect of bureaucratic culture, have a positive correlation
with knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public service. This is evident in the
Pearson correlation coefficient (0.884) which confirms the assertion.
202
1
Figure 5.10: Sharing knowledge voluntarily
The above scatter plot depicts how sharing of knowledge voluntarily in the
public service (an aspect of bureaucratic culture) has a positive relationship
with knowledge transfer. This positive relationship is evident by the upward
rise of the slope line from left to right confirming the conclusion of Pearson
correlation in Table 5.29. In other words, there is a positive co- relationship
between bureaucratic culture and knowledge transfer in the aspect of sharing
knowledge voluntarily.
203
Table 5.30: Keeping knowledge to oneself (X3)
Correlation
Knowledge.transfer
Pearson Correlation
Knowledge.
transfer
Bureaucratic.culture
1
-.397
Sig. (2-tailed)
Bureaucratic.culture
.378
N
7
7
Pearson Correlation
-.397
1
Sig. (2-tailed)
.378
N
7
7
From Table 5.30, keeping knowledge to oneself as an aspect of bureaucratic
culture has a negative correlation (-0.397) on knowledge transfer. This implies
that, keeping knowledge to oneself has a negative (effect) relationship with
knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public service, although (-0.397) is still
significant, this does not count for a positive relationship.
Figure 5.11: Keeping knowledge to one self
204
The above scatter plot typifies an aspect of bureaucratic culture (i.e. Keeping
knowledge to oneself ), as having negative relationship (effect) with knowledge
transfer, by the downward drop from left to right of the slope line, confirming
the result of Pearson correlation from Table 5.30.
Table 5.31: Relationship between knowledge transfer and bureaucratic
culture by ministries
MINISTRIES
KNOWLEDGE
TRANSFER
Share experiences
and knowledge
with colleagues
BUREAUCRATIC
CULTURE
Channels of
knowledge transfer
from experienced to
less experienced
staff(aspects of
culture)
Agree
Information &
Strategy
Gender and
Social
Development
Education
Works and
Infrastructure
Health
Justice
Governor’s
Office
Total
Disagree
Yes
No
X4
X5
X6
X4
X5
X6
102
6
131
15
13
20
156
131
150
6
160
8
9
22
150
168
221
126
11
6
166
157
8
11
8
12
15
17
121
112
156
147
103
336
92
6
27
8
148
191
112
14
6
12
11
7
15
14
25
22
131
182
130
120
195
140
1130
70
1065
74
75
135
982
1057
205
X4 = Mentoring of less experienced staff by experienced staff
X5 = Induction of less experienced staff on start of work
X6 = Less experienced staff feedback to the experienced staff during induction
The relationship between aspects of bureaucratic culture, (i.e. channels used for
knowledge transfer from experienced to less experienced staff) as contained in
Table 5.31 above, tagged (X4, X5, and X6), and knowledge transfer, was
computed using responses from sampled public servants. These sampled public
servants’ responded “Yes” to the question about acknowledging if knowledge
is transferred or not. The responses were computed against those who
responded “Agree “ to
a dichotomized response scale of “agree” and
“disagree” about employing the above three aforementioned channels of
knowledge transfer which are also aspects of bureaucratic culture.
Both the undecided/ disagree count was not used for the computation. It is only
presented to illustrate the variables that reveal the least relationship of
bureaucratic culture with knowledge transfer. Figure 5.12 below is a flow chart
depicting this relationship.
206
Figure 5.12: Correlating bureaucratic culture and knowledge transfer
BC
Mentoring of
less
experienced
staff by
experienced
staff (X4)
BC
Induction of
Less
experienced
staff on start
of work (X5)
NT
Sharing of
knowledge
with colleagues
BC
Less
experienced
staff feedback
to the
experienced
staff during
induction.(X6)
NT = Knowledge transfer, BC = Bureaucratic culture
207
Table 5.32: Mentoring of less experienced staff by experienced staff (X4)
Correlations
KNOWLEDGE BUREAUCRATIC
TRANSFER
KNOWLEDGE.TRANSFER Pearson Correlation
CULTURE
1
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
BUREAUCRATIC.CULTUR Pearson Correlation
E
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
.862*
.013
7
7
.862*
1
.013
7
7
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
The result of Table 5.32 indicates that an aspect of bureaucratic culture in
which experienced staff mentors the less experienced staff about the job has a
positive correlation (0.862) with knowledge transfer. In essence, this aspect of
bureaucratic culture significantly affects knowledge transfer in the Nigerian
public service.
208
Figure: 5.13 Mentoring of less experienced staff by experienced staff
The upward rise of the slope line from left to right of the scatter plot indicates
that, mentoring of less experienced staff by the experienced staff which is an
aspect of bureaucratic culture, has significant effect on knowledge transfer, thus
confirming the conclusion of the Pearson Correlation as contained in Table
5.32.
209
Table 5.33: Induction of less experienced staff at start of work (X5)
Correlations
KNOWLEDGE.TRANSFER
Pearson Correlation
KNOWLEDGE
BUREAUCRATIC
TRANSFER
CULTURE
1
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
BUREAUCRATIC.CULTURE Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
-.839*
.018
7
7
-.839*
1
.018
7
7
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
The above result indicates that, the induction of less experienced staff on start
of work which is an aspect of bureaucratic culture has a negative correlation (0.839 ) on knowledge transfer, signifying that public servants are of the opinion
that, new staff do not undergo any significant induction on starting work. This
means that bureaucratic culture affect knowledge transfer negatively as regards
the induction of inexperienced staff on start of work. Although there is still
some level of significance based on the Figure given (-0.839), this is however
very infinitesimal. In other words induction is not an effective channel for
transferring knowledge in the Nigerian public service due mainly to the fact
that it is culture laden (i.e. it is weighed down by the culture of senior junior
dichotomy).
210
Figure 5.14: Induction of less experienced staff at start of work
The downward trend of the slope line from left to right further collaborates the
result of the Pearson correlation contained in Table 5.33, which is that, public
servants do not undergo any significant induction on the start of work, thereby
implying that, bureaucratic culture in the aspect of induction of less
experienced staff at the start of work has a negative correlation with knowledge
transfer.
211
Table 5.34: Less experienced staff feedback to the experienced staff during
induction (X6)
Correlations
KNOWLEDGE.TRANSFER
Pearson Correlation
KNOWLEDGE
BUREAUCRATIC
TRANSFER
CULTURE
1
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
BUREAUCRATIC.CULTURE Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
-.842*
.017
7
7
-.842*
1
.017
7
7
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
The above Table 5.34 is a correlation of the aspect of knowledge transfer that
has to do with the feedback from less experienced staff to experienced staff
during induction and knowledge transfer. It recorded a negative correlation (0.842), this indicates that public servants are of the opinion that there is little or
no feedback (transfer) of knowledge from less experienced to more experienced
staff during induction. The implication of this is that bureaucratic culture does
not have significant relationship in the area of feedback during induction on
knowledge transfer. In other words transfer of knowledge between unequal’s in
rank and hierarchy has a negative relationship.
212
Figure 5.15: Less experienced staff feedback to experienced staff
during induction
The downward trend of the slope from left to right, further buttresses the
conclusion from Table 5.34 that there is no significant feedback (transfer) of
knowledge from new to old staff during induction. Which implies that, the
correlation between bureaucratic culture (i.e. the aspect of less experienced
public servants giving feedback to the experienced staff during induction), and
knowledge transfer is negative. This finding indicates that, this channel of
knowledge transfer is not very effective in the case of the Nigerian public
service. However with this Figure (-0.842), co-relation is still significant but
not enough to be a positive one, which means that feedback is there but not
very effective.
213
Table 5.35: Relationship between knowledge transfer and bureaucratic culture
(X7)
MINISTRIES
Information &
Strategy
Gender and Social
Development
Education
Works
Health
Justice
Governor’s Office
Total
KNOWLEDGE
TRANSFER
Sharing knowledge with
colleagues
Yes
102
No
6
BUREAUCRATIC
CULTURE
Consulting the boss
whenever knowledge is
sought
Yes (X7)
No
104
4
150
6
152
4
221
126
103
336
92
1130
11
6
6
27
8
70
224
123
105
327
88
1123
8
9
4
36
12
77
In undertaking the correlation of another aspect of bureaucratic culture (i.e.
consulting the boss whenever knowledge is sought) with knowledge transfer,
the responses elicited from public servants’ on the issue of sharing knowledge
with colleagues and that of consulting the boss whenever knowledge is sought
was used. These responses (94% for knowledge transfer and 93% for
bureaucratic culture) of sampled public servants who responded ‘yes’ to both
questions is an indication that there is knowledge transfer on the one hand, and
also bureaucratic culture in the Nigeria public service on the other hand. The
specific Pearson correlation undertaken is shown in Table 5.36 below.
214
Table 5.36: Consulting the boss whenever knowledge is sought (X7)
Correlations
Knowledge.transfer
Pearson Correlation
Knowledge.transfer
Bureaucratic.culture
1
.999**
Sig. (2-tailed)
Bureaucratic.culture
.000
N
7
7
Pearson Correlation
.999**
1
Sig. (2-tailed)
.000
N
7
7
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
The above result in Table 5.36 shows that, bureaucratic culture (i.e. in the
aspect of consulting the boss wherever knowledge is sought), has a positive
relationship on knowledge transfer by the Pearson correlation value of (0.999).
Figure 5.16: Consulting the boss whenever knowledge is
sought
215
One very important aspect of bureaucratic culture that greatly affects
knowledge transfer in the public service of Nigeria is the mandatory recourse to
a boss “whenever” knowledge is sought. The proportionate upward trend of the
scatter plot indicates that an unprecedented number of sampled public servants
are of the opinion that they seek the permission of their bosses before
knowledge and official information is sought and subsequently used.
The above substantiates the findings of Table 5.36; it also indicates that
hierarchy, power, as well as seniority as shown above are all aspects of
bureaucratic culture that affects knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public
services. This conclusion ends the section on test of hypothesis.
As a follow up to the above conclusion, a matrix showing the correlation
between bureaucratic culture and knowledge transfer is displayed in Figure
5.17 below. This matrix apart from showing the variables used, also
summarises the Pearson’s correlation coefficient score for each variable used,
as well as showing whether the relationship is negative or positive by the signs
(- & +) .
216
Figure 5.17: Matrix of Pearson’s correlation coefficient depicting 7
variables used in correlating bureaucratic culture and knowledge transfer
X1
Informing the boss
(0.761)
+
X2
Sharing knowledge
voluntarily
(0.884)
+
X3
Keeping knowledge to oneself
(-0.397)
X4
Knowledge
transfer
Mentoring of less experienced
staff by experienced staff
(0.862)
+
X5
Induction of less experienced
staff at start of work.
(-0.839)
X6
Less experienced staff
feedback to experienced staff
during induction
(-0.842)
X7
Consulting the boss whenever
knowledge is sought
(0.999)
+
(+) Positive correlation (-) Negative correlation
217
5.7 Analysis and Interpretation of semi-structured interview
5.7.1 Introduction
The conducting of interviews in a developing country like Nigeria is not
without some difficulties. The identification and selection of the ministries,
extra-ministerial departments and parastatals 39 from which the interviewees
who participated in this research were chosen, was an uphill task. The attendant
problems of poor communication and internet services posed a hurdle which
the researcher had to contend with.
The setting for this research which was Bayelsa state had its attendant terrain
difficulties. This is due to its location in the Niger Delta that is renowned for its
water logged and swampy environment. The period when the interviews were
undertaken (August - October), was the raining season in Nigeria. This made
access to some ministries difficult, but access to most interviewees easy. The
reason for this is due to the fact that, most technical staff of service ministries
(e.g. Ministry of Works), were in their offices during this period and not in
construction sites conducting field duties due to the heavy rains, thereby
making access to them easy.
The above problems notwithstanding, special care was taken to ensure that the
representativeness of the sample that was finally interviewed was guaranteed.
Furthermore, in selecting the interviewees, care was taking to interview public
servants with the likely awareness and knowledge of the issues to be discussed.
In light of this, Permanent secretaries, Directors, senior staff and junior staff
that cut across the various cadres (i.e. management, senior and senior) were
selected for the conduct of the interviews.
39
These are self accounting government organisations that are autonomous but supervised by a
main ministry.
218
Contacts for the various ministries parastatals and extra- ministerial
departments
40
began one year before the commencement of the actual
interview. The researcher had to personally meet the Head of the public service
(HOS) in Bayelsa state Nigeria to intimate him of the planed research. Also, the
various heads of the establishments that took part in the research were
contacted in person, so also were the interest groups (i.e. unions) of the staff
that took part in the research. A possible plan frame was then drawn with these
various public servants. Sequel to this visit, contact in form of phone calls
emails and letters were made until the researcher was given the go ahead to
proceed to Nigeria during the raining season.
It is worth nothing that, before the researcher embarked on the journey to
Nigeria, an introduction letter of the researcher authorised by the researcher’s
supervisor was given to the researcher, to hand over to heads of the ministries
and departments where the interviews were to take place, as well as, to all the
interviewees that were to take part in the research41.
Interview schedules were sent in advance to the Ministry of Youth and Sports,
(a ministry that did not participate in the main study) before the actual
commencement of the data collection. Three staff, one each from the three
cadres was interviewed, this was as soon as the researcher arrived. This was
done to pilot the interview questions. Some staff vast in public service matters
drawn from departments who didn’t take part in the interviews was contacted to
make comments on questions asked. Furthermore, follow up calls in terms of
informal telephone interviews were conducted to further pilot the final
questions that were asked (Creswell, 2003). The reason for doing this was to
fine-tune the question for the final study. The outcome of this pilot study
informed the final questions that were contained in the interview schedule of
the main study. The questions of the main study were also sent to the would-be
40
41
Same as parastatal and statutory board
See appendix vii
219
respondents in advance to keep them informed and in case of any feedback
from them.
In conducting the main study, whenever the researcher arrives at any interview
venue, the first procedure that is carried out is to take some time to discuss the
questions with the interviewees before the actual interview session. Although
this was tiresome, it built confidence in the interviewees, making the staff of
the ministries who indicated interest to participate to have rekindled interest in
the research, as well as, develop rapport.
This section analysis the findings from the interviews conducted, setting out
these discussion under major themes (The meaning of knowledge, knowledge
transfer, available mechanisms of knowledge transfer, bureaucracy and
knowledge transfer, relationship between bureaucratic culture and knowledge
transfer, effects of bureaucracy on knowledge transfer as well as access to
knowledge), that encapsulates the views of the respondents on the subject
raised. The conclusion depicts the thematic analysis and identifies key issues
and findings.
The approach adopted in the analysis of the interview scripts is the “Synthesis
approach” which involves the building of themes originating from the interview
procedure as against the question-question approach (Angaye, 2008). There is
the use of direct quotes from interviewees and limited indirect quotes also. The
full transcripts of interviews are available on request from the researcher42.
42
See appendix v for sample of transcript and appendix vi for a sample of the transcription
process
220
5.7.2 The meaning of knowledge
A majority of respondents defined the knowledge found in the public service as
having to do with established regular administrative routines, procedures,
processes and rules. The established procedures spoken about are contained in
the public service rules, financial instructions, scheme of service and
establishment circulars. The acquisition of this knowledge is through regular
practice on the job and years spent in service (i.e. years of experience). The
regular practice has to do with constant use of these explicit sources of
knowledge by applying them in carrying out regular task frequently and
teaching sub-ordinates through mentoring when performing duties (i.e. tacit
knowledge is transferred). This knowledge when acquired is then used in
running the public service.
Summing up the views of respondents as to what knowledge in the public
service is, and by implication its constituents, there is a consensus that it
encompasses processes, procedures and rules. One interviewee sees knowledge
in the public service as:
“...activities that are actually controlled by laws and rules that we
have in the G.O 43 [public service rules], the scheme of service,
financial regulations and so forth, and these activities are
governed by the rules found in these documents. As the years go
by, our knowledge is built up by the constant application of these
instruments...”
Some other respondents consider knowledge in the public service as
comprising of the requisite experience used in performing administrative
duties. This entails the implementation of policies that has being formulated by
politicians in the high echelon of Government. The knowledge required to be
able to perform this task (i.e. of implementation) is got from insights and
43
General order; this was the former name of the public service rules
221
exposure to regular routine and tasks that are carried out by public servants
over a period of time. Nelson (1991) collaborate the fact that knowledge is
contained in routines by referring to this knowledge as building blocks of
organisational capabilities (Makadok, 2001). In the Nigerian public service,
capabilities in form of routines make knowledge available to the public servant.
Respondents from
ministries like that of
health, works, and education,
described the knowledge in that part of the public service as having
professional constituents like medical, technical and educational knowledge.
Kulkarni and Freeze (2007) referred to this type of knowledge as expertise
knowledge which is tacit/explicit in nature, as well as, being domain specific.
Guzman (2009) sees this knowledge as procedural knowledge that is basically
explicit in nature. However an underlining component of these various strands
of knowledge that is found in the public service is the presence of
administrative procedures in making them available and accessible. A
representative example was provided by an interviewee who defined
knowledge in the public service thus:
“The knowledge we have in the civil service is administrative
knowledge for the implementation of policies that are being initiated
by the top executives. These policies are passed down to the permanent
secretary and then to the administrative officers further to more junior
officers in the various strata of the civil service hierarchy for
implementation. This knowledge involves routines processes that is
carried out day in day out as we perform out task”.
The specific duties that constitutes the knowledge that is associated with the
public service are summed up by an interviewee thus,
“... these duties are mail recording, both incoming and outgoing, then
we minute files to both our senior and junior colleagues. We do a lot
of writing, we dispatch circulars and mails, and we also trace files”.
222
5.7.3 Knowledge Management (transfer) in general
The presence of knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public service is not in
doubt. This is going by the available responses from a majority of interviewees
on the question of how they share their knowledge both between colleagues and
departments; this was answered in the affirmative. An interviewee summed this
up accordingly,
“You know public service is an engine room which is continuous, by
continuous we mean no gap, and people grow on the job... So it’s the
nature of the continuity of the service that makes it possible... to hand
over [transfer] ... knowledge by inculcating ...experiences to the
younger ones”.
To the Nigerian public servant therefore, experience is knowledge and the
passing of this from colleague to colleague as well as between departments
represents knowledge transfer. Furthermore, some authors (e.g. Kumar &
Ganesh, 2009; Watson & Hewett, 2006; Agote & Ingram 2000) employ the use
of experience in describing knowledge when defining knowledge transfer.
5.7.3.1 Knowledge transfer between colleagues
When asked about how knowledge is transferred between colleagues, the
majority of interviewees were unanimous in nothing that this is done mostly
through personal contacts which is more of one on one interaction. Although
other ways of doing this was also mentioned like the minutes on files from one
officer to the other, reading of these files, mentoring and training, but the one
on one method stood out, as the main method used in knowledge transfer
between individuals.
223
An interviewee had this to say:
“We use to get some training on the job, if you are experienced and
know the job and another staff that is not as experienced will come and
we send that person to you to train him on the job. So on the job
training is how we transfer our knowledge to one another”.
Within the same department and units, the one on one is still more pronounced
because of the interrelationship that exist between task that are performed by
colleagues and the interdependence that each task has with the other. This
makes a reliance on each other through personal contact a sine quo-non (e.g.
division of labour). Another reason for this can be attributed to the lack of IT
mediated channel of knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public service. This
would have made personal contact to be minimised in the sense that emails for
example would have curtailed the rate at which personal contacts take place.
Most researchers (e.g. Duffy, 2000; Sher & Lee, 2004) view information
technology as one of the most important mechanisms of knowledge transfer.
One interviewee notes:
“...the issue is that here ... and in Nigeria as a whole we don’t have the
computer system where knowledge is being kept, all knowledge is kept
in files...”.
In realising that a colleague has tacit knowledge in certain areas, other staff are
attracted to the staff with this knowledge in order to be able to tap from it. A
personal rapport is usually developed in the process, especially if such a staff is
in the verge of leaving the organisation or about to retire. An interviewee sums
up how he shares knowledge with a colleague who is a would be retiree thus,
224
“...when I am interested I tap into their knowledge by personal
relationship. If a staff I notice is talented, I get close and ask
questions. I know a woman who is leaving us soon that is very talented
in dance, what I have done is to establish a cordial relationship with
her”.
The reason why staff rise up to the responsibility of capturing the
knowledge of other staff that are about to leave the organisation (by
building personal relationship) is because, presently in the Nigerian public
service, mechanisms for capturing this knowledge other than personal
efforts are not readily available. One management staff states:
“Unfortunately that aspect [of capturing retiring staff knowledge] is
an aspect government has not taken stock of, so a lot of people go
home with their knowledge”.
The response from another interviewee reveals that the mechanism for
capturing the knowledge of those leaving the organisation is in place. This
interviewee notes:
“...we organise workshops for them to share their experience
[knowledge] that is one. We also have a family night every year where
member of staff serving or retired have an evening of relaxation and
sharing, that way giving them a sense of belonging”.
In most of the ministries that took part in this study (seven in total), the
capturing and transfer of the experience [knowledge] of staff who are leaving
either due to retirement or other reasons is a problematic issue. This is because
a general consensus was that there was no mechanism put in place to either
capture transfer or store this knowledge. Although there were some public
servant who thought otherwise, but these were in the minority.
225
5.7.3.2 Knowledge transfer between Departments
The way knowledge is transferred between the departments within the
ministries varies slightly from one department to the other, while some
department use the general notice boards to share knowledge, others sends
circulars and memos. For some it is only during staff and management
meetings that they get to know about what happens in other department.
Minutes inscribed on files and minutes of meetings serve as another channel
through which knowledge is transferred between the departments. But the
generality of interviewees agree that knowledge from other department get to
them through the boss, who in most cases is the Head of department. An
interviewee says,
“...in management meetings the head of various departments will gather
and each department will place on the table what is before them. So you
commonly look at this issue and take a decision and therefore
knowledge is transferred to every- body through the HODs.”
5.7.4 The available mechanisms for knowledge transfer
When asked about the mechanisms that is employed in sharing knowledge from
staff to staff and from one department to the other, interviewees enumerated
these to include; memos, circulars, minutes written in files from one officer to
the other, brainstorming sessions, posting of staff from one department to the
other, formal trainings, one on one contacts e.g. mentoring and very rarely, the
use of IT.
226
The use of these mechanisms as mentioned by the interviewees cut across the
various ministries that took part in this research. While some employed the use
of mechanisms that are more tacit inclined (i.e. involving tacit knowledge)
others used more of the explicit knowledge. For yet other organisations within
the same public service, they employed mechanisms that make use of both. A
vivid example can be got from the response of an interviewee, who remarked,
“Knowledge can be obtained from technical materials books in the
custody of the board[water board], which are accessible by all staff who
are interested, and among staff during period of relaxation, like club
meetings, we can share, during team work when a group goes out and
work and they share experiences”.
The minutes contained in file as well as one on one (mentoring) ranked highest,
among the numerous mechanisms that are employed by public servants in
transferring knowledge from one staff to the other between the various
departments. An interviewee notes,
“The things we do here are routines things; knowledge is transferred
from files when they are minuted. Like matters of conversion and staff
transfers, these are minuted and people learn. Formal knowledge is
transferred in workshops and training.”
When viewed from the perspective of what was said by the interviewees, it can
be inferred that the explicit knowledge contained in books and other retrievable
materials are transferred through mechanisms that involve reading of the text
like minutes. Tacit knowledge on the other hand is transferred through
mechanisms that involve person to person and interaction. A mechanism for
achieving this which is employed in the Nigerian public service is through the
posting of staff. The staff moves with the knowledge he or she has acquired and
learns the new role on the job without any real training per se.
227
“... that is why you don’t need to train anybody for a particular
assignment, when one person is exiting temporarily to
somewhere...Somebody immediately goes [posted] to relieve him
or her....”.
In congruence with the findings of this study (i.e. posting of staff as a
mechanism of knowledge transfer), Friedman and Prusak, (2008) emphasis that
this mechanism of knowledge transfer is most effective in the transfer of tacit
knowledge. In addition, mentoring as a mechanism is viewed as very effective
in the public service, as well as, the literature (e.g. Fowler & Gorman, 2005).
An interviewee aver thus:
“When we have ... newly posted staffs to the ministry, we teach them
how to do the work in the ministry because some of them when they are
newly posted to this ministry they don’t know how we are doing the
work, so we will teach them how things are done here, therefore we
share knowledge on one-on-one basis by teaching the juniors...”.
Mentoring as a mechanism of knowledge transfer is akin to induction as can be
seen from the above statement of the interviewee. But induction is not regarded
as an effective mechanism for knowledge transfer because it is a one sided
technique that just emanates from the boss who must be obeyed and not
challenged. This is despite the fact that this mechanism is supposed to be the
best for transferring “explicit and enterprise [organisational] knowledge to
newly recruited employees” (Mathew & Kavitha, 2008, p.32). In addition,
mentoring is also regarded as “... an important training and development toll in
the academic literature ...” (Veale & Wachtel 1996, p.19). One interviewee who
describes the form mentoring and induction take, note:
“...all we have is taking instructions from our superiors or bosses”.
228
For feedback which is also a mechanism used in knowledge transfer, this was
regarded as not effective. Although there was some form of this mechanism
that was being used, however, the general mood of public servants is captured
in the response of this interviewee:
“...the mechanism for the younger ones to give feedback is not there,
except you have a leader who is having a kind interface. He plays
middle of the role, he can go to the sub-ordinates and sit with them to
discuss. And when he is having that discussion with them, the junior
ones can bring in what affects them, or else it is not there”.
The reason for this general mood of public servants towards feedback stems
from the believe that the inequality between boss and sub-ordinates renders this
mechanism ineffective.
One other mechanism that was discovered and is being used in knowledge
transfer is brainstorming. This involves the training of a staff and sending him
or her for field work. When the staff returns back, lesson learnt and what
constituted good and bad practice is then discussed with colleagues and the
initial trainer. Corrections are proffered to those who did not follow procedure,
while commendations are given to those who did as trained. This mechanism
was very evident in the health sector of the Nigerian public service. An
interviewee had this to say,
“... we also have brainstorming sessions here, you brainstorm, it is an
informal set up, sort of, you call them [field staff] to the corner, you
say this is what you were taught two weeks back, or few months back,
what can you give back, what can you give in terms of the training
you acquired. When you listen to them, and they don’t give the right
stuff, you call them and say look, this is not what you were taught, and
this is how you are supposed to do it, and when you (the field staff) go
down to the lower level (local level), do what you are supposed to do.
When you brainstorm, you get knowledge about the people who
actually capture what you trained ....”
229
Furthermore, brainstorming may be a rare mechanism of knowledge transfer
due to the fact that it is not widely employed in the case of the Nigerian public
service, but in the literature (e.g. Shaw, et al., 2003) this mechanism is
mentioned. Another vital point to make in the elucidation of the mechanisms of
knowledge transfer is that, out of the seven ministries that took part in this
research, only one parastatal from a ministry had an IT mediated transfer
mechanism (local intranet). This is despite the importance of IT to the building
of a data base which is a precursor for knowledge transfer (Bharadwaj, 2000).
5.8 Bureaucracy and knowledge transfer
In this sub-section, the features of the Nigerian public service bureaucracy as
deduced from the responses elicited from interviewees, as well as, what they
had to say about the effects that this has on knowledge transfer is presented
and analysed.
5.8.1 Features of Nigerian bureaucracy
On the organisational culture in the Nigerian public service which is
bureaucracy, interviewees were ardent about its presence. It is agreed that this
culture is well entrenched in the body polity of the public service, possessing a
high level of hierarchy/strata, administrative bottlenecks, mostly vertical
communication, control and secrecy. This findings are akin to that of the
general literature on bureaucratic organisations and their characteristics (e.g.
Breton, 1995; Aldler & Borys, 1996; Teo et al., 2009), as well as, particular
literature in the case of Nigeria (e.g. Aluko & Adesopo, 2004; Mukoro, 2005
Ayodele & Bolaji, 2007). An interviewee amply describes the Nigerian public
service bureaucratic culture thus,
230
“...In bureaucracy the communication is usually vertical [top down]...
we know that it has a lot of bottlenecks and the technocrats see it as a
way of control that is always that strata”.
This stratum (hierarchy) to some interviewees is positive as far as knowledge
transfer is concerned. In the sense that, it makes knowledge to be brought
within the reach of staff, as knowledge is transferred from one stratum to the
other, this is in form of division of labour. An interviewee collaborates this by
noting that, he does not allow action on issues to end on his table because he
wants others to equally have input.
“By ensuring that at most times I try not to stay an action [leave a
matter raised in the file for attention] only on my desk. I always
minute to sub-ordinates so that they have an idea of what I am
doing.”
To others, their thinking of strata is in the negative, as they see this culture as a
hindrance to knowledge transfer. An interviewee notes,
“...due to the civil service being a very officious and bureaucracy also,
you have to do A before you do B, you can’t jump to B without finishing
to do A. but by the time you have to wait for A before you go to B you
have a lot of problems.”
In the aspect of the Nigerian public service possessing the attributes of control,
an interviewee describes it as,
“Somehow autocratic, because when [the highest official in the
ministry] just sends a file to the HOD and says act on this and if he
refuses to act, you get a direct punishment, is somehow dictatorship”.
231
The “obey before complain” style of administering the public service on the
side of the boss toward subordinates is a carryover of the long period of
military rule into body politics. This national culture as revealed from the
findings of this study greatly influenced the features of the Nigerian
bureaucracy. This made some control measures employed in military pattern
and fashion to be adopted as means of discipline when applying the public
service rules. Through this same means, swear language like “I will deal with
you” which are pure military commands, crept into public service colloquial
lexicon and vocabulary. These are being used to threaten staff about discipline.
In the literature (e.g. Sun, 2010), punitive behaviours exhibited by managers
and senior management are resultant effects of non conformity to procedures by
juniors. This instructions must be carried out exactly the way a staff is told to
carry them out or else as Sun (2010, p.517) puts it, “You will do it my way or
get out”.
In, answering a question on how open it was to air opinion in the ministry, an
interviewee notes that it is quite open, during the present democratic
dispensation of government. But further notes that the openness will depend on
the disposition of the boss on the day the opinion is being aired and also, the
disposition of the staff whose opinion is aired. Nothing that,
“If you are humble [staff airing the opinion], they will answer
[give heed to the opinion], but if they [the bosses] know that you
are coming with criticality [confrontation] they will give it to
you”.
Criticality in this context is taken to be confrontation, and respect for authority
is taken to be humility. While “the give it to you” is the military fashion of “I
will deal with you”, as earlier mentioned as well as languages like “with
immediate effect”.
232
The importance of freedom to air views and opinions during meetings,
informal, as well as, formal trainings cannot be overemphasised. This is due to
the fact that, it opens up communication (McEvily et al., 2003) culminating in
trust (Urch-Druskat & Wolff, 2001; Tschannen-Moran, 2001), and openness on
the part of staff to share knowledge (Rhodes et al., 2008).
For most interviewees, they agreed that one of the features of the Nigerian
public service bureaucratic culture is that it is secrecy laden. The reason for this
is as a result of the fear of being intimated for airing views that could be termed
insubordination. An interviewee concludes:
“It [bureaucracy] should be changed; it is not yielding much fruits,
because for people to succeed there must be flow of interaction and
knowledge. We should be able to speak and make corrections without
reserve or fear. But a situation where you want to correct something and
somebody [boss] has to read meaning or interpret it negatively, this brings
about suspicion and so on. So for one not to be penalised for no wrong, it
is better to reserve ones comment”.
This fear of intimidation as observed by the respondent is not good for
knowledge transfer. This is because trust and openness are good antecedents for
knowledge sharing (Senge, 1990; Conner & Prahalad, 1996). The culture of
secrecy in the public service makes the withholding of knowledge inevitable.
5.8.2 Relationship between bureaucracy and knowledge transfer
For the fact that bureaucracy is the organisational culture in the Nigerian public
service, the relationship that this culture has with knowledge transfer is
ascertained. This is done by asking if there is an avenue for sharing knowledge
outside the normal office setting. The rationale for asking this question is borne
233
out of the quest to ascertain further if the strata and hierarchy (both features of
bureaucracy) as set up in the office setting plays either an inhibiting or
facilitating role on knowledge transfer. In addition, the literature (e.g. Adler &
Borys, 1996) on bureaucracy avers that employees in formalised settings have
little innovation and as such my not feel disposed to transfer knowledge. An
interviewee puts it this way:
“.. So if there is such a place [an informal setting] at all, I will feel freer
in the informal one [to transfer knowledge]”.
Responses from the interviewees buttressed that there is a direct link between
bureaucracy and knowledge transfer. This link is visible in the attitudes that
senior staff display towards their sub-ordinates as knowledge is shared. The
sub-ordinates opinions are sometimes not regarded based on the fact that it is
coming from a junior staff and not on the merit of the suggestion that is being
made. This finding is in consonance with that of Maduabum (1991, p.565) who
notes that; “superior officers generally do not appreciate contributions made by
their trained subordinates”. A junior staff interviewee encapsulates this thus:
“When I suggest, for the fact that I’m a junior staff, it is usually
ignored...”.
To further buttress this, a senior interviewee also notes in the same light as the
junior:
“Right from the onset, it has never been practiced that people of low
and high cadre will recreate in the same place...”.
234
The recreation being mentioned here has to do with sharing of knowledge by
colleagues (irrespective of status) in an informal avenue. Another interviewee
also highlights the relationship between bureaucracy and knowledge transfer
thus:
“It is the culture, where your boss wants you to learn everything from
him, because he’s the boss. He would not want to learn anything from
his subordinate or something new or fresh ideas being introduced.”
The question that was asked about the informal avenue for collaboration and
interaction was to know if, the informal environment bridges the strata and
hierarchy gap that is synonymous with bureaucracy and the response was
overwhelming. This is because a majority of interviewees agreed that such an
avenue was best for knowledge transfer. Also some of the interviewees agreed
that this informal setting already exist in their organisation and knowledge
transferred through such means.
5.8.3 Effect of bureaucracy on knowledge transfer
More generally, there was the perception that bureaucratic culture has some
effects on knowledge transfer. This effect is both positive and negative. Those
who believed that it had negative effects in essence implied that it hindered
knowledge transfer. Some of the reasons they gave for this is that, is slowed
down decision process and also wasted time. An interviewee who held this
position note,
“It doesn’t, I say that because if you want something immediately before
those people [bosses] will approve, it takes too much time, because after
the submission of your application, you have to follow up. This slows
down your work. If you drop the application like that nothing will
happen.”
235
For those who see bureaucracy from the positive point of view, they hold that
although bureaucracy has a lot of processes ingrained in it, these helps in
making sure that as much staff as possible gets the knowledge that is
transferred along the numerous processes. One interviewee sums this up thus:
“It helps because files move from one office to another; from one staff to
the other carrying different types of information [knowledge] therefore,
it helps the transfer of knowledge.”
A majority of public servants were however unanimous in saying that
bureaucracy hinders the knowledge transfer. This they based on the fact that the
processes although makes knowledge available to a lot of public servants, but
this can still be done in shorter times and with less cumbersome processes that
can be IT mediated. An interviewee states,
“...it slows down the transfer of knowledge, although it helps people to
know what is happening, it takes too much time to do that...”.
5.9 Access to knowledge
The issue of access to knowledge first and foremost is very much tied to
knowledge availability. This is owing to the fact that knowledge has to be
available before the issue of access can come up. To be able to ascertain this
therefore, a question on the availability of database for storing knowledge for
staff to have access to was asked in order to elicit response from interviewees.
There were divided opinions on this, as some said there was no database, while
others said there was, it was discovered that a majority of interviewees held that
there was knowledge database. But this database was mostly in files and not
any other repository as such. An interviewee has this to say in this regards,
236
“...it is only their [staff] files that contain knowledge and nothing else”.
Haven ascertained that knowledge is available in form of explicit knowledge
mostly contained in files, it should be noted that knowledge is also found in
minutes of meetings and minutes contained in files. The other knowledge type
which is tacit that is held by the individual is available through personal
interaction.
A question was asked on whether junior staff have the opportunity to give
feedback after they take instructions from seniors. This question was asked to
know if interaction takes place. The interviewees were divided in their
response. Some answered in the negative while the others were in the
affirmative. The difference between this divide is in the level of feedback.
While some said the feedback is done in writing, another way this is done is
through minutes back to the boss on the same file. Yet others said it is in
personal contacts back to the bosses if he or she asked for the said contact.
Some other interviewees who are in the management cadre said, they put the
bureaucratic culture aside and go to the junior staff thereby making knowledge
sharing possible and available both to the junior staff on the one hand and also
the management staff on the other hand. The response of the interviewee which
is a management staff, is summed up thus,
“I am not a very conventional person; I can even go to my subordinate’s office to get knowledge, I don’t follow the rules religiously.”
Asked if they have access to organisational knowledge, the interviewees were
all swift to answer this question by nothing that only if they are authorised, then
they can have access to organisational knowledge. As one interviewee puts it:
237
“This place is the database of everybody...and only classified staff has
access to it... it is only our staff that has access to this documents, the
permanent secretary’ office and the various clerk officers designated for
such activities it is not generalised”.
There was a twist to the issue of access to knowledge by staff that are
authorised. This is in the sense that those authorised varied from ministry to
ministry and when those who are supposed to have access still needed to pass
through a boss to have access despite the fact that they were supposed to do so
by right. A superior44 officer in one of the ministries referred to this as “security
clearance”. An interviewee who claimed to be authorised to access the
knowledge in his ministry whenever he is on field work, notes that this must
always be done in consultation with his boss, or else his quest will be in futility,
the interviewee notes:
“I must have to pass through the HOD, even when the knowledge to be
used is for my job and I am supposed to have access unhindered”.
In the same light, another interviewee notes:
“It is only the admin department’s knowledge that others know of, not
from other departments. If I want to know what happens in other
departments I have to quarrel in some cases, despite the fact that I am a
senior staff”.
On probing further to unravel the reason why this scenario pervades in the
Public service, it was discovered that the bureaucratic culture simply puts this
restriction on staff. In the sense that, the bosses must be consulted before
knowledge is accessed, this is in most cases for some ministries, and in all
cases for others. This is despite the fact that some of these functions could have
been delegated to the officers that need this knowledge, and are within the
44
Very senior officer
238
management circle. The reason for this attitude is summarised in the response
from an interviewee,
“I am a management staff but I have not been given the chance to
function, due to this wait for your time syndrome”.
In the final analysis, access to knowledge (particularly explicit organisational
knowledge) in the Nigerian public service going by the postulations of
interviewees is determined by the boss. While access to tacit knowledge, is
determined by personal contacts made by the receiver with the giver. This is
better done in an informal collaborative setting usually outside the confines of
the normal office environment.
5.10 Outcome of findings
The findings of the semi-structured interview carried out to find out how
knowledge in transferred in the Nigeria public service, as well as, the effects of
bureaucratic culture on knowledge transfer was analysed using Miles
Huberman’s (1994) method of qualitative data analysis. A summary of the
outcome of the analysis of this study is presented in Figure 5.18.
239
Figure 5.18 Outcome of semi -structured interviews
Access to knowledge
Features of
Bureaucratic
culture
Only by authorised persons
( must still go through boss
whenever knowlege is
acessed
Always through the Hod
Hierarchy, control
secrecy, vertical
communication,
inequality authocracy (
military style)
Effects of Bureaucratic
Culture
Positive: helps task in form
of division of labour
Negative: too much
processes and over emphasis
on seniority slowsdown the
system
Knowledge transfer
mechanisms
Minutes in files, minutes of
meeting, memos, posting of
staff, mentoring,
brainstoming, peson to
person
Ineffective induction and
feedback.
Awareness about
Knowledge
Administrative, experience
procedural, specialised
240
5.11 Triangulation of findings
The findings of the survey as well as semi structured interviews carried out to
establish if there is knowledge management in the Nigerian public service, and
whether bureaucratic culture affects knowledge transfer was triangulated .This
triangulation was put in a matrix table in order to depict areas of convergence
and divergence, so as to check for validity and reliability of the data set. This
matrix is presented next in Table 5.37 below.
241
Table 5.37: Matrix triangulating findings across the instruments of data collection
Key Themes
Questionnaire
Knowledge transfer between
colleagues within the same
department
Knowledge transfer between
departments
Available mechanisms of
knowledge transfer
Access to knowledge
Meaning of knowledge
Presentation of outcomes across instruments
Interview
High percentage of knowledge shared between colleagues. Prefer
to share in an informal setting (p. 182).
High response for knowledge transfer between department
through airing of views, feedback during formal training and
storytelling sessions outside office (p.165).
Through mentoring, memos, and files. Files mostly used. very low
on induction and feedback during induction (p164 & 167).
High response on access to knowledge through minutes of
meetings, general circular, public service rules and files (p.155).
Staff meetings not interactive and rarely held, mostly in
emergency (p.181). Authorised staff denied access to knowledge
(p.182).
High response on administrative knowledge, routines, rules
procedures, minuting, filling and dispatching. Few said it is about
specified knowledge like mechanical and technical (p.151).
High response on knowledge transfer. A substantial part is kept.
Informal setting (environment) preferred for collaboration and
sharing (p.234).
Transfer between departments take place by personal contact with
staff that has the knowledge as well as mostly through Head of dept
(p.226).
Mentoring, personal contacts, minutes of meetings, circulars, memos
and files. Posting of staff. Brainstorming. Files and personal contact
are mostly used. Ineffective induction and feedback (p.228 – 230).
Only through files. Stringent rules on access. Most have recourse to
the boss before access can be authorised. (p.237 - 238).
Minutes kept mostly in HODS office. Staff meetings rarely held.
Authorised staff denied access (p.239).
High percentage said Admin knowledge, rules, scheduling, minutes
on files. Also specialised knowledge (p.222 & 223).
Source of knowledge
Interpersonal contacts with colleagues and government
publications like files, memos and gazettes (p.152).
Files, official mails, minutes written on files, as it moves from one
officer to the other. Knowledge is acquired with regular exposure to
the job (p.222, 227).
Relationship between nature
of Job and knowledge
transfer
Mixed reaction on the role of task on knowledge transfer (p.186).
There were mixed reactions as some interviews believe that task help
because there is division of labour, which makes the knowledge to be
transferred from one table to the other , others said these task slowed
it down through multiplicity (p.222, 228, 231, 236).
Bureaucracy effects on
knowledge transfer
Bureaucratic culture features
Mixed reaction but a higher percentage say it hinders (p.184-185).
Interviewees say it does not help, it creates bottleneck, too officious
although a few said it does (p.235-236).
Boss is supreme, must be consulted on everything, vertical
communication mostly. Secrecy, power (more in military fashion),
hierarchy, control (p.238-239).
Inequality, communication up –down (vertical), hierarchy, power,
rules control and secrecy. Relationship with boss was scored as
bad and this does not help in knowledge transfer (p.185).
242
5.12 Conclusion
This chapter presented the analyses of data gathered in both the survey and interviews
carried out to establish the presence of knowledge management in the Nigerian public
service, on the one hand, and the effects of bureaucratic culture on knowledge transfer
on the other hand.
For the survey, the analysis involved the presentation of sampled public servants by
cadre, ministry and gender. Still using ministry and cadre to presents results, the
awareness of public servants about knowledge was interpreted from the data gathered,
as well as the sources consulted to acquire such knowledge. Also interpreted was
how accessible organisational knowledge was to public servants, and the mechanisms
they employ in knowledge transfer, within colleagues and across departments.
The features of the Nigerian public service bureaucratic culture were explored, using
Hofstede’s theory on the five dimensions of culture as a grid. The effects of
bureaucratic culture on knowledge transfer were also analysed. The two hypotheses
proposed for this study were tested using chi square test and Pearson correlation.
These were presented in tables and further interpreted by the use of scatter plots. Pie
and bar charts were equally used to present results.
For the analysis of the semi structured interview, the main themes were analysed.
These were not different from the same issues in the survey. Issues like meaning of
knowledge, mechanisms of knowledge transfer, as well as, effects of bureaucratic
culture on knowledge transfer were analysed and the outcomes of findings displayed
in a matrix. In the final analysis, findings from both instruments of data collection
were triangulated in a matrix table in readiness for discussions coming up in chapter
six.
243
CHAPTER 6
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGDS
6.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the ensuing discussion of findings from the matrix
45
triangulating results obtained from both the qualitative and quantitative methods of
data collection employed. The matrix reveals that these findings are very similar and
relate closely to the reviewed literature. The chapter also seeks to address the research
questions and objectives of this study in view of the empirical work conducted.
In discussing the findings of this research, the results of this study, comprising of the
analysed data from both the semi-structured interview and survey, as presented in the
triangulated matrix, forms the foundation of this discussion. These results are
discussed in congruence with the main research questions, sub-research questions and
the objectives of this study. The reason for doing this is to be able to answer the
research questions and to meet objectives of this study.
6.2 Knowledge transfer
The study reveals that there is knowledge management practice (transfer) in the
Nigerian public service, going by the very high percentage of public servants who
agreed to this fact, and that this transfer takes place between colleagues as they
inscribe minutes on files and pass these from one officer to the other. This transfer of
knowledge is mostly informally (see p. 167, 167). These findings corroborates that of
Mathew and Kavitha (2008), which listed techniques used for transferring knowledge
in organisations, and ranked minutes amongst the highest employed for knowledge
45
See table 5.37 in p. 242
244
transfer. The study also revealed that public servants interact person to person, in the
day to day duties they perform and in so doing, share knowledge between themselves,
and also between departments. Other techniques employed to achieve this knowledge
transfer between departments and between colleagues, also include feedback during
training organised for the entire ministry, where all staff in the various departments
take part.
The presence of this knowledge management practice (i.e. transfer), in the Nigerian
public service was proved in the affirmative by an overwhelming “yes” response
elicited from Nigerian public servants, when asked whether they share knowledge.
The examination of how this is done was evident by the way staff interact in course of
performing their day to day task. Also in the way they share knowledge along the line
(i.e. by sharing through file exchange), by so doing, making others aware of the
workings in the organisation (see p.155, 167, 227). In looking at a holistic view of
knowledge management strategy, in which members of large corporations (like the
Nigeria public service) transfer knowledge among colleagues, Jasimuddin (2008, p58)
notes that, “Document exchange is a highly and efficient mechanism for sharing
codified knowledge”.
In further justifying that there is knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public service,
the test of hypothesis 1 carried out, and acceptance of the alternate hypothesis lays
credence to this fact. To further elucidate the presence of knowledge transfer in the
Nigerian public service, the mechanisms employed in knowledge transfer both from
staff to staff and department to department, reveals this more vividly. These are
discussed in detail under mechanisms of knowledge transfer.
245
6.3 Available mechanisms of knowledge transfer
The available mechanisms for sharing knowledge in the Nigerian public service as
deduced from the study are, minutes in files, mentoring, induction, formal training,
brainstorming, minutes of meeting, feedback, airing of views, storytelling, person to
person and posting of staff. These mechanisms are akin to those in the reviewed
literature (e. g, Alavi & Leidger, 2001; Agote et al., 2000 and Jasimuddin 2005), that
presents knowledge transfer mechanisms in general and also those who presented the
mechanisms in particular. For mentoring, Fowler and Gorman (2005) study suffice.
While for face to face Albino et al., (1999) comes up for mentioning. Hannabuss
(2000) and Mládková (2007) study depicting story telling
as a mechanism of
knowledge transfer, as well as that of Shaw et al., (2003) on brainstorming, are
support for the mechanisms as discovered in this study. The posting of staff from one
department to the other has a retinue of literature to support it as a mechanism of
knowledge transfer (Greenfield et al, 1999; Syed-Ikhsan & Roland, 2004; Friedman
& Prusak, (2008).
Furthermore, it should be noted that although all these mechanisms are used in the
Nigerian public service for knowledge transfer, the frequency of usage is in varying
degrees. Amongst the highest used are minutes from decided issues written in files
and that of minutes of meetings, as well as, memos and mentoring (observation). The
least used were induction at the start of work, formal training and feedback. The
reason for this is not farfetched, as the process of induction during start of work and
feedback is one that involves interaction between a boss and subordinate. This
interaction recorded a very low count from the scores in the questionnaires of this
study. This score showed that the relationship existing between sub-ordinates and
bosses was not cordial enough thereby standing as an inhibiting factor to knowledge
transfer (see p. 185).
246
Moreover, public servants agreed that knowledge was being transferred in feedback
sessions which took place during formal training. But they did not agree that this took
place during inductions of new staff at start of work, which is also another form of
training (although informal) see p. 164. The reason cannot be far from the culture of
boss subordinate relationship that persists in the Nigerian public service, which has
already been mentioned in the preceding paragraph. This relationship makes the
inductee to see the inductor as up there (in the hierarchy), who should not be
challenged due to long years of service and vast knowledge about the job, hence the
lack of feedback which was revealed from the findings of this study.
However, for formal training sessions, the findings indicate that feedback takes place
(see p.165). The reason for this disparity with that of feedback during induction of
new staff can be attributed to the fact that, during formal training, there is a mixture
of bosses and subordinate as well as colleagues of the same rank, unlike that of
induction where it is just a subordinate and a boss. The environment of formal
training is devoid of that atmosphere of just the boss and sub-ordinate, as it
accommodates staff from other departments as well. This culminates in freedom to air
views, giving out constructive feedback and sharing of experiences across the
departments.
In a study by Sun (2010), on five critical knowledge management organisational
themes; systematic knowledge, strategic engagement, social networking (external and
internal) , cultural context, process and structural context that affect knowledge
sharing as a KM process, the cultural context theme captures an underlying basis of
this study. In this context, the ability of an organisation (public service) to allow staff
air their opinion (views) helps in knowledge sharing and decision making. This is
because the freedom to air their views creates an atmosphere of trust which is a great
antecedent for knowledge transfer (Hansen et al. 1999). A staff is happy to know that
no matter how infinitesimally his or her ideas are, management is ready to hear them
out. When this is viewed in light of the findings of this study which recorded a high
247
response in freedom to air views during formal training, an explanation as to the
reason why feedback during seminars is an effective mechanism of knowledge
transfer becomes imperative (p.165). This is because, feedback during seminars are
used as avenues for hearing staff opinions and views which culminates in the building
of trust. The success of feedback during formal training (as a mechanism of
knowledge transfer), goes a long way in establishing the presence of knowledge
transfer in the Nigerian public service.
Experience is one other attribute that is valued in the Nigerian public service. It
symbolises that knowledge has been acquired over a period of time, through
protracted exposure to duties performed by staff. This study found out that when the
word knowledge is mentioned what readily comes to mind is experience, in this
regards, to the Nigerian public servant, knowledge is experience. The transfer of
experience (i.e. knowledge) from staff to staff is done through mentoring, while its
transfer from department to department is done by posting of staff from one
department to the other. This revelation emphasises further the fact that, there is
knowledge transfer in the Nigeria public service. In this regards, Agote et al., (2000)
findings captures what knowledge transfer is in an organisation, as primarily affecting
one individual or department with the experience of the other.
6.4 Effects of bureaucratic culture on knowledge transfer
Bureaucratic culture in the Nigerian public service has effect on knowledge transfer.
The findings of this research indicate that its effect is both negative and positive. On
the negative divide, it was revealed that this culture creates an empire around the boss
who must be consulted before knowledge can be accessed and subsequently
transferred. While on the positive, it facilities a relationship in which regular task
performed by public servants overlap, and in so doing, knowledge is shared. These
tasks are repetitive and monotonous, involving nearly everybody, with each
performing a part (division of labour), thereby making knowledge to be shared as the
248
various tasks are performed. In other words, one major objective of the task that
public servants perform is that, they assist in knowledge transfer, in that, these
various tasks involve imputes not just from the staff performing the task alone, but
other staff as well. This is due to the relationship that holds between the task being
performed, and the sharing of knowledge in the process. An example is the sending of
a draft bill from the Ministry of Justice to the House of Assembly46. This bill has to
be read by some staff, entered into a dispatch book by another staff who is expected
to read it and passes it on to the House of Assembly where other legislative staff who
are not actual members of the house but administrative, legal and draft officers go
though its content thoroughly before sending it to the members of the house for
deliberation. This bureaucratic culture makes the sharing of knowledge possible due
to the inter relationship of the various task performed by these public servants. This
finding answers a sub research question of this study: Is there any relationship
between the regular task performed by public servants and knowledge transfer?
Findings on the role of organisational culture (in this case bureaucracy) on knowledge
transfer reveal that the task and activities performed by public servants have a
positive effect on knowledge transfer due to their nature. This nature involves the
multiplicity of duties which are interwoven, involving the sharing of knowledge from
one part of the service to the other. This same practice slows down the transfer
process, owing to the
multiplicity of duties inherent in its modus operandi. In the
sense that, what should have taken a shorter time to achieve is subjected to a complex
laborious procedure involving so many public servants, thereby elongating the time
for service delivery.
In two different studies by Ekpo (1979) and Anise (1984) on the Nigerian
bureaucracy, both authors presented this culture as very negative attributes of the
Nigerian public service. They were in agreement in describing it as comprising of a
high level of nepotism, elitist and full of superior power, always for the boss who
46
The legislative arm of government at the state level
249
shows an inability to delegate responsibilities. In particular Anise (1986) described
the growth of bureaucracy as being responsible for an institutionalised elite class.
Ekpo (1979) and Anise (1984) supports the findings of this research. Specifically,
inequality, supremacy of the boss, bias in favour of seniority, in matters of policy and
access to available knowledge, are issues that were delineated in the case of the
Nigerian public service bureaucratic culture. These issues are negatives which affect
knowledge transfer, in the sense that, they breed a culture that does not encourage
sharing but discourages the incentive to share knowledge (O’Sullivan, 2007). One
particular aspect that Ekpo (1979) and Anise (1984) highlighted in congruence with
the findings of this research is the inability of bosses to delegate duties; this was very
evident in most ministries.
The Nigerian public service bureaucracy, going by the findings of this study has a
high level of inequality between boss and sub-ordinates. This inequality is evident in
the boss inability to allow sub-ordinates that are authorised to have access to
organisational knowledge to do so. This relationship was described by public servant
as bad and that it rarely helps in knowledge transfer (see table 5.17 p. 185). An
example is that of induction of new staff on start of work, (a major training method),
and feedback which this study indicates are ineffective mechanisms used in
knowledge transfer (see p. 164, 228) . The explanation for this is due to the fact that,
these training methods are bureaucratic in nature, in the sense that, they involve a
boss- subordinate relationship, for an organisation with a high level of inequality, the
sub-ordinate sees his or herself as inferior, lacking the will-power to contribute or
even ask questions pertaining to a training undertaken by a superior officer with such
a vast wealth of experience, as doing so will amount to challenging the boss.
250
Maduabum (1991) collaborates the findings of this research on inequality in a study
undertaken in the administrative staff college of Nigeria, which was on leadership
resistance to the implementation of new ideas acquired through training in the
Nigerian public service. He specifically found out that, “superior officers”47 generally
didn’t appreciate contributions made by their trained sub-ordinates. This scenario
makes the transfer of knowledge from the trained subordinate to their boss impossible
due to resistance from the bosses. The situation is however different when the bosses
attend the training, this is because they create opportunities for themselves to transfer
the acquired knowledge.
Similarly, when Maduabum’s (1991) finding is viewed in connection with the
findings of this study, the reason for the inefficiency of feedback during induction as
a mechanism of knowledge transfer becomes clear. The reason for this is that, no
matter what subordinates say the superior officer is always the boss and right, and as
such would not be favourably disposed to feedback due to the calibre staff
(subordinate) that it is coming from (see p. 234). This authority of the boss, Anise
(1986) refers to as “superior power”, it was proved to have negative effects on
knowledge transfer in this study due to the fact that it promotes inequality.
Furthermore, in a study carried out to investigate how knowledge management could
build and nurture knowledge sharing culture in public organisations, Liebowitz and
Chen (2006) found out that knowledge sharing in government agencies posses’
challenges which include the high level of hierarchy and bureaucracy in them. This
finding collaborate that of this research on bureaucracy being more negative than
positive, especially when viewed from the perspective of the overbearing role played
by hierarchy in influencing knowledge transfer.
47
Bosses
251
6.5 Features of bureaucratic culture
According to the findings of this study, the Nigerian public service bureaucratic
culture has a high level of inequality in its hierarchy. This is noticeable in the
difficulty of staff that are authorised but not given the opportunity to handle certain
issues that they should handle just because the boss says so. Also, findings reveal that
communication is mostly vertical (up-down), this is typical of most formal
organisation as recorded in the reviewed literature (e.g. Syed-Ikhsan & Rowlans,
2004). This type of communication is inimical to knowledge transfer (Claver et al.,
1999), as it not only breeds the lack of trust from the ranks of the subordinates, it also
renders the “local knowledge” (Tsoukas, 2001a) which these subordinates have at the
lower level of the hierarchy redundant.
Based on the scoring of Nigerian bureaucratic culture from Hofstede (1991) theory
(i.e. the five dimensions of culture), further features deduced from this study includes,
a high degree of masculinity which accounts for its rigid rules and autocratic
management. The Nigerian public service also has a high level of conformity, this is
in form of the acceptable behaviour that is expected from staff based on the over
emphasis on moral obligation. In a study carried out by Aluko and Adesopo (2004) on
appraising two faces of bureaucracy in relation to Nigeria, they identified conformity
and compartmentalisation as attributes of the Nigerian bureaucracy. They discovered
that protecting procedures in the organisation stood far and above solving the
problems that the public service is established for in the first place.
These attributes as put forward by Aloko and Adesopo (2004) are very much related
to the findings of this study, in respect of Hofstede’s analysis employed and the
subsequent manifestations deciphered. However, there is total disagreement with
Hofstede’s own score on West Africa (i.e. Nigeria) which records low on long and
short term orientation, the fifth dimension of his theory that highlights acceptance of
behaviour in certain ways just for moral reasons and nothing more. While Hofstede’s
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findings scored Nigeria low (i.e. 16% for West Africa) in this dimension from his
findings, portraying that public servants do not put up certain behaviours just for
moral obligatory reasons, this study as well as that of Aloko and Adesopo (2004)
prove otherwise. The score from the findings of this study scored Nigeria high in this
dimension (82%) thereby refuting Hosfetede’s theory in this particular dimension of
knowledge (i.e. the fifth dimension).
The Nigerian public service bureaucratic culture has as its feature also a high
emphasis on the collective tradition where the word “we” is greater than “I”. Its
bureaucracy places more emphasis on the team rather than the person. This again is
another area of divergence with Hofstede’s score. While the findings of this study
reveal a high collectivism in the part of the Nigerian public servants (74%), Hofstede
recorded a low collectivism and high individuality (20%). On the whole, three out of
the five dimensions of Hofsted’s theory of culture agree with the findings of this
study; (power distance, uncertainty avoidance and Masculinity/feminism) as well as
their adjoining manifestations, while the remaining two; (collectivist / individuality
and long term/ short term orientation) did not agree with the findings.
One unique feature of the Nigerian public service bureaucratic culture encapsulated
from this study was that which had to do with the very high context language used to
denote discipline that is to be meted on sub-ordinates. Words like, “I will deal with
you” and “I will give it to you” are used with impunity. The origin of these words that
have now found their way into the public service lexicon can be attributable to the
long period of military rule in Nigeria. This came with the military occupying public
life, and as such, some boards and statutory public corporations were run by the
military. This infiltration coupled with series of reforms carried out by the military on
the Nigerian public service brought about a new style of governance.
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To date, even after a long period of the withdrawal of military from national life,
these traits are still part and parcel of the features of the Nigeria public service. They
come in form of over emphasis on discipline, rigid rules and red tape formalism,
where juniors must be taught to do the right thing. The right thing is usually at the
dictate of the boss. For example, a simple letter of transfer written by a boss posting a
sub-ordinate could end with a phrase like “you are to resume with immediate effect”
or “without fail”.
When a staff is transferred from one office to the other, he or she is usually asked to
hand over to another staff who is taking over and vice versa. As part of the procedure
for this transfer, an official letter effecting this transfer is usually issued. This letter
may read in part, “any government property in your possession should be handed over
immediately, failure to do so will be met with very grave consequences and the full
weight of the law”. This type of warning given to a staff in possession of government
properties which has not yet been returned as part of a transfer letter is a typical
example of the feature of the Nigerian public service bureaucratic culture, which has
military inclination as discovered from this study.
6.6 Awareness about knowledge needed to run the public service
Public servants showed considerable awareness about the type of knowledge they
need to run the public service. They described this knowledge from the
administrative, routines and processes point of view. The knowledge they mentioned
were knowledge used in minuting on files and comprehending complex
administrative legislations in these files as well as scheduling duties. Others mention
knowledge from specialist fields, like legal knowledge for preparing draft legislation
for the House of Assembly, mechanical knowledge for probing into construction,
water purification and medical knowledge. This knowledge was from public servants
in the specialist and service ministries.
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The reason for ascertaining awareness was borne out of the resolve that awareness, as
well as, access to knowledge are necessary precursors to knowledge transfer. This is
going by what Davenport and Prusak (1998b) opined on knowledge transfer in
organisation, which is that, knowledge cannot be said to have been transferred until
the recipient gets and understands the transferred knowledge. Viewing this side by
side the findings of this study therefore, it is realistic to state that awareness about the
type of knowledge needed to run the public service is a signal indicating the existence
of an already transferred knowledge. The only difference that the finding of this study
has with the reviewed literature (e.g. Cong & Pandya, 2003) is in the area of
terminology used in the public service.
In a study on data, information and knowledge in regional innovation networks
carried out by Harmaakorpi and Melkas (2008), they agreed with Davenport and
Prusak (1998b) as well as, the stand of this study that knowledge awareness on the
part of recipient (public servants), stands for knowledge that has already being
transferred. This finding fulfils one objective of this study which is the identification
of the awareness of public servant to the knowledge needed to run the public service.
6.7 Access to knowledge
In the aspect of public servants having access to organisational knowledge, there was
reasonable evidence to show that public servants have some level of access. This was
in the area of access to minutes of minutes, circulars, memos and files (see.p.155,
237). It should be noted that, access here, was to explicit knowledge sources. For the
tacit sources of knowledge like experience of staff who are about to retire from
service and those who were being posted from one department to the other, this study
reveals that informal interaction which is a good mechanism for unlocking tacit
knowledge was not readily available. However, in very few cases, informal forums
existed for knowledge sharing, and subsequently access to knowledge.
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A study on limitations of knowledge sharing in academia, a case of Nigeria
undertaken by Osunade et al., (2007) found out that knowledge sharing and
collaboration are activities that are neglected. This finding conducted three years
before that of this present research, discovered similar findings about the lack of
collaboration. In the sense that, although some informal avenues exist for knowledge
sharing in the Nigerian public service, these are not very effective in opening access
to knowledge for public servants. The reason for this is because, the high and mighty
(management) do not see the importance of such gatherings as they don’t attend. This
inhibits proper sharing of knowledge making knowledge to remain in silos thereby
limiting others from having access to it (Syed-Ikhsan & Roland, 2004; Lord & Raft,
2000). This setback in accessing knowledge, create barrier to knowledge transfer, as
staff can only transfer knowledge that they have got.
Another issue that relates to knowledge access is that most of the knowledge that the
Nigerian public service has are in files and hard copy documents. These are accessible
to public servants. An example is the public service rules, which every public servant
is supposed to have access to, owing to the fact that it is like the public servants bible.
This study revealed that majority of staff had access to it (70%). For some other
sources like annual budgets, very few authorised staff had access, they complained
about not being allowed to. The reason for this refusal on the part of the bosses to
allow authorised staff access to this explicit knowledge sources is based on the
“knowledge is power” dictum (Liebowitz & Chen, 2003). Bosses hold to this
knowledge is seen as a symbol of being in charge.
Aluko and Adesopo (2004) supports the findings of this study on the reasons for
bosses not allowing authorised subordinates access to knowledge by referring to the
Udoji (1974) report on the Nigerian public service which submitted that, inability of
superiors to delegate duties for fear of the sub-ordinates usurping vital information,
particularly in regards to finance, was responsible for this non access. An interviewee
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in this study referred to the action of the bosses as, “wait for your time syndrome”
(see p. 239).
Knowledge is supposed to be accessed by authorised public servants (Public service
rules, 2000), the findings revealed that some category of public servants who are
authorised still needed to consult their bosses before access can be given. This was
not as a matter of rule (because the rule permits them to have access), but a matter of
precedence that has been laid. In this study, an overwhelming “yes” response was
recorded from the question asked about consulting the boss whenever knowledge is
sought (see p.180). The emphasis is the “whenever”, which implies that this was a
constant feature as far as access to organisational knowledge is concerned. In
addition, interviewees’ response to the question asked on how they get knowledge
about what happens in the organisation also show that this knowledge is always got
from the Head of department and their bosses (see p. 235, 238). In congruence to the
response on the source of knowledge to know about what happens in the organisation
is also the response on where the minutes of meetings are kept. This question on
where minutes are kept was asked so as to view how accessible minutes were to staff.
It was revealed in this study that minutes of minutes were mostly in the boss’s office.
The Nigerian public servant has access to organisational knowledge in so far as he or
she is authorised and passes through the boss to do so, as a matter of going through
the chain of command, which is a means through which there is span of control 48. To
fulfil one objective of this study which is the extent to which public servants have
access to knowledge, this study discovers that, it is to a very reasonable extent in
terms of explicit knowledge but comparative in that of explicit knowledge.
48
This refers to a sub-ordinate reporting directly to the person above them in the hierarchy.
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6.8 Conclusion
The discussion from the findings of this study has been able to answer the main
research questions of this study; (i) that there is knowledge transfer in the Nigerian
public service and (ii) that bureaucratic culture affect knowledge transfer more
negatively than positively. The findings have also been able to answer the sub
research questions by stating how knowledge is transferred between colleagues and
departments in the Nigerian public service. The answers to these questions also
assisted in realising the objectives of this research.
Moreover, it highlighted the available mechanisms used in knowledge transfer and
pinpointed the relationship between the regular task performed by public servants and
knowledge transfer. These tasks were beneficial in regards to helping staff transfer
knowledge in that they were in treating the duties performed by one staff with that
performed by the other.
The test of Hofstede’s (1991) theory of culture was carried out to reveal the features
of the Nigerian public service bureaucratic culture. In addition, this research was also
able to ascertain the extent to which public servants have access to relevant
knowledge both from tacit and explicit sources.
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CHAPTER 7
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
7.1 Introduction
A summary of findings of this research is presented in this chapter. Recommendations
are put forward in addition to the contribution to knowledge, as well as, how these
contributions filled the existing gap in the reviewed literature. The limitations of this
study and suggestions for further research are elucidated, while the chapter ends with
conclusion.
This study considers the extent to which the findings are fully representative of the
true nature of knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public service. The study was
undertaken in the Bayelsa state public service and generalised as that of Nigeria. This
generalisation is due to the application of same public service rules in all ties of the
Nigerian public service. In addition, the homogeneity that exist amongst the various
ties of government that make up the Nigerian public service, makes it possible for the
replication of studies carried out in any tier of government within Nigeria. Examples
of studies carried out within a tier of government and generalise in Nigeria as a whole
can be found in the works of Aiyepeku (1982) who conducted a study on policy
makers alone and Mabawonku (2006) on women. Both studies were undertaken in
certain regions of Nigeria (mainly the east and Abuja) and then generalised.
7.2 Summary of findings
This study investigated whether there is knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public
service and the effects of bureaucratic culture on knowledge transfer. The reason for
the investigation was to:
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Examine knowledge management practice, in this case, how knowledge is
transferred between individuals and departments by identifying the
available mechanisms with which knowledge is transferred, so as to know
which is effectively employed.
Explore the features of the Nigerian public service bureaucratic culture in
relation to knowledge transfer.
Examine the relationship between regular task performed by public
servants and knowledge transfer.
Identify the awareness of public servants to knowledge that is needed to
run the public service.
Investigate the extent to which public servants have access to relevant
knowledge that is required to perform duties.
Highlight better ways of applying knowledge transfer, so as to boost better
implementation.
This study sets out to ascertain how knowledge is transferred between colleagues and
department by exploring the available mechanisms employed in the transfer process.
The findings reveal that knowledge transfer is done informally, and that the
mechanisms used for the transfer of tacit knowledge is different from that used for
explicit knowledge. For tacit knowledge, mechanisms such as face to face, mentoring,
storytelling and posting of staff from one department to the other are more effectively
used. In the case of explicit knowledge, minutes in files conveying management
decisions, memos and minutes of meetings are the most applied mechanisms during
knowledge transfer. This research further discovered that the Nigerian public service
main data base is in documents. This is owing to the fact that government business is
still being conducted mostly in hard copy files. The findings reveal further that other
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mechanism such as brainstorming, induction, feedback and formal training are
employed in knowledge transfer but that these are not effectively used as those
already mentioned.
The findings of this research in regards to the features of the Nigerian public service
bureaucratic culture indicates that, it has a high degree of boss – subordinate
dichotomy. This is evident in the findings which revealed that the relationship
between boss and sub-ordinate was not good thereby making the transfer of
knowledge difficult. Another feature found is the use of high sounding language like
“I will deal with you” when a junior staff is to be disciplined. This culture as revealed
from the findings is a resultant effect of the long period of military rule in Nigeria.
The application of Hofstede theory on culture used as a grid in this study to
discover/explore other features inherent in the Nigerian public service bureaucratic
culture reveals that, inequality, autocracy that results from high masculinity as well
as, conforming to acceptable behaviours on moral grounds are all features of the
Nigerian public service.
In this research, findings indicate that task performed by public servants like moving
files from one desk to the other and the perusal of the content of these files by staff
helps in the transfer of knowledge. The reason for this is that these tasks involve
inputs from most officers and as such, files are passed round the officers to make their
contributions. Similarly, while the passing of files is being undertaking, the various
task will then become interrelated both in nature and setting thereby making
knowledge sharing to be possible in form of division of labour.
This study’s findings on awareness about knowledge needed to run the public service
reveals that public servants showed reasonable level of awareness. Specifically, this
awareness was in the area of routine administrative knowledge used in handling
scheduling duties as well as for making discussion. Another area that public servants
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had awareness was in the area of specialised knowledge like that of preparing
vaccines used in routine immunisation for children in the health sector of the public
service. This type of specialised knowledge as was revealed from the findings of this
study, helps in running the public service. Furthermore, this research show that the
sources consulted by public servants, to acquire the required knowledge to run the
public service were mostly interpersonal discussions with colleagues and government
publications such as, gazette, memos and files. Knowledge sources that have to do
with information technology such as, internet, emails and electronic database were
rarely consulted by public servants.
Furthermore, on the issue of access to available knowledge, this study found out that
public servants have reasonable access to explicit knowledge such as, public service
rules, minutes of meetings and files as well as the experience of staff posted to the
ministries. In accessing organisational knowledge, authorised staff must pass through
the boss before access is guaranteed, this is despite the authorisation that they have
had already. This necessity in passing through “constituted authority” was discovered
to be an issue that has a negative impact on knowledge transfer. This is due to the fact
that when the boss is absent from duties, authorised staff that are next in line have
little or no authority to act on their bosses behalf. They have to wait for the return of
the boss before vital decisions can be taken. This is because, duties have not been
delegated and when it is delegated the junior officer will still have to secure clearance
from the boss in respective of the delegation.
7.3 Recommendation
The issues that arise from this study, deserve the attention of policy makers, and
government in Nigeria. These issues are formal and informal training involving
knowledge transfer mechanisms which are not effectively used, as well as, features of
bureaucratic culture that hinder knowledge transfer. Suggestions of better ways of
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applying these mechanisms and de-emphasising some features of the Nigerian public
service bureaucratic culture that are inimical to knowledge transfer is proffered .
7.3.1 Induction
First and foremost, induction conducted for new staff should not only include
curriculum tailored to instil the rudiments of the public service, such as, respect for
traditions, rules, norms and procedures but should also incorporate elements of
building equality, trust and a sense of collaboration. Doing this at the onset of the
entrance of a new staff will help in cultivating a culture of knowledge share which is
devoid of apprehension and the fear of the boss. The inductee should have a
substantial role to play in the process than just listening to the inductor. This role
should incorporate the packaging of the little experience brought by the inductee
either from previous employment or educational institution attended. This experience
no matter how little should be linked in course of conducting the induction. The
culture of “this is how we do it here” should not be placed far and above the inductees
little suggestions, because if it is, it will make him or her feel very subservient and
inferior within the scheme of things (i.e. while performing duties) in the organisation.
An acknowledgement of the experience that is being brought into the organisation by
the inductee serves as a morale builder, as well as, self esteem, this culminates in the
inductee feeling a sense of belonging, trust and equality which evokes the will to
share knowledge naturally.
7.3.2 Feedback
Feedback during induction, training and appraisals should be made more interactive
and interesting. It should go beyond mere asking of questions about lessons learnt and
the passing of instructions to actually engaging the staff in sincerely appraising
particular situations. This feedback should be done anonymously so as to avoid witch
hunting. In addition, it should not be done in a haste so as to allow staff adequate time
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to go through the entire issues in which feedback is needed. Staff should not be made
to participate in feedback under undue pressure and duress, so that the process is not
compromised.
7.3.3 Training
The training of staff should be given the necessary attention so as to keep them
abreast with latest innovations in knowledge management practice, as well as, reorientate their mind set. This re-orientation is necessary for the de-emphasising of
notions about “superior knows it all” to that of “subordinate can also have a say”.
Training is vital in achieving the purpose of this reorientation because it is the most
widely used method of knowledge transfer by employees (Szarka, et al., 2004). In
addition, the sharing of lessons learnt from trainings between colleagues is of
immense benefit to the organisation (Swart & Kinnie, 2003; Yang, 2004). For better
implementation of knowledge transfer therefore, the present level of formal and
informal training has to be stepped up. A situation where training of essential staff
does not take place, as this study revealed, does not help the organisation as far as
knowledge transfer is concerned, because, it is the knowledge that a staff has got that
he or she can share.
Furthermore, the training that is being recommended incorporates a shift from the
current paradigm in which hierarchy, power, over emphasis on rules, vertical
communication, too much officious procedure is prevalent, to a learning organisation
where this complexity is replaced with flexibility and public servants are able to trust
each other enough to share knowledge in an atmosphere where collaboration exist.
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7.3.4 Collaboration
In addition, an environment that is not very officious should be created once in a
while for colleagues from across the three cadres of the public service to rub minds
together, in so doing, share tacit knowledge. This is due to the fact that tacit
knowledge is better shared in an atmosphere of collaboration. As was gathered from
the study, public servants averred that they will be more disposed to share knowledge
in an informal milieu than that of the formal. Hierarchy should be de-emphasised, not
in structure per se, but more in communication. This will redirect communication
from its present vertical position to a more horizontal direction where all staff will
have an opportunity to be involved in the sharing process. Collaboration has to be
institutionalised (Rivera-Vazquez et al., 2009) in order for knowledge sharing to be a
permanent feature of the Nigerian public service.
7.3.5 Integration
A starting point for reducing hierarchy is in areas of mixing up colleagues more often
during staff meetings. All cadres of staff should be allowed to mix up and integrate,
seating positions should not be reserved for seniors, and all should blend in the
crowd. In the staff canteens for example, any strata that is based on seniority and
subordinate should be done away with, thereby bidding farewell to the age long
master servant relationship. Power and control should be played down (Kelly, 2007)
especially in the use of words that has military assortment, like “I will deal with you”
and “I will give it to you”. Normal public service language should rather be used. The
inequality in the public service as revealed from the findings of this study, should be
replaced, so that the relationship existing between boss and subordinate can become
cordial enough to engender a knowledge sharing culture.
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7.3.6 Storytelling
In applying knowledge transfer better in the Nigerian public service, storytelling
should be encouraged by managers, this should involve narratives about experiences
acquired on the job. The reason for recommending these story telling sessions is that
staff who are about to retire do not leave with their knowledge untapped. Another
reason for storytelling is for the capturing of the knowledge which staff that are
posted to new departments have acquired, as well as, the staff who are posted out of a
department. The outcome of the storytelling sessions can be digitalised so that other
staff can have access to it.
7.3.7 Exit Interview
The use of exit interview to articulate and capture the knowledge that staff who are
about to retire or leave the organisation has acquired over the years should be
introduced. This interview helps in bridging the gap between what was done in the
past and what is being done now, so as to be able to appraise best practice and also
forecast. The conduct of these interviews should be packaged in such a way that it is
not as formal and cumbersome as the interview for employment. The reason for this is
that a relaxed atmosphere is needed to be able to unlock the tacit knowledge that these
calibres of staff have, which is very important to the organisation. The importance of
this knowledge to the organisation is that it adds to the stock of its organisational
knowledge.
7.3.8 Information technology
E-governance which involves the use of electronically propelled apparatus in doing
the business of government should be considered, as well as, the stepping up of
information technology (IT), so as to replace hard copy files which make knowledge
transfer suffer a setback. In the 21st century, the public service should move away
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from the present over reliance on paper (explicit) transfer mechanism to more of IT
and computer mediated mechanisms. In this study, out of the seven ministries that
took part, it was only in one department within a ministry that IT was being used for
knowledge transfer. In addition, the public servants that were asked to indicate if they
consult electronic resources to source for knowledge, only 17% consult the internet
and electronic database as well as, use emails.
7.3.9 Delegation of duties
Leaders at the highest echelon of government should endeavour to delegate
responsibility to subordinates so that these subordinates will appreciate that they are
also important in the helm of affairs. This will develop trust, equality and a sense of
belonging to the organisation on the part of the subordinates, thereby releasing
knowledge that were in silos into the organisation in form of potentials and
experience. Delegation of duties is also recommended because this will afford much
more staff the opportunity to know what is happening in the organisation. Authorised
public servants should be given unhindered access to classified documents when ever
this knowledge is required for official purposes. They should also be allowed to do so
without recourse to the boss unnecessarily, this free access should enhance
knowledge transfer. There is also the need for bosses to codify knowledge so that
more staff will be able to have access to organisational knowledge, so as to be able to
solve problems. Finally government should make vital documents like the public
service rules, financial instructions and scheme of service available to all public
servants, so as to be able to know and get the knowledge they need to run the
Nigerian public service.
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7.4 Contribution to knowledge
In presenting the contributions that this study makes to knowledge, the discussions
are undertaken from five perspectives; methodology, theory, application and the
highlighting of gaps from reviewed literatures, as well as, the filling of these gaps by
the findings of this study.
The contribution made by this study in terms of methodology is in the aspect of the
application of Hofstede’s (1991) theory of culture in exploring the features of the
Nigerian public service bureaucratic culture. Specifically, the study discovered that
public servants behave in certain ways just for moral obligatory reasons. This
discovery was as a result of the application of the fifth dimension of culture (i.e. long
and short term orientation) in exploring the features of the Nigerian public service
bureaucratic culture. The uniqueness of this contribution is that very few literatures
have explored the fifth dimension of culture due to the fact that it is a new dimension,
in addition to being closely related to uncertainty avoidance the fourth dimension of
culture as put forward by Hofstede. In the case of Nigeria, the finding of this study
invalidates that of Hofstede in regard to this dimension (i.e. the fifth diamension).
In the aspect of theory, a framework was produced by this study for the effective
application of knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public service, one in which
appropriate and more effective mechanisms that can improve the implementation of
knowledge transfer were recommended 49
Furthermore, the application of this study is more evident in the area of exposing the
Nigerian public service to the use of universally recognised knowledge management
terminology. This exposure is not just for the public servants alone, but also for the
policy makers and government. The contribution of this study to knowledge is also in
49
See figure 7.1 in p.276
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the area of filling the gap noticed in the literature about the dearth of literature in the
area of knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public service.
It is important to note that the generic issues that constitute this research as contained
in its objectives (i.e. the application and implementation of KM [transfer] practice in
the Nigerian public service), have been looked into before by some authors,
(e.g.Wiig, 2002; Pryke et al., 2003 and Linsay et al., 2006; Syed-Ikhsan, 2004) as
discovered from the reviewed literature. However, Syed-Ikhsan, (2004) notes that,
“no study yet has been found which report how knowledge ... [is] transferred between
individuals in a public organisation [civil service]”. This gap was filled in this study
by the insights given about the mechanism used in knowledge transfer between
individuals (colleagues) in the Nigerian public service which includes, person to
person, mentoring and storytelling.
In the literature, another gap that exists is in the area of lack of awareness by staff and
managers about the importance of knowledge management in the public sector (Cong
and Pandya, 2003). The gap was filled in this study by highlighting the universally
acceptable terminology used in knowledge transfer parlance and lexicon so that
public servants can be made aware of them. In addition, the mechanisms used for
knowledge transfer in the public service were reviewed in the process; less effective
mechanisms were identified, while at the same time, suggesting how these can be
made more effective. Another way this study filled the identified gap was by
identifying the informal techniques used in knowledge transfer and suggesting more
formal mechanisms, this helped in broadening public servants awareness about
knowledge management practice (i.e. knowledge transfer).
In undertaking a study on information environment (i.e. sources consulted to get
information) in the Nigerian public service, Mabawonku (2006) indentified a gap in
the literature as the lack of studies on the importance of information sources to the
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Nigerian public servant. Suffice it to state that, the information sources referred to by
Mabawonku (2006) are similar to knowledge sources which this research has been
able to identify. This study did not just identify this knowledge sources but went on to
highlight which of these were mostly consulted, as well as, those accessible to public
servants. The objective of exploring the extent, to which public servants have access
to knowledge sources, was to discover their awareness about the knowledge needed to
run the public service. This awareness goes a long way in underscoring how
important these sources of knowledge are, in the sense that, if public servants are not
aware of them, then, it may be difficult for them to realise the importance of the
sources.
King (2008) carried out a study where he questioned the conventional belief in
wisdom, as well as, culture- knowledge management relationship. In his study, he
tested the various levels of culture; national culture, organisational culture,
organisational climate, sub-unit culture/ organisational sub-cultures and team climate.
He then identified the gap in the literature to be the lack of empirical research in the
area of the relationship between culture and KM practice (i.e. knowledge transfer).
The study objective of this study which among other things is the establishment of the
relationship between bureaucratic culture and knowledge transfer helps in filling this
gap as put forward by King (2008). This is because this study employed empirical
methods, and the findings reveals that bureaucratic (i.e. organisational culture) effects
(i.e. has relationship) knowledge transfer more negatively than in the positive.
In a recent study on cultural characteristics that influences knowledge transfer, carried
out in both
Hong Kong and Germany
by Wilkesmann et al., (2009), it was
discovered that knowledge transfer depended on
four dimensions of Hofstede’s
theory on culture. This study used a qualitative method employing 13 in-depth
interviews in both countries, Wilkesmann et al., (2009) averred in this regards that a
study employing quantitative method, with a larger sample size should be undertaken
to fill this gap. This present research fills this gap in the sense that, a total of 1200
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questionnaires representing a quantitative research was undertaken, applying
Hofstede’s theory also in all five dimensions, so as to discover the features of the
Nigerian public service bureaucratic culture, as well as, its effects on knowledge
transfer. Some other studies have used Hofstede,s theory in countries and regions
(e.g. Harvey, 1997; Jung et al., 2008), while in the case of Nigeria,
a study
undertaken did this in comparison with other counties (e.g. Zagorsek, 2004), and
applied only four dimensions, not within a particular organisation (public service) but
in Nigerian as a whole (e.g. Awa et al.., 2010). The uniqueness of this study is in the
application of all five dimensions and the narrowing of its application to the Nigerian
public service.
On the part of the Nigerian government, there is eagerness for the entrenchment of
knowledge management practice in the Nigerian public service. This was emphasised
by the highest ranking public servant (Head of civil service), who in a paper presented
on “staff development in the public service: the Nigerian experience” (Pepple 2009)
called for the creation of an enabling environment for the sharing and management of
knowledge. This environment to Pepple (2009) should involve collaboration between
colleagues, emphasising the need for a shift from hierarchical to multiple
accountability and the introduction of adaptive systems that encourages
communications cross all levels of the service, requiring IT enabled knowledge
management practices. The issues raised by the head of service were adequately taken
care of by the findings of this study. This was in respect of the recommendations
given for the embracing of the characteristics of a learning organisation in which a
shift from the present paradigm (i.e. involving over reliance on power, hierarchy,
inequality and vertical communication) is advocated in the case of the Nigerian public
service. In addition, de-emphasising of hierarchy, delegation of duties and the
introduction of exit interviews as well as, IT mediated knowledge transfer
mechanisms such as digital story telling is also recommended.
271
7.5 Limitations of the study
This study sets out to explore knowledge management practice (transfer) in the
Nigerian public service. This task was accomplished in this study by using the
Bayelsa state public service as a case study. This study was conducted in Bayelsa
state public service alone based on the homogeneous nature of the Nigerian public
service. Consequent upon this fact, the findings were generalised as what obtains in
the Nigerian public service. Due to the lack of funding and the problem of logistics,
this reserch was carried out in just one state out of the 36 states in Nigeria. The study
can be replicated in more states of the Nigeria as well as the Federal capital territory.
Furthermore, only seven ministries out of a total of seventeen were used in this study,
this can also be expanded to accommodate more ministries and other government
agencies, so as to test the findings from other sectors of the Nigerian public service
that were not included in the present study.
Another limitation of this study is that the examination of knowledge transfer in the
Nigerian public service was only carried out within departments of the same ministry
as well as colleagues. The mechanisms used in the transfer of knowledge between
ministries (i.e. inter ministries) were not looked into in this study.
The analysis carried out to investigate the effects of bureaucratic culture on
knowledge transfer employed the use of variables such as, place of work (ministries
and departments), cadres (junior, senior and management/ directorate), as well as,
colleagues (public servants in general). The discussions carried out in this study also
used these variables as main themes of analysis. In this study, variables such as
gender, years of service and level of education were not used for analysis and
discussions.
272
7.6 Further research
The issues that were examined in this research on knowledge management practice
(transfer) in the Nigerian public service, and the effects of bureaucratic culture on
knowledge transfer were done using public servants drawn from seven main
ministries. Further research is needed in testing the findings of this study from other
sectors of the public service in order to see if the results of this study can be validated.
The sample for further research can be increased to include more ministries and more
states in Nigeria, so that more representation of the variables used in this study can be
tested in a larger sample size. This will also mean that the terminologies used in
knowledge management which public servants, policy makers and government have
been exposed to in this study, would now be extended to more stakeholders in the
Nigerian public service.
Another area of further research is that of examining the effects of bureaucratic
culture on knowledge transfer using some other variables that were not used in this
study, such as, length of service, age, gender and level of education. In introducing
these new variables into the examination of knowledge transfer, this will afford the
study the required impetus to view knowledge transfer from other dimensions.
In this study knowledge transfer was only ascertained within public servants and
between departments. While the effects that bureaucracy has on knowledge transfer
was explored within public servants also. Further research is required in the area of
the effects that bureaucratic culture has on stakeholders of the public service (e.g. the
community and government), as well as, the mechanisms used in the transfer of
knowledge between public servants and these stakeholders.
273
Further research is also required in the area of finding out appropriate mechanisms for
capturing the tacit knowledge that public servants who are about to retire have
acquired over the years. This form of knowledge is difficult to capture owing to its
tacit nature, but it is important for those still in the organisation to have access to it.
Finally, further research is required in exploring other aspects of knowledge
management, such as knowledge creation, so that this can complement knowledge
transfer efforts and build a more holistic picture of knowledge management in the
Nigerian public service
7.7 Conclusion
This chapter undertook a summary of the findings of this study. The findings
expounded knowledge transfer mechanism used in the public service. The
mechanisms that are more effectively employed like mentoring, posting of staff and
minutes contained in files, as well as, those not effectively employed like induction
and feedback were critically examined and analysed. These mechanisms are a pointer
to the fact that knowledge transfer takes place in the Nigerian public service although
informally. This realisation also helped in answering the first research question of this
study. In addition, the second research question; the effects of bureaucratic culture on
knowledge transfer was answered using aspects of bureaucratic culture such as
hierarchy and boss subordinate relationship to ascertain their relationship with
knowledge transfer. It was also ascertained that bureaucratic culture has more
negative effects that positive on knowledge transfer.
Furthermore, Hofstede’s (1991) theory of culture was applied in this study to explore
the features of the Nigerian public service bureaucratic culture. The findings revealed
that there is a high level of inequality and autocracy in the Nigerian public service. In
addition, the results also show that the Nigerian public service is a collective
organisation where there is team spirit. Other features of the public service are the
behaving of particular ways by public servants just to satisfy moral obligations.
Regular task which public servants perform was discovered to enhance knowledge
274
transfer due to the interrelationship between these tasks. This study was able to
ascertain the extent to which public servants have access to relevant knowledge, as
access to knowledge proved to be a matter for the boss to determine.
The results of this research were displayed in a matrix highlighting the findings from
the mixed method employed. This involved the triangulation of both qualitative and
quantitative methods comprising of a survey of 1200 and semi-structured interview of
another 32 public servants.
A summary of the entire chapter was undertaken, presenting a step by step account of
what was done and how this was done in this study. What was done includes the
examining of how knowledge is being transferred in the Nigerian public service. This
is done by exploring the available mechanisms used for knowledge transfer. In
addition, the effects of bureaucratic culture on knowledge transfer was also examined
using aspects of bureaucratic culture such as hierarchy, power and process as a grid in
measuring actual effects.
Recommendations were put forward as to
how the mechanisms for knowledge
transfer that were not being put to effective use like induction and feedback could be
improved upon by the policy makers and government. Emphasis was placed on the
use of information technology to support knowledge transfer, owing to its huge
importance. The contribution of this study to existing knowledge was summarised in
terms of methodology by the application of Hofstede’s (1991) theory of culture in
exploring the features of the Nigerian public service bureaucratic culture. In
particular, the fifth dimension of the theory which is rarely used in analysing culture
due to its similarity with the fourth dimension, and the fact that it is a more recent
dimension, was applied in this study.
275
The contribution of this study to theory is in producing a framework for the
application of knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public service. Furthermore, in
application, this research has been able to expose public servants, policy makers and
government to the universally acceptable terminology used in the field of knowledge
management. In addition, the contributions made by this study to knowledge in terms
of filling gaps in the reviewed literature were highlighted. Each of these gaps was
filled by the findings of this research. Notable amongst these was the gap created by
the lack of an enabling environment that should engender knowledge management.
This gap which was put forward by the Head of the public service of Nigeria (Pepple
2009) was filled in this study, by the production of a framework for the successful
implementation of knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public service
50
. The
limitations of this research which includes the use of a small sample size were put
forward, as well as, areas of future research.
50
See figure 7.1 in p.276.
276
Figure 7.1: Framework for successful application of knowledge transfer in the Nigerian public service
Induction
Encourage equality
De-emphasise fear of the
boss
Building of trust
Feedback
Training
Avoid witch hunting,
intimidation and undue
pressure
Should be anonimous
Step up formal and informal
training
Paradigm shift from rigid to
flexible, vertical to horizontal
comunication
Creating infomal forums for staff
to interact freely
Provision of time for mixing up
across the three cadres
De-emphasing hierarchy, power
and class differencial
Storytelling
Integration
Non prefential treatment in
the use of amennities and
sitting arrangements
Discontinuation of the use
of military terminiology and
language - return to the use
polite languge
Collaboration
Knowledge Transfer in the
Nigerian Public Service
Encouraging its paractice
for retirees and trasfered
staff
Storage of stories digitally
Delegation of Duties
Delegation of Duties
Exit Interviews
Encouraged for staff
retiring and those
leaving the organisation
Information Technology
Encouraging its use in all areas
Replacing Hard copy files with
intranets, electronic back ups
Encougage e- govenance
Makes staff have a sence of
belonging, equity and trust
Makes goverment transparent
More staff become
knowledgable about what
happens in the public service
277
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Appendix i
Map of Nigeria
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
304
Appendix ii
Map of Bayelsa State
305
Appendix iii
Interview schedule
1. Questions about the respondent and the case organisation


Please tell me what your job is all about
The activities/ services that your organisation is engaged in.
II. Questions on knowledge transfer (in relation to first research question)









Are you aware of the knowledge that is in the public service?
How do staff share experience and knowledge?
How do you communicate your experience and knowledge on the job
to others in the organisation?
How knowledgeable are you about the public service rules?
How open is it for you to air your opinion?
Are your suggestions taken?
How will you describe the way information and knowledge is shared
among colleagues and between departments?
How do you tap into the experience/ knowledge of those leaving the
organisation and retires?
Are there ways your organisation have been able to store these for
others to have access?
III. Questions on organisational culture (in relation to the second research
question)









What do you think about the way bosses send information to subordinates?
Is there any mechanism through which sub-ordinates can feedback to
boss?
Is there a data base or repository where the organisational knowledge
can be accessed.
Is the organisational knowledge accessible to authorised staff?
Do you contribute to management?
How?
Are you comfortable to share your knowledge with others?
Do management, senior and junior staff, have any informal avenues for
interaction and collaboration?
Have you experienced a situation where a colleague is reluctant to share
knowledge?
306


Do you think bureaucratic culture helps in facilitating the transfer of
knowledge in your organisation or not?
How will you describe the role that the regular activities and task you
perform play in knowledge transfer?
IV. General comments
 Is there any issue or concern that you will like to mention
307
Appendix iv
Ysgol Rheolaeth a Busnes School of Management and
Adeilad Cledwyn Business
Penglais, Aberystwyth
SY23 3DD, United Kingdom
Ffôn : (01970) 622549
Facs: (01970) 622524
Post-e: ehe05@aber.ac.uk
http://www.aber.ac.uk/smba
Cledwyn Building
Penglais, Aberystwyth
SY23 3DD, United Kingdom
Tel: (01970) 622549
Fax: (01970) 622524
e-mail: ehe05@aber.ac.uk
http://www.aber.ac.uk/smba
Sir/Madam
A Survey on Knowledge Management in the Nigerian Public Service
I am a PhD research student of the Aberystwyth University, Wales, in the United
Kingdom. I write to request your support in completing this questionnaire for my PhD
thesis. The questionnaire is a survey on Knowledge Management in the public service
of Nigeria.
The aim of this survey is to find out if there are Knowledge Management practices
(Knowledge transfer) in the Nigerian public service, and the awareness of these by
the public servants. And further, to explore the role that organisational culture plays
in the transfer of knowledge.
The duration for completing this questionnaire is about 15-20 minutes; I really
appreciate your support and time.
I want to state that the information provided are for academic purposes and as such
will be handled with the greatest confidentiality. Your identity and that of your
organisation will not be disclosed to a third party.
Many thanks
Yours Faithfully,
Hamilton E Ekeke.
308
A. Background Information: Please put a tick in one box only and fill in where necessary.
1.
Place of Work-------------------------------------
2.
Department/unit -------------------------------------------
3.
How long have you being working in this department/unit ---------------------------
4.
Which other department/unit have you worked in the past five years-------------------
5.
Position in the office/ Grade level --------------------------------------------------------Junior staff [ ] senior staff [ ] Directorate /Management [ ]
6.
7.
8.
9.
Age : 18 -28 [ ] 29- 38 [ ] 39-48 [ ]
49-58 [ ] above 58 [ ]
Gender : Male [ ] Female [ ]
Marital status Single [ ] Married [ ] Divorced [ ] Widowed [ ]
Education
a. Below secondary school level
b. Secondary school
c. Polytechnic/NCE/Secretarial
d. University graduate.
e. Postgraduate
f. Professional qualifications
Other please specify -----------------------
B. Awareness about Knowledge in the public service.
1. Are you aware of the knowledge that is needed to run the public service?
Yes [ ] No [ ] if yes, please answer question 2
2. Give some examples of knowledge that you use in your work
.......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
3. Please indicate the sources consulted to gather such knowledge and the frequency
S/N
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Statements
Very
Frequently
Frequently
Occasionally
Sometimes
Never
Interpersonal discussion with
colleagues
Telephone conservations
with colleagues
Government departments and
agencies
Radio and Television
Newspapers, Newsletters and
magazines
Professional and trade
organisations
Workshops, seminars,
conference papers
Research and consultancy
reports
Government publication (e.g.
gazettes, memos, files)
Reference materials (e.g.
encyclopaedia and
directories)
The Internet and E-mail
Electronic databases
Family and friends
Others (specify)....................................................................................................
309
C. Transfer of knowledge
1. Do you share your information, ideas and experiences with your colleagues No [ ] Yes [ ] If yes,
how?
2. Informally outside the office [ ] formally in the office [ ] both [ ] other please
specify...........................................
3. Please tick the category of colleague you share your knowledge with.
Junior [ ] Senior [ ] Management/directorate [ ] All [ ]
4. Indicate how frequently you share your knowledge with colleagues.
S/N
Statements
Very
Frequently Occasionally
Sometimes
frequently
1
Junior Staff
2
Senior Staff
3
Management/Directorate
Never
5. Is there any training /seminars/workshops organised for staff? No [ ] Yes [ ]
6. If yes, how many training/seminars/workshops have you attended in the past one year?
1-2 [ ] 3-4 [ ] 5-6 [ ] more than 6 [ ] none [ ]
7. Do you have an informal forum where staff can interact outside the office setting? No [ ] Yes [ ]
8. If yes, where? Canteen [ ] staff/ sports club [ ] end of year party [ ] youth copers send forth party [ ]
none [ ]
9. How often do you attend this forum?
Weekly [ ] Monthly [ ] Quarterly [ ] annually [ ] non [ ]
10. Are you conversant with the public service rules? No [ ] Yes [ ]
11. What aspect of the public service rules are you
...................................................................................................................
12. What aspect of the public service rules are you
.......................................................................................................................
most
familiar
with?
least
familiar
with?
13. Which of the following is available and accessible to you in your department? Please tick (*) to
Indicate
S/N
1
2
3
4
6
7
8
9
Statements
Available
but not
Accessible
Available
and
Accessible
The experiences (knowledge) of a staff who has retired from
service.
The experiences (knowledge) of a staff who is transferred from
your dept/unit.
The experiences (knowledge) of a staff who is transferred to your
department/unit
The minutes of meetings
General circulars
Internal/ external memos
Public service rules
Official letters/files
Others(specify)......................................................................................................... ...................................
310
Not
Available
14. Please indicate how you know about events in your organisation and how often is it
S/N
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Statements
Very
Frequently
Frequently
Occasionally
Sometimes
Never
By word of mouth.
Communication through
letters
Memos
Minutes of meetings
Emails
Gazettes and government
publications
News papers
Unions
Speculation
Others (specify).........................................................................................................
15. The following statements reflect how you can transfer your knowledge to others in the organisation
S/N
1
2
3
4
5
Statements
Strongly
Agree
Agree
Neither
Agree nor
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
There is an informal forum where staff
interact about issues of work
You are allowed to air your views during
staff meetings
Training programme are organised to help
you know more about the job
There is a session of feed back during
seminars/workshops
There is the provision of time that is set aside
for storytelling/ informal gatherings outside
the office.
16. The following statements reflect how new staff can receive knowledge from older staff in the
organisation
S/N
1
2
3
Statements
Strongly
Agree
Agree
Neither
Agree nor
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
New staff are taught about the job by older
staff in course of performing their duties
(Mentoring).
New staff undergo induction on assumption of
duty
The new staff feedback to the old staff during
induction
311
Disagree
D. Organisational culture
17. The following statements reflect the role of organisational culture in the transfer of knowledge
S/N
Statements
1
The way things are done in your organisation
makes the sharing of your experience and
knowledge with others difficult
2
The sharing of your experiences and
knowledge with others is enhanced by the way
things are done in your organisation
Communication in your organisation only
comes from the top management down to the
sub-ordinate
3
Strongly
Agree
Agree
Neither Strongly
Agree nor Disagree
Disagree
4
Inequality within the public service is high
5
The inequality in the public service is taken as
a normal way of life by all
6
The public servant believes in himself / herself
than the team (collective)
The individual performance is preferred
because it helps the organisation more than the
collective performance.
Tough values such as assertiveness and
success are more associated as men’s role
7
8
9
9
Warm personal relationships, service and care
for the weak are associated with the woman’s
role
There is a believe that the Nigerian public
service is more of a collective organisation
that supports the team rather than the
individual
10
In the public service Leadership positions are
reserved for women
12
The tradition in the public service clearly
stipulates how people are expected to behave
13
The public servant is strictly expected to
behave (abide) according to the rules that are
laid down due to moral reasons
312
Disagree
E. Organisational culture and knowledge transfer
1. Please indicate the channel you use to communicate your knowledge to the organisation
Informing your boss [ ] Sharing with colleagues [ ] Keeping it to yourself [ ]
Other please specify......................................................................................................
2. Do you hold formal staff meetings in your organisation? No [ ] yes [ ]
3. How often do you hold these staff meetings?
Monthly [ ] Quarterly [ ] biannually [ ] annually [ ] none[ ]
Other please specify.......................................................................................................
4. How interactive is your staff meetings?
Very interactive [ ] Quite interactive [ ] Not a lot interactive [ ] Not at all interactive [ ] non[ ]
5. Where are the staff meetings minutes kept?
Boss’s office [ ] general office [ ] other please specify.........................................................
6.Do you prefer to transfer your knowledge in environment outside the normal office setting? No [ ]
Yes [ ]
If yes, why.................................................................................................................. ........................
7. Please rank from 1 to 5 the relationship that exist between bosses and subordinate in your
organisation
‘1’ being the lowest and ‘5’ the highest. 1 [ ] 2 [ ] 3 [ ] 4 [ ] 5 [ ]
8. Does this relationship help in the flow of information? No [ ] Yes [ ]
9. If yes please rank ‘1’ to ‘5’ with ‘1’ being lowest and ‘5’ highest the extent to which it helps
1[ ]2[ ]3[ ]4[ ]5[ ]
10. Do you need to pass through your superiors in the office whenever information is being sought for?
No [ ] Yes [ ]
11. How do you know about outcomes of management decisions that are taken that concern you?
...................................................................................................................................................
12. Would you say that the regular activities /task that you perform helps you to share your
experiences/ knowledge with others in your organisation? No [ ] Yes [ ] if yes
13. How ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------14. Please add any additional comments
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
313
Appendix v
Sample of interview transcript
Q:
A:
Can you tell me what your job is all about.
I am the executive director of the Bayelsa state council of arts and
Culture. It is a parastatal under the culture sector; we use to be under the
ministry of information and culture. Recently the bureau of arts and culture
has been created. The structure is still being worked out. We are charged with
the responsibility of projecting the culture of Bayelsa state through visual
performing and literary art, painting. Paintings culture, performing arts
through music drama, dance and literary aspect through publications like
journal published to project arts and culture. So basically that is what we do
and of course in all of this our sole aim is to transmit government policies and
programmes to the grassroots. We translate government policies through
mediums like TV and radio E.g. circumcision, girl child education; we use arts
and drama to propagate government policies in a language that the people will
understand.
Q:
What type of knowledge will you say you have in this organization?
A:
First and foremost we talk about culture, everything we do we look at it from
the perspective of culture. Culture is the totality of the way of life of a people.
so how will people receive the message the government is putting in place,
how will they perceive and understand it, how will they accept it. We help in
mediating between the governments. The kind of knowledge we have here is
knowledge that will assist us to pass on to our target audience, looking at
314
issues from the cultural dimension, understanding them and relating them to
our cultural practices.
Q:
How do staff share experiences and knowledge in this organisation?
A:
Well first and foremost I want to look at it from the production experience, take
for example recently there was world sight day or eye day, we have
international women day, international environment day. Normally if
government is doing a program like that they will tell us to help pass on the
message by telling the essence of the program the theme so that we can come
up with a program, with that in mind, we will have a production meeting. This
aims at sharing ideas, what are the events we have on hand, how we can meet
the target audience, what are we going to use, drama, dance, how do we
transmit through the medium that has been selected. When this is done we
begin to ask questions after the occasion. this meeting is repeated to ask
questions about the program, what was done, what is there that is good or
what it was that was supposed to be seen in course of production that is not
there. In all this you are passing knowledge to others.
Q:
Now your own personal knowledge how do you transfer it to others?
A:
For me I always strive towards exposing people to what I am doing. For
example international tours, I make it a policy that fifty percent of those who
are exposed already travel, while the remaining fifty percent will include those
who have never travelled before. For example in my recent trip, I took
fourteen cast member, seven new comers and seven old, that way, you are to
not taking a cast of total new people who don’t know what to do. This is
because by the time you have people who are exposed [experienced] and
315
know what to do; they can take care even if you are not there. I have even had
instances of going out of Nigeria with a cast and leaving them there, they did
well because they usually understudy those who know due to the constant
exposure,
somebody who is exposed the first time, if he has the desire to
learn he will learn, why I do this is because I am trying to build a leadership,
due to the fact that I won’t be there forever. So this culture of sharing I
advocate a lot. It is always good to raise leaders. We just came back from the
national festival for arts and culture in Minna, Niger State, I gave the
leadership of the troupe to one of my management staff so that she can learn.
She has just reported her experience, now I told her, you see what I go
through, and in other words, she has got the knowledge.
Q:
How does she share this knowledge ?
A:
For now it is informal, later, because I told her to put it on paper. First and
foremost we have a file where we put down performance reports, where
whoever was in charge of any performance put down a written report. In that
report you write if the audience enjoyed it or not, she is supposed to send a
report. This helps us to guide ourselves in subsequent events we go to.
Q:
How knowledgeable are you of the public service rules?
A:
I will say quite knowledgeable because in my previous appointments in the old
rivers state I was acting head of programmes and even the radio, in all these
positions ,one is forced to handle administrative matters, management issues,
files and so on. And of course if you are handling staff matters you have to be
conversant with the public service rules. I have them in my library, financial
regulations; we run the organisation guided by the public service rules.
316
Q:
How open will you say your organisation is to suggestion from staff especially
to air their opinion?
A:
Yes it is open because the theatre itself is a collaborative art; this is something
that may not obtain in other parastatals. Theatre is such that you need the other
person to succeed that is why we say it is a collaborative art. as the executive
director, if I am directing a play, I need the drummer, dancers, costumer, the
lighting person and stage man, without that interpersonal relationship that may
not be obtainable in the main stream civil service. Ours is a peculiar parastatal
where that subsist. Because of that we relate closely with each other, even
when we go out, we relate very well, there is no psychological distance
between staff and the executive director or the managers. That does not mean
we do not adhere to the provisions of the civil service rules, there are some
areas we may give certain considerations. Take for example study leave, the
civil service rules states that for you to have study leave with pay it has to be a
course for two years, it is more than two years it is without pay. But then
because of the peculiar nature of our organisation, we allow our students who
are going on 4 years program to go with pay. The interesting thing is that if
they are in school, it is as if they are on ground, because any time you call
them they will come, for example when we went for NIFEST, because it is a
competitive event, all of them were around to attend before they returned to
school. So we don’t operate that strict jacket mainstream civil service
approach. But then most consideration is on compassionate grounds because
of the peculiar situations we find ourselves. But then in aspects of promotion
317
and transfer we have to adhere strictly to the civil service rules, incorporate
establishment training and pension’s bureau and the civil service commission.
Q:
How will you describe the way knowledge is transferred between departments?
A:
It flows freely in the sense that we have the inter divisional relationship. The
way the departments are, for example the performing arts department cannot
do anything if they don’t rely on the other departments like visual arts which
will translate some of their ideas into visual perspective. So in this sense each
department is made to know what the others are doing. So the staff in visual
arts will have to derive ideas [knowledge] from the performing arts. So here
we have that interdependence on each other.
Q:
How do you tap into the knowledge of those leaving or retiring from this
organisation?
A:
We have quarterly worship service. A ready example is a staff who has just
retired that we feel is still young, we organise workshops for them to share
their experience [knowledge] that is one way. We also have a family night
every year where members of staff serving or retired have an evening of
relaxation and sharing, that way giving them a sense of belonging. We usually
have Christmas package where both serving and retired staff are giving
something, so that those who have left know that we are a family. So that
when we need their knowledge they will gladly come to assist, despite the fact
that they have retired. So this way tapping from their knowledge is easy.
Q:
What is your opinion about the role that bureaucratic culture plays in the
transfer of knowledge?
318
A:
First and foremost information in the public service goes from top down in
approach. Of course from the staff it is bottom up, in the sense that they have
to go through their units and divisional heads before it comes to the top. It is
not possible to act on information directly from a member of staff. It has to
follow the rightful channel [hierarchy]. It upholds this, that is what we always
strive to do.
Q:
Is there an informal avenue outside the formal office environment for staff to
collaborate and interact?
A:
We have a weekly fellowship where staff are allowed to read from the bible
and lead fellowship. This is done to make staff have a sense of belonging and
also to train leaders who can face the crowd although in an informal setting.
These sort of build confidence in people especially on how to address people.
But we find out that some persons feel very reluctant to do that. You tell them
you are supposed to be teacher for tomorrow they won’t accept. A real pastor
comes on the Monday to kick the work off while the remaining 4 days it is
members of staff.
Q:
Have you experienced a situation where a staff has been reluctant to share
knowledge?
A:
Yes
Q:
What happened do not call names please?
A:
Some time ago I sent a staff to go and represent the council somewhere, he was
supposed to come back and report, he didn’t, and also the written report he
was to give at that function he did not give it, I returned to the organisers of
319
that program after some time for another function only to find this out. The
staff concerned did not tell me.
Q:
In your opinion the processes, routines and procedures (bureaucracy) that make
up the civil service, would you say it facilitates or hinders the transfer of
knowledge?
A:
It hinders transfer of knowledge in the sense that the speed in which certain
decisions would have been taken is usually slowed down. Results are delayed
because you can’t get what you want at the time you want to get it. Let’s take
what I mentioned earlier that theatre is an interpersonal thing for example, due
to the civil service being a very officious and bureaucracy also, you have to do
a before you do B, you can’t jump to B without finishing to do A. but by the
time you have to wait for A before you go to B you have a lot of problem. An
example is when I went to the federal medical centre to get a card, I had to go
through five tables, these tables has distances between them, I had to take a
paper that will enable me pay just two hundred naira (i.e. less than one pound)
in the bank first and then come back with a teller before I can have the card.
This bureaucracy is not necessary, the process can be cut.
320
Appendix vi
Sample of transcription process
Raw data
It depends on interest of a staff concerning growing in this job some are not
serious at all for me when I am interested I tap into their knowledge by
personal relationship. If a staff I notice is talented, I get close and ask
questions. I know a woman who is leaving us soon that is very talented in
dance, what I have done is to establish a cordial relationship with her
Transcribed data
“...If a staff I notice is talented, I get close and ask questions. I know
a woman who is leaving us soon that is very talented in dance, what
I have done is to establish a cordial relationship with her...” (p.224)
Tags (labels)
Intra Knowledge
Transfer
If people are transparent and accountable enough to let other people know
what you are doing and leant to pass it on to the other staff in line, it also
helps a lot in transfer because of the continuity as i mentioned before that is
why you don’t need to train anybody for a particular assignment, when one
person is
“...that is why you don’t need to train anybody for a particular
assignment, when one person is exiting temporarily to
somewhere...Somebody immediately goes [posted] to relieve him or
he ...”(p.228)
Knowledge
Transfer
Mechanism
(Posting)
Building capacity of a staff is a very serious task that we use a lot of ways to
achieve. Because these staff need to be told what to do and in the ways to do
it, we put in place a in house training packages like inspections, we also
have brainstorming sessions here, you brainstorm, it is an informal set up,
sort of, you call them [field staff] to the corner, you say this is what you were
taught two weeks back, or few months back, what can you give back, what
can you give in terms of the training
Right from the onset, it has never been practiced that people of low and high
cadre will recreate in the same place. Even in the private sector like Shell for
example we have junior officers’ canteen different. There is always that
strata.
“...we also have brainstorming sessions here, you brainstorm, it is
an informal set up, sort of, you call them [field staff] to the corner,
you say this is what you were taught two weeks back, or few
months back, what can you give back, what can you give in terms of
the training ...”(p.229)
Knowledge
Transfer
Mechanism
(Brainstorming)
“Right from the onset, it has never been practiced that people of low
and high cadre will recreate in the same place...” (p.234)
Features of
Bureaucracy
(hierarchy)
I discuss with my boss and ask questions on whatever I am not familiar with
suggest when I suggest, for the fact that I’m a junior staff, it is usually
ignored.
“...when I suggest, for the fact that I’m a junior staff, it is usually
ignored...” (p.234)
Features
Bureaucracy
(Inequality)
321
of
322